Documents for "Economics: Biographies":

• Adams, Henry Carter 1851-1921, American economist, b. Davenport, Iowa. He developed an interest in public finance at Johns Hopkins Univ. and pursued this field during later studies in Germany. He taught economics at...

• Allais, Maurice 1911-, French economist. After working in the French mine administration, he joined the École National Superieure des Mines in Paris (1944-) and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientific...

• Angell, Sir Norman 1872?-1967, British internationalist and economist, whose name originally was Ralph Norman Angell Lane. He came to fame with The Great Illusion (1910, rev. ed. 1933), in which he posited that the common...

• Arrow, Kenneth Joseph 1921-, American economist, b. New York City, grad. City College of New York (B.S. 1940), Columbia (M.A. 1941, Ph.D. 1951). He taught economics at the Univ. of Chicago (1947-49) and Stanford Univ...

• Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen 1851-1914, Austrian economist. Three times minister of finance (1895, 1897, and 1900), he initiated important tax reforms and farsighted financial policies. Rejecting the standard theory of value,...

• Babson, Roger Ward 1875-1967, American businessman and statistician, b. Gloucester, Mass. In 1904 he founded the Babson Statistical Organization, Inc., whose business and financial statistics, published in Babson's Washington Service, are widely sold in the United States, Great Britain, and Canada. In 1919 he established Babson Institute (now Babson College), in Massachusetts, and in 1927 he founded Webber College, in Florida...

• Balch, Emily Greene 1867-1961, American economist and sociologist, b. Jamaica Plain, Mass., grad. Bryn Mawr, 1889. She taught at Wellesley College until her dismissal (1918) for opposing U.S. involvement in World War...

• Bamberger, Ludwig 1823-99, German economist, politician, and journalist. An ardent liberal, he took part in the Revolution of 1848 and was forced to live in exile until 1866. He worked for the unification of...

• Barron, Clarence Walker 1855-1928, American financial editor, b. Boston. He worked on the Boston Daily News, then on the Evening Transcript, and in 1887 founded the Boston News Bureau, to supply financial news to brokers....

• Bastiat, Frédéric 1801-50, French economist. In his Harmonies of Political Economy (1850, tr. 1860) he developed the classical theories of economic individualism and laissez-faire. A popular and controversial writer, he vigorously supported free trade. There are several...

• Becker, Gary 1930-, American economist. A professor at the Univ. of Chicago, he was awarded the 1992 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for extending the scope of microeconomic analysis. Sociology,...

• Bernanke, Ben Shalom 1953-, U.S. economist and government official, b. Augusta, Ga.; grad. Harvard (B.A., 1975), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D., 1979). He was a professor of economics at Stanford Univ...

• Beveridge, William Henry 1879-1963, British economist, b. India, grad. Oxford, 1902. His fame as an authority on social problems was gained through investigations and writings in government service (1908-19), especially as...

• Buchanan, James McGill 1919-, American economist, b. Murfreesboro, Tenn., Ph.D. Univ. of Chicago, 1948. A professor at Virginia Polytechnic Institute (1969-83) and George Mason Univ. (1983-), he was awarded the 1986...

• Burns, Arthur Frank 1904-87, American economist, b. Austria, grad. Columbia Univ. (A.B., 1925; A.M., 1925; Ph.D., 1934). He taught economics at Rutgers Univ. (1927-44), and then joined (1944) the faculty of Columbia,...

• Cairnes, John Elliot 1823-75, Irish economist, a follower of John Stuart Mill. His Slave Power (1862), a defense of the North in the American Civil War, made a great impression in England. He has written about noncompeting groups in the labor market and is known for his distrust of...

• Carey, Henry Charles 1793-1879, American economist, b. Philadelphia; son of Mathew Carey. In 1835 he retired from publishing, where he had done notable work, to devote himself to economics. His Principles of Political...

• Cassel, Gustav 1866-1945, Swedish economist and authority on international monetary problems. He was a delegate to many world economic conferences and wrote valuable papers on foreign exchange. He developed the...

• Cernuschi, Henri 1821-96, Italian politician and economist. A strong republican, he was a leader in the Milan revolt of 1848 in support of Giuseppe Garibaldi. In 1850 he went to France, where he became a director...

