Miners' Strike

South Africa 1922

Synopsis

In early 1922, white South African workers in the Witwatesrand gold mining region went on strike. The strike soon became a violent rebellion—sometimes known as the Rand Revolt—that pitted the white miners against the mine owners and the government. The workers' action was a response to the owners' plan to reduce wages and replace the well-paid white workers with cheaper black African workers. At first, the government attempted to get the two sides to negotiate, but neither side was willing to compromise. The strikers formed commandos. In response, the government sent in troops from the Active Citizens Force and declared martial law. The ensuing violence resulted in hundreds of injuries and deaths. Authorities arrested thousands of workers, and four were put to death. The negative reaction to the government's actions cost Prime Minister Jan Smuts and his South Africa Party the 1924 election.

Timeline

• 1907: At the Second Hague Peace Conference, forty-six nations adopt ten conventions governing the rules of war.
• 1912: Titanic sinks on its maiden voyage, from Southampton to New York, on 14 April. More than 1,500 people are killed.
• 1917: In Russia a revolution in March (or February according to the old Russian calendar) forces the abdication of Czar Nicholas II. By July, Alexander Kerensky has formed a democratic socialist government, and continues to fight the Germans, even as starvation and unrest sweep the nation. On 7 November (25 October old style) the Bolsheviks under V. I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky seize power. By 15 December they have removed Russia from the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany.
• 1919: With the formation of the Third International (Comintern), the Bolshevik government of Russia establishes its control over communist movements worldwide.
• 1922: Inspired by the Bolsheviks' example of imposing revolution by means of a coup, Benito Mussolini leads his blackshirts in an October "March on Rome," and forms a new fascist government.
• 1922: Great Britain establishes the Irish Free State as a dominion of the British Empire.
• 1922: With the centuries-old Ottoman Empire dissolved, Mustafa Kemal, a.k.a. Atatürk, overthrows the last sultan and establishes the modern Turkish republic.
• 1922: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) formed.
• 1922: Published this year James Joyce's novel Ulysses and T. S. Eliot's poem The Waste Land will transform literature and inaugurate the era of modernism.
• 1925: European leaders attempt to secure the peace at the Locarno Conference, which guarantees the boundaries between France and Germany, and Belgium and Germany.
• 1927: Charles A. Lindbergh makes the first successful solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic, and becomes an international hero.
• 1932: When Ukrainians refuse to surrender their grain to his commissars, Stalin seals off supplies to the region, creating a manmade famine that will produce a greater death toll than the entirety of World War I.

Event and Its Context

The Color Bar

The gold mining industry in South Africa—concentrated in the Witwatersrand region near Johannesburg—was the key to the entire economy and depended on two distinct labor markets. The majority of gold miners were black Africans, who worked for low wages and were often preferred by the nine owners, particularly during times of financial difficulty. There were also a smaller number of white workers who earned relatively high wages. For example, by 1921, there were approximately 180,000 black workers compared to about 21,000 white workers. Yet the total wages paid to white workers were twice those paid to the more numerous black workers. During World War I, wages for whites rose by 40 percent—on average, 15 times the amount black workers earned.

White workers' jobs were protected by the so-called color bar, which became the core of the dispute that led to the 1922 Rand Revolt. The "statutory" color bar legally protected some 7,000 jobs for white workers under the Mines and Works Act. Furthermore, the "conventional" color bar—custom, pressure from trade unions, and public opinion—protected the 14,000 jobs held by white miners. During World War I, however, the color bar eroded somewhat, as more black workers began to replace white workers in semi-skilled positions. In 1918, however, an agreement between employers and white miners halted this process of erosion. By 1921, the Chamber of Mines decided this agreement was no longer economically viable, leading to the 1922 strike and revolt.

Pre-1922 Strikes in the Gold Mines

In the years leading up to the 1922 Rand Revolt, there were a number of strikes and protests by both white and black workers in the South African gold mining industry. In 1907, white gold workers in the Transvaal struck against a plan to reduce their wages and hire cheaper African and Chinese labor. Prime Minister Louis Botha, however, suppressed this strike. White workers struck again in 1913, this time against working conditions as well as black competition. They demanded the right to establish trade unions and protection for their privileged position within the gold mines. This time, British imperial troops had to be brought in to keep the peace.