• Chamberlin, Edward 1866-1967, American economist, b. LaConner, Wash. He taught economics at Harvard (1937-67) and made significant contributions to microeconomics, particularly on competition theory and consumer...

• Chevalier, Michel 1806-79, French economist. An ardent Saint-Simonian as a youth, he later favored a form of welfare capitalism. He advocated industrial development as the key to social progress. Also a proponent...

• Clapham, Sir John Harold 1873-1946, English economic historian. He was lecturer, professor and administrator at Cambridge from 1908 to 1943. Outstanding among his many works on British economic history are An Economic History...

• Clark, Colin 1905-89, British economist. A statistics professor at Cambridge Univ. (1931-37), he taught in Australia and Great Britain until 1952, serving as economic adviser to the governments of both nations...

• Clark, John Bates 1847-1938, American economist, b. Providence, R.I. He studied economics in the U.S. and Germany, and taught at Columbia Univ. and several other colleges in the United States. In 1885 he helped...

• Cleveland, Frederick Albert 1865-1946, American economist, b. Sterling, Ill., studied at DePauw Univ. and at the Univ. of Chicago, Ph.D. Univ. of Pennsylvania, 1900. He taught at the Univ. of Pennsylvania (1900-1903) and was...

• Coase, Ronald H. 1910-, American economist, b. London, Ph.D. Univ. of London, 1951. He was raised and educated in England before coming to the United States, where he has been a professor at the Univ. of Buffalo...

• Cole, George Douglas Howard 1889-1959, English economist, labor historian, and socialist. Educated at Oxford, he was long associated with the university and held a professorship from 1944 to 1957. For many years a leading...

• Cole, Margaret Isabel (Postgate) see Cole, George Douglas Howard.

• Colquhoun, Patrick 1745-1820, British economist and statistician, b. Scotland. Active in civic affairs in Glasgow (where he founded the chamber of commerce) and London, he became known for his Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis (1795, 7th ed. 1806), written from his experience as a police magistrate. The most noted of his works is the Treatise on the Population, Wealth, and Resources of the British Empire (1814), in which he set forth statistical estimates of the distribution of national income. His figures, demonstrating the poverty of the working classes, long influenced social and economic...

• Commons, John Rogers 1862-1945, American economist, b. Hollansburg, Ohio, grad. Oberlin, 1888. Influenced by the other social sciences, Commons tried to broaden the scope of economics, especially in his noted Legal Foundations...

• Dühring, Eugen Karl 1833-1921, German philosopher and economist. He practiced law in Berlin until blindness threatened him and then became (1864) docent at the Univ. of Berlin. He was unable to get along with...

• Davenport, Herbert Joseph 1861-1931, American economist, b. Wilmington, Vt., Ph.D. Univ. of Chicago, 1898. He taught at the Univ. of Missouri and at Cornell. In Value and Distribution (1908) and The Economics of Enterprise (1913) he followed the principles of classical economics, attempting to purify them of nonscientific elements. He made contributions to the theories of cost, interest, and taxation and was a critic...

• De Bow, James Dunwoody Brownson 1820-67, American editor and statistician, b. Charleston, S.C. He became (1844) editor of the Southern Quarterly Review. In 1846 he went to New Orleans, where he began publishing the monthly De Bow's Review. He was an ardent secessionist, and his magazine helped shape Southern opinion. Advocating a chair of political economy at the new Univ. of Louisiana, he was appointed to fill it. He was...

• Debreu, Gerard 1921-2005, French-American economist, b. Calais, France. He studied mathematics in France before coming to the United States in 1950, where he worked with the Chicago-based Cowles Foundation for...

• Douglas, Clifford Hugh 1879-1952, English engineer and social economist, educated at Cambridge Univ. Author of the economic theory of Social Credit , he became (1935) chief reconstruction adviser to the Social Credit government...

• Drucker, Peter Ferdinand 1909-2005, American economist, b. Vienna, Austria. After receiving a doctorate in international and public law from Frankfurt Univ. (1931), Drucker was a financial writer for a German newspaper. In...

• Du Pont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel 1739-1817, French economist, one of the physiocrats. Early in his career he attracted the attention of François Quesnay and edited the Journal de l'agriculture in 1765-66 and the Éphémérides du citoyen from 1768 to 1772. He also edited some of Quesnay's writings under the title Physiocratie (1768) and later presented his own views of economy and political philosophy in his Tableau raisonné des principes de l'économie politique (1775) and other works. He was also active in practical politics. He became the financial and economic adviser of his friend Anne Robert Jacques Turgot. Under the comte de Vergennes he was one of the diplomats in the long negotiations (1783) after the American Revolution, and he drew up a trade treaty (1786) with Great Britain that expressed his...

• Duisenberg, Willem Frederik 1935-2005, Dutch banker and advocate of European monentary union. He worked (1965-69) as an economist with the International Monetary Fund in Washington, D.C., and was subsequently (1970-73) a...

• Edgeworth, Francis Ysidro 1845-1926, British economist, grad. Trinity College, Dublin. He was professor of political economy at Oxford and first editor (1891-1926) of the Economist. His special contribution to economics was...

• Ely, Richard Theodore 1854-1943, American economist, b. Ripley, N.Y., grad. Columbia, 1876, Ph.D. Heidelberg, 1879. He taught at Johns Hopkins Univ. (1881-92), the Univ. of Wisconsin (1892-1925), and Northwestern Univ...

• Fawcett, Henry 1833-84, English economist and statesman. A follower of John Stuart Mill, he was professor of political economy at Cambridge, and his Manual of Political Economy (1863) was widely read. As member...

• Fisher, Irving 1867-1947, American economist, b. Saugerties, N.Y., Ph.D. Yale, 1891. He began teaching at Yale in 1890 and was active there until 1935. His earliest work was in mathematics, and he made a...

• Friedman, Milton 1912-, American economist, b. New York City, Ph.D. Columbia, 1946. Friedman has been influential in helping to revive the monetarist school of economic thought. He was a staff member at the...

• Frisch, Ragnar 1895-1973, Norwegian economist, corecipient with Jan Tinbergen of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1969). Educated at the Univ. of Oslo (M.A., 1919; Ph.D., 1926), Frisch was briefly a visiting professor at Yale (1930). In 1931 he returned...

• Galbraith, John Kenneth 1908-2006, American economist and public official, b. Ontario, Canada, grad. Univ. of Toronto (B.S., 1931), Univ. of California, Berkeley (M.S., 1933; Ph.D., 1934). After becoming (1937) a U.S...

• Galiani, Ferdinando 1728-87, Italian economist, educated for the church. As a very young man he wrote Della moneta [on money] (1750), which attacked the mercantilist theory that money has no intrinsic value. Sent (1759) to Paris as secretary of the Neapolitan embassy, he wrote his Dialogues sur le commerce des blés (1770). Galiani contributed greatly to the modern theory of value and to the relativistic, historical approach to economics. He opposed the physiocrat view that land is the source of all wealth. A...

• George, Henry 1839-97, American economist, founder of the single tax movement, b. Philadelphia. Of a poor family, his formal education was cut short at 14, and in 1857 he emigrated to California; there he worked at various occupations before turning to newspaper...

• Gide, Charles 1847-1932, French economist. A professor at the universities of Bordeaux, Montpellier, and Paris, Gide was an expert on international monetary problems. He also played an important part in the...

• Gioia, Melchiorre 1767-1829, Italian economist and political theorist. An early advocate of the unification of Italy, he was several times imprisoned, once on charges of association with the Carbonari movement. He...

• Gossen, Hermann Heinrich 1810-58, German economist, little known in his lifetime. His work, Entwicklung der Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fliessenden Regeln für menschliches Handeln [development of...

• Gournay, Vincent de 1712-59, French economist, precursor of the physiocrats and of Adam Smith. A wealthy merchant, he was in government service as intendant of commerce from 1751 to 1758. He translated and annotated...

• Greenspan, Alan 1926-, American economist, chairman of the Federal Reserve Board (1987-2006), b. New York City. Influenced by the philosophy of Ayn Rand , Greenspan is a strong supporter of the free market and an opponent of government intervention in the economy. He was private economic consultant (1954-74, 1977-87) and served (1974-77) as chairman...

• Haavelmo, Trygve 1911-99, Norwegian economist. In the 1940s, he was a pioneer in the field of econometrics, using mathematics and statistics in the formation of economic theories. In 1989, Haavelmo won the Nobel...

• Hadley, Arthur Twining 1856-1930, American economist and educator, b. New Haven, Conn.; son of James Hadley. A graduate (1876) of Yale, he was on the faculty (1879-99) and later was president (1899-1921) of the...