The next year there was yet another strike by white workers. This time the strike started among white railroad and port workers, who anticipated possible layoffs. The strike spread to the gold mines and soon became a national strike. Prime Minister Smuts sent in 10,000 troops of the newly created Active Citizens Force and declared martial law. Many strikers were arrested and nine leaders were deported, leading to the collapse of the strike. The 1914 incident led to the Riot Assemblies Bill, which gave the government and the police more power.

Crisis, Strike, and Revolt

In late 1921, the price of gold began to fall significantly. The Central Bank predicted that it would continue to fall. The Chamber of Mines claimed that, soon, 27 of the 38 mines in Witwatersrand would be operating at a loss. Under such conditions, the government of Prime Minister Jan Smuts felt compelled to intervene. Smuts convinced the Chamber of Mines, representing the owners, and the South African Industrial Federation, led by Archie Crawford and representing the workers, to begin meeting on 15 December. After a week, however, the two sides agreed to postpone the conference until 9 January 1922, because the Prime Minister was ill.

In the meantime, the Chamber of Mines announced that, starting on 1 February 1922, it would terminate the 1918 status quo agreement. This announcement meant that some 2,000 white gold miners could lose their jobs. To the chamber, the move was simply a reaction to rapidly falling gold prices. White workers, however, saw the move as an attack on them and went on strike in early January. They created an "Augmented Executive" to represent the various striking workers' unions. Smuts encouraged the unions to submit their case to a board of conciliation rather than strike. Although he convinced both sides to begin meeting on 13 January, within two weeks the talks collapsed in deadlock.

Neither side was willing to compromise, and soon what started as an industrial struggle turned into a political conflict. The Augmented Executive was especially unwilling to deal with the government. They accused the government of backing an attack on white workers. The strike leaders called on workers to back opposition political parties, to overthrow the government of Prime Minister Smuts, and to support a government that would promote the interests of white South Africans.

With the unofficial support of opposition parties, the strike leaders rejected government proposals. The Smuts government tried to get the two sides to negotiate an agreement during the first week of February, but with no settlement forthcoming, the government took a new approach. No longer willing to tolerate a work stoppage, Smuts demanded that the owners reopen the mines and encouraged the workers to go back to work. He also indicated that the government would provide police protection for scabs.

In the meantime, a small group of militant workers formed the Council of Action, which was influenced by communism. For example, its first secretary was W. H. Andrews, the founder of the South African Communist Party. The Council also urged workers of the world to fight for a white South Africa.

Some of the strikers also formed commando units of between fifty and five hundred workers, clearly an indication of Afrikaner tradition. Indeed, some 75 percent of the workers were Afrikaners. Many were also former soldiers. Led by Piet Erasmus, they operated independently of the Augmented Executive and the Council of Action. Soon they began drilling and started to put down scabbing. On 22 February, the government announced that commandos were unlawful assemblies and would be dispersed by the police, which led to conflicts between the police and the commandos, often resulting in arrests and even deaths.

The government now had to decide if it would declare martial law and use military force. Smuts had declared martial law before, in 1914, and many South Africans thought he was waiting for the opportunity to do so again. The prime minister would have to use the Active Citizen Forces to enforce martial law, but he was unsure if his order would be obeyed. There was still some hope that labor leaders such as Crawford and moderates in the Augmented Executive would settle the strike. However, by early March, the more militant workers seized control of the situation. On 6 March, the Council of Action and the commando leaders declared a general strike. While the general strike never really spread beyond the Rand, in the gold mining region, the strike turned into an uprising. The next day, violence began with attack on the police. There were also violent attacks on African miners.