• Harris, Abram Lincoln 1899-1963, American economist, b. Richmond, Va. He headed the economics department at Howard Univ. (1936-45) and taught at the Univ. of Chicago (1946-63). Starting from a Marxist viewpoint, Harris...

• Harvey, William Hope 1851-1936, American writer on economics, called Coin Harvey, b. Buffalo, Putnam co., W.Va. He studied at Marshall College, practiced law, and interested himself in monetary problems. He was a...

• Hayek, Friedrich August von 1899-1992, British economist, b. Vienna. He was raised and educated in Austria and taught at the London School of Economics in the 1930s, where he gained attention for his criticism of Keynes. He...

• Heckscher, Eli Filip 1879-1952, Swedish economic historian. Influenced by the neoclassical economics of Alfred Marshall, Heckscher advocated the use of monetary policy to combat inflation. His views were adopted by...

• Heilbroner, Robert Louis 1919-2005, American economist, b. New York City, grad. Harvard, 1940, Ph.D., New School for Social Research, 1963. A prolific writer, his book The Worldly Philosophers (1953, rev. 7th ed. 1999) is a renowned study of the evolution of economic thought. In his studies, Heilbroner sought to simplify economic theory by stripping it of technical jargon; he criticized...

• Henderson, Leon 1895-1986, American economist, administrator of the Office of Price Administration (1941-42), b. Millville, N.J. An official of the Russell Sage Foundation (1925-34), Henderson held several posts...

• Hicks, Sir John Richard 1904-89, British economist, grad. Balliol College, Oxford, 1931. He was a professor at the Univ. of Manchester (1938-46) before joining the faculty of Oxford (1946). At the time of his retirement...

• Hobson, John Atkinson 1858-1940, English economist and journalist. He achieved wide popularity as a lecturer and writer. Criticizing classical economics, which centered on man's mechanical response to inflexible...

• Hoxie, Robert Franklin 1868-1916, American economist, b. Edmeston, W of Cooperstown, N.Y., Ph.D. Univ. of Chicago, 1905. He taught at the Univ. of Chicago from 1906 to 1916. A realistic interpreter of the changing...

• Innis, Harold Adams 1894-1952, Canadian political economist, b. Otterville, Ontario. One of Canada's leading economic historians, Innis wrote about various facets of Canadian culture and economy. In such books as The Fur Trade in Canada (1930, repr. 1956) and The Cod Fisheries (1940, repr. 1978), Innis explored Canadian natural resource industries and how they affected culture, politics, and history. Innis' work underscored the relationship of Canada to Western...

• Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple 1856-1929, American economist, b. St. Clair, Mich., grad. Univ. of Michigan, 1878, Ph.D. Univ. of Halle, 1885. He was professor of political economy (1891-1912) at Cornell and from 1912 was...

• Jevons, William Stanley 1835-82, English economist and logician. After working in Australia as assayer to the mint, he taught at Owens College, Manchester, and University College, London. His major contribution to...

• Johnson, Emory Richard 1864-1950, American economist, b. Waupun, Wis., Ph.D. Univ. of Pennsylvannia, 1893. He joined the faculty of the Univ. of Pennsylvania in 1893 and was dean of its Wharton School of Finance and...

• Kantorovich, Leonid Vitalyevich 1912-86, Soviet economist and mathematician, b. St. Petersburg, Russia. A professor at Leningrad State Univ. (1934-60), he later served (1971-76) as director of the mathematical economics...

• Kellogg, Edward 1790-1858, American economist, b. Norwalk, Conn. He advocated a financial scheme to abolish interest, which was often usurious at the time he wrote. Kellogg devised a system of financial control...

• Keynes, John Maynard, Baron Keynes of Tilton 1883-1946, English economist and monetary expert, studied at Eton and Cambridge.

• Klein, Lawrence Robert 1920-, American economist, b. Omaha, Nebr. He has been active in academia, government, and private research institutes throughout the world since the 1940s. Klein's 1947 book The Keynesian Revolution...

• Knight, Frank Hyneman 1885-1972, American economist, b. McLean County, Ill., Ph.D. Cornell Univ., 1916. He taught economics at the Univ. of Chicago (1927-62). Knight's most influential work was his first book, Risk, Uncertainty and Profit (1921), in which he described the relationship between profits and risk in a free market economy. He distinguished insurable risk from uninsurable risk, contending that the latter produced profits...

• Koopmans, Tjalling Charles 1910-85, American economist, b. Graveland, the Netherlands. Raised and educated in the Netherlands, he came to the United States in 1940 and became interested in the economics of transport costs...

• Kuznets, Simon 1901-85, American economist, b. Kharkiv, Russia (now in Ukraine), grad. Columbia (B.S., 1923; M.A., 1924; Ph.D., 1926). He emigrated to the United States in 1922. After serving as a fellow on the...

• Lane, Ralph Norman Angell see Angell, Sir Norman.

• Laughlin, James Laurence 1850-1933, American economist, b. Deerfield, Ohio, Ph.D. Harvard, 1876. He was a distinguished teacher, and as head of the department of political economy at the Univ. of Chicago (1892-1916) he...

• Leontief, Wassily 1906-99, American economist, b. Russia, grad. Univ. of Berlin (Ph.D., 1928). The son of a Russian economist, he and his family left the Soviet Union in 1925 because of their opposition to the...

• Lerner, Abba Ptachya 1903-82, American economist, b. Romania. After studying at the London School of Economics in the 1930s, he collaborated with Keynes at Cambridge Univ. Lerner came to the United States in 1937. His book on market pricing in a socialist economy, The Economics of Control (1944), developed the Marshall-Lerner criterion, based on the elasticity principle of Alfred Marshall. Lerner explained how a nation's balance of trade could affect the exchange rate in an economy where the currency has been devalued. In the late 1970s, Lerner wrote a highly detailed and respected...

• Levasseur, Émile (Pierre Émile Levasseur) , 1828-1911, French economist. He was noted especially for his historical approach to the study of economics. He studied at the École normale supérieure, Paris, and taught (1868-72) economic history...

• Lewis, Sir Arthur (Sir William Arthur Lewis), 1915-91, British economist, b. St. Lucia. A graduate (1940) of the London School of Economics, he was later a professor of economics at the Univ. of Manchester (1948-58)...

• List, Friedrich 1789-1846, German economist. The first professor of economics at the Univ. of Tübingen, he was elected (1820) to the Württemberg legislature. For his advocacy of administrative reforms he was...

• Malthus, Thomas Robert 1766-1834, English economist, sociologist, and pioneer in modern population study. In An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798, rev. ed. 1803), he contended that poverty and distress are unavoidable, since population increases by geometrical ratio and the means of subsistence by arithmetical ratio. As checks on...

• Markowitz, Harry 1927-, American economist, Ph.D. Univ. of Chicago, 1954. In the 1950s he developed a theory of "portfolio choice," which allows investors to analyze risk as well as their expected return. For this work Markowitz, a professor at Baruch College at the City Univ. of New York, shared the 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize...

• Marshall, Alfred 1842-1924, English economist. At Cambridge, where he taught from 1885 to 1908, he exerted great influence on the development of economic thought of the time; one of his students was John Maynard Keynes. He systematized the classical economic theories and made new analyses in the same manner, thus laying the foundation of the neoclassical school of economics. He was concerned with theories of...

• Martin, William McChesney, Jr. 1906-98, U.S. banker, chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (1951-70), b. St. Louis. After an early career as a stockbroker, Martin became (1938) the first salaried...

• Mayo-Smith, Richmond 1854-1901, American statistician, b. Troy, Ohio, grad. Amherst, 1875. After graduation he studied for two years in Germany. From 1877 to 1901 he taught at Columbia. He is best known as a pioneer in...

• McCracken, Paul W. 1915-, American economist; b. Richland, Iowa. He has taught at the Univ. of Michigan's school of business administration from 1948, except for time in government service. A specialist in banking...

• Meade, James Edward 1907-95, British economist, studied at Oxford and Cambridge. Strongly influenced by John Maynard Keynes , Meade worked at the League of Nations (1937-40) and was chief economist (1945-47) in Britain's first Labour government before he accepted professorships at the London School of Economics (1947-57)...

• Menger, Carl 1840-1921, Austrian economist, a founder of the Austrian school of economics. He was professor of economics at the Univ. of Vienna from 1873 until 1903, when he retired to devote himself to...