The Government Response and the Aftermath of the Strike

On 9 March, the government mobilized the Active Citizen Force and on 10 March declared martial law. The soldiers did obey the government orders, and, after three days of fighting, they put down the rebellion. There were many deaths in the fighting. The government's Martial Law Commission reported that more than 150 people died in the uprising, although other estimates are somewhat higher. Some accused the police and military of using excessive force. Following the strike, authorities arrested thousands of strikers. Those accused of high treason and murder were to be tried in a special courts set up under the Riotous Assemblies Act of 1914, which were made up of Supreme Court judges but with no juries. Of the 46 men brought before the special courts, 18 were sentenced to death, although only four were actually put to death.

In the short term, the mine owners were victorious. Some white workers were laid off and wages were reduced. In the long term, however, the white workers achieved their goal; the color bar remained firmly in place, and one wanted to risk another rebellion. The situation led to the 1926 Mines and Works Amendment, under which black and Indian workers were excluded from the better jobs in the mining industry. In 1924, the Smuts government introduced the Industrial Conciliation Act to deal with disputes between workers and employers. It served to reduce tensions between the owners and white workers, but the black workers were excluded. There was also a political cost. Prime Minister Smuts's South Africa Party lost the 1924 elections. A coalition of the National and Labor Parties won a majority of seats in the Parliament, and National Party leader J. B. M. Hertzog became the new prime minister. The leaders of the coalition had promised to protect white South African workers.

Key Players

Andrews, William H. (1870-1950): Born in England, Andrews immigrated to South Africa in 1893. A leader of the 1922 strike who served on the Committee of Action. As a leader of the Communist Party, Andrews saw the strike as part of a global class struggle. He was among the more extremist strike leaders who favored a general strike. At the same time, Andrews urged the white miners not to fight with the black miners. During the strike, authorities arrested Andrews.

Crawford, Archie (1883-1924): Born in Scotland, Crawford went to South Africa in 1902, where he became an important labor leader. He founded the Voice of Labor, which he published from 1908 to 1912. In 1914, he was deported for his labor activities. Upon returning to South Africa, he was the leader of the South African Industrial Federation. During the 1922 strike, he was a moderate who favored wage cuts and negotiation with the government. More extreme elements among the white miners opposed him and often treated Crawford with contempt. He died in Johannesburg.

Erasmus, Piet (1884-?): Erasmus was the leader of the commandos during the 1922 revolt. Authorities arrested Erasmus and imprisoned him in the strike prisoners' camp. He was one of those tried by the special courts, which found him guilty of high treason and sentenced Erasmus to ten years in prison. He was released in 1924.

Smuts, Jan Christian (1870-1950): Smuts served as the prime minister of South Africa from 1919 to 1924 and again from 1939 to 1948. During the 1922 strike, Smuts at first attempted to get the owners and miners to negotiate a settlement. When this attempt failed, he decided to use force against the striking workers and declared martial law. The 1922 Rand Revolt hurt Smuts politically, as he and his South Africa Party lost the 1924 elections.

Thompson, Joe: Head of the South African Industrial Federation and the Augmented Executive, Thompson was among the moderate leaders of the workers who favored a softer line against the owners.

See also: Miners' Strike, South Africa: 1946.

Bibliography

Books

Beck, Roger B. The History of South Africa. Westport, CT:Greenwood Press, 2000.

Hancock, W. K. Smuts. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1968.

Herd, Norman. 1922: The Revolt on the Rand. Johannesburg, R.S.A.: Blue Crane, 1966.

Johnstone, Frederick A. Class, Race, and Gold: A Study of Class Relations and Racial Discrimination in South Africa. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1987.

Simons, Jack and Ray Simons. Class and Colour in South Africa, 1850-1950. London: International Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa, 1983.

Thompson, Leonard Monteath. A History of South Africa. New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 2001.

Walker, Ivan L. and Ben Weinbren. 2000 Casualties: A History of the Trade Unions and the Labour Movement in the Union of South Africa. Johannesburg, R.S.A.: The South African Trade Union Council, 1961.

Wilson, Francis. Labour in the South African Gold Mines,1911-1969. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1972.

—Ronald Young