• Miller, Merton H. 1923-2000, American economist, grad. Harvard, 1943, Ph.D. Johns Hopkins Univ., 1952. A professor at Carnegie-Mellon Univ. (1953-61) and the Univ. of Chicago (1961-93), he developed a theory with...

• Mitchell, Wesley Clair 1874-1948, American economist, b. Rushville, Ill. He received his Ph.D. (1899) from the Univ. of Chicago, where he studied under Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey, and he taught at several...

• Modigliani, Franco 1918-2003, American economist, b. Rome. Jewish, antifascist, and trained as a lawyer, he fled Mussolini's Italy in 1938, settling in the United States in 1939, where he studied economics. After...

• Monnet, Jean 1888-1979, French economist and public official, proponent of European unity. In World War I, Monnet served on the Inter-Allied Maritime Commission, an international committee designed to secure...

• Moody, John 1868-1958, American financial writer, b. Jersey City, N.J. He was working in a Wall Street brokerage house in 1900 when he founded Moody's Manual of Railroads and Corporation Securities. It was followed...

• Mun, Thomas 1571-1641, English writer on economics. A merchant in Italy and the Levant, he became (1615) a director in the East India Company. In his Discourse of Trade from England unto the East Indies (1621)...

• Myrdal, Gunnar 1898-1987, Swedish economist, sociologist, and public official; husband of Alva Myrdal. A graduate (1927) of the Univ. of Stockholm, he became lecturer (1927) and professor (1931) of economics...

• Ohlin, Bertil 1899-1979, Swedish economist, b. Klippan. A professor at several Swedish universities, he wrote the influential Interregional and International Trade (1933, rev. ed. 1967), in which he developed the...

• Palgrave, Sir Robert Harry Inglis 1827-1919, English banker and economist; son of Sir Francis Palgrave. He edited (1877-83) the Economist, wrote several books on economics, and served (1885) on the government commission on the depression...

• Pantaleoni, Maffeo 1857-1924, Italian economist and politician. He was finance minister in Gabriele D'Annunzio's government at Fiume (1919), one of the first senators named by Benito Mussolini, and a delegate (1923)...

• Pareto, Vilfredo 1848-1923, Italian economist and sociologist, b. Paris, of an exiled noble family that returned to Italy in 1858. He studied mathematics and engineering in Turin and worked as an engineer for many...

• Passy, Frédéric 1822-1912, French economist, winner (1901, with J. H. Dunant) of the first Nobel Peace Prize. He studied law but abandoned it for journalism and the study of economics and problems of peace. In...

• Perlman, Selig 1888-1959, American economist, b. Bialystok, Poland. His parents were active in the Zionist and labor movements of Eastern Europe. Perlman emigrated to the United States in 1918, where he taught at...

• Petty, Sir William 1623-87, English statistician and physician. He was a founder of the Royal Society and was physician general to the army of Ireland in 1652. Petty's survey of the Irish estates appropriated by...

• Pigou, Arthur Cecil 1877-1959, British economist, grad. King's College, Cambridge. He was a lecturer at University College, London, and at Cambridge. He was professor of political economy at Cambridge from 1908 to...

• Quesnay, François 1694-1774, French economist, founder of the physiocratic school. A physician to Louis XV, he did not begin his economic studies until 1756, when he wrote the articles "Fermiers" [farmers] and ...

• Ricardo, David 1772-1823, British economist, of Dutch-Jewish parentage. At the age of 20 he entered business as a stockbroker and was so skillful in the management of his affairs that within five years he had...

• Robbins, Lionel Charles 1898-1984, British economist, b. Middlesex, England. A professor at the London School of Economics (1929-61), he wrote the well-known methodological treatise, An Essay in the Nature and Significance of Economic Science (1932). A supporter of the free market system and an opponent of Keynes , his work was influential in the advancement of economics as a philosophy and science. As chairman of the Committee on Higher Education (1961-64), Robbins was instrumental in bringing about...

• Robertson, Sir Dennis 1890-1963, British economist, grad. Trinity College, Cambridge. A professor at Cambridge (1944-57), he also handled Anglo-American financial relationships during World War II and played an active...

• Robinson, Joan Violet 1903-83, British economist, b. Surrey, England. A socialist, she worked with Keynes and taught at Cambridge Univ. (1931-71). Her treatise, The Economics of Imperfect Competition (1933), analyzes the debates over monopolistic competition and microeconomic theory. Robinson was outspoken in her criticism of social and economic injustices against the developing nations; she...

• Rodbertus, Karl Johann 1805-75, German economist and conservative socialist. He held several public offices but after 1849 devoted himself to writing on economics. He believed that society would eventually attain,...

• Rogers, James Harvey 1886-1939, American economist, b. South Carolina, grad. Univ. of South Carolina (B.A., 1906) and Yale (B.A., 1909; Ph.D., 1916). He was professor of economics at the Univ. of Missouri (1923-30) and...

• Roscher, Wilhelm 1817-94, German economist. A professor at the Univ. of Leipzig (1848-94), he was a founder of the German historical school of economics, which rejected the classical laissez-faire view. Roscher's...

• Samuelson, Paul A. 1915-, American economist, b. Gary, Ind., grad. Univ. of Chicago (B.A., 1935), Harvard (M.A., 1936; Ph.D., 1941). Appointed a professor of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in...

• Say, Jean Baptiste 1767-1832, French economist. In A Treatise on Political Economy (1803, tr. from the 4th ed. 1821) he effectively reorganized and popularized the theories of Adam Smith. Say also developed a noted theory of markets and the concept of the entrepreneur. Say's law...

• Schäffle, Albert 1831-1903, German economist and sociologist. He taught economics at the universities of Tübingen and Vienna. His views were based partly on the idealism of Hegel and Schelling, partly on Comtian...

• Schmoller, Gustav 1838-1917, German economist. He was the leader of the younger school of German historical economists, who tried to interrelate economics with the other social sciences. He began the "method war"...

• Schultz, Theodore W. 1902-, American economist; b. Arlington, S.Dak. He taught at Iowa State College (1930-43) and the Univ. of Chicago (1943-61). A specialist in agricultural economics and the economic problems of...

• Schumpeter, Joseph Alois 1883-1950, Austrian-American economist, LL.D. Univ. of Vienna, 1906. He began practicing law but turned to teaching two years later. He was professor of economics at the Univ. of Graz from 1911 to...

• Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson 1861-1939, American economist, b. New York City, Ph.D. Columbia, 1885. As professor (1885-1931) at Columbia, he edited the "Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law" and...

• Senior, Nassau 1790-1864, English economist. A graduate of Oxford, he was called there in 1825 to fill the first chair of political economy in England. In An Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836) he sought to carry classical economic principles closer to scientific formulation. He also maintained that capital is a productive factor and that interest and profit accrue to the...

• Simon, Herbert Alexander 1916-2001, American social scientist and economist, b. Milwaukee, grad. Univ. of Chicago (B.A., 1936, Ph.D., 1943). A professor of computer science and psychology at Carnegie-Mellon Univ. from 1949...

• Smith, Adam 1723-90, Scottish economist, educated at Glasgow and Oxford. He became professor of moral philosophy at the Univ. of Glasgow in 1752, and while teaching there wrote his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759),...

• Solow, Robert M. 1924-, American economist, b. Brooklyn, N.Y., grad. Harvard (B.A. 1947, M.A. 1949, Ph.D. 1951). He began teaching economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1949. Solow also held...

• Sombart, Werner 1863-1941, German economist. In 1917 he became professor of economics at the Univ. of Berlin. Influenced by Marx's historical approach to economics, he produced several analyses of capitalism,...

• Stamp, Josiah Charles, 1st Baron Stamp of Shortlands 1880-1941, English economist and financier. Active in many national and international economic commissions, he had an important part in the framing of the Dawes and Young plans for German...

• Stein, Lorenz von 1815-90, German economist and sociologist. He studied jurisprudence at the Univ. of Kiel and at Paris and taught (1846-51) at the Univ. of Kiel, but his advocacy of independence for his native...

• Stigler, George Joseph 1911-91, American economist, b. Renton, Wash., Ph.D. Univ. of Chicago, 1938. A professor at Univ. of Chicago from 1958, Stigler wrote about the economics of information. He explored the...

• Thurow, Lester Carl 1938-, American economist, b. Livingston, Mont.; grad. Williams College, 1960; M.A. Oxford, 1962; Ph.D. Harvard, 1964. Professor of management and economics at the Massachusetts Institute of...

• Tinbergen, Jan 1903-94, Dutch economist, co-winner with Ragnar Frisch of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1969). A graduate of Leiden Univ. (1929), he worked (1929-45) with the Dutch government's Central Bureau of Statistics, and was briefly an...

• Tobin, James 1918-2002, American economist, b. Champaign, Ill., Ph.D. Harvard, 1947. A professor at Yale Univ. from 1950 until his death, he was also an influential member (1961-62) of President Kennedy's...

• Tooke, Thomas 1774-1858, British economist, b. St. Petersburg, Russia. A successful businessman, he began to speak on behalf of free trade before Parliamentary committees and was one of the founders of the...

• Toynbee, Arnold 1852-83, English economic historian, philosopher, and reformer. After his graduation in 1878 he was a tutor at Balliol College, Oxford, and was active in reform work outside the university,...

• Tugwell, Rexford Guy 1891-1979, American economist and political scientist, b. Chautauqua co., N.Y., grad. Wharton School, Univ. of Pennsylvania (B.S., 1915; Ph.D., 1922). He taught economics at the Univ. of...

• Veblen, Thorstein 1857-1929, American economist and social critic, b. Cato Township, Wis. Of Norwegian parentage, he spent his first 17 years in Norwegian-American farm communities. After studying at Carleton...

• Viner, Jacob 1892-1970, American economist, b. Montreal. He taught at the Univ. of Chicago (1919-46) and Princeton Univ. (1946-60). A specialist on the subject of international trade, Viner was an adviser on...

• Volcker, Paul Adolph 1927-, American economist, government official, and banker, b. Cape May, N.J. After working as an under secretary in the Treasury Department (1969-74) and as president of the New York Federal...

• Wagner, Adolf Heinrich Gotthilf 1835-1917, German economist and socialist, studied at Göttingen and Heidelberg. He taught economics at several universities before becoming professor of economics at the Univ. of Berlin, a post he...

• Walker, Amasa 1799-1875, American economist, b. Woodstock, Conn. He became a merchant in Boston but retired from business in 1840. He lectured (1842-48) on political economy at Oberlin College , which he was influential in founding. He was a delegate to the peace congresses at London (1843) and Paris (1849). An abolitionist, he was elected secretary of state (1851-53) for Massachusetts by...

• Walker, Francis Amasa 1840-97, American economist, statistician, and educator, b. Boston, grad. Amherst; son of Amasa Walker. In the Civil War he was brevetted brigadier general. Walker's activities in the U.S...

• Walras, Léon 1834-1910, French economist. After abandoning his studies in mining engineering, he became a free-lance journalist, advancing the causes of economic and social reform. He later became a professor...

• Webb, Beatrice Potter 1858-1943, English socialist economist; daughter of a wealthy industrialist. She took an early interest in social problems and worked with Charles Booth on his survey of working life in London. Her Cooperative Movement in Great Britain was published in 1891. In 1892 she married Sidney James Webb, 1859-1947, a civil servant and a contributor to Fabian Essays (1890). Thereafter they worked together, complementing each other's qualities in an unusual partnership. They were of first importance in the Fabian Society , in the building up of the British Labour party, and in the creation (1895) of the London School of Economics. In 1913 they founded the New Statesman. Most of the political and social reforms of their period owe much to their indefatigable research and political acumen. Together they produced The History of Trade Unionism (1894; rev. ed. 1920), Industrial Democracy (1897), English Local Government (9 vol., 1906-29), Consumers' Cooperative Movement (1921), and Soviet Communism: A New Civilization? (2 vol., 1935). In 1922 Sidney Webb was elected to Parliament. He was president of the board of trade in the 1924 Labour government and secretary for the colonies from 1929 to 1931. In 1929 he was...

• Webb, Sidney James see under Webb, Beatrice Potter.

• Wells, David Ames 1828-98, American economist, b. Springfield, Mass., grad. Williams, 1847, and Lawrence Scientific School, Cambridge, Mass., 1851. Early in life he wrote several popular books on science. In 1864...

• Wieser, Friedrich von 1851-1926, Austrian economist and sociologist. He is noted for his formulas applying the principle of marginal utility to cost phenomena. He taught at Prague (1884-1903) and Vienna (1903-17,...

• Wright, Elizur 1804-85, American actuary and antislavery leader, b. near Canaan, Conn., grad. Yale, 1826. He taught (1829-33) mathematics at Western Reserve College. In 1833 he became corresponding secretary of...