ISRAEL

State of Israel

[Arabic] Dawlat Israel

[Hebrew] Medinat Yisrael

CAPITAL: Jerusalem (Yerushalayim, Al-Quds)

FLAG: The flag, which was adopted at the First Zionist Congress in 1897, consists of a blue six-pointed Shield of David (Magen David) centered between two blue horizontal stripes on a white field.

ANTHEM: Hatikvah (The Hope).

MONETARY UNIT: The new Israeli shekel (nis), a paper currency of 100 new agorot, replaced the shekel (is) at a rate of 1,000 to 1 in 1985; the shekel replaced the Israeli pound (il) in 1980 at the rate of 10 pounds per shekel. There are coins of 5, 10, and 50 agora, 1 and 5 shekels and notes of 10, 50, 100, and 200 shekels. nis1 = $0.22422 (or $1 = nis4.46) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but some local units are used, notably the dunam (equivalent to 1,000 square meters, or about 0.25 acre).

HOLIDAYS: Israel officially uses both the Gregorian and the complex Jewish lunisolar calendars, but the latter determines the occurrence of national holidays: Rosh Hashanah (New Year), September or October; Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), September or October; Sukkot (Tabernacles), September or October; Simhat Torah (Rejoicing in the Law), September or October; Pesach (Passover), March or April; Independence Day, April or May; and Shavuot (Pentecost), May or June. All Jewish holidays, as well as the Jewish Sabbath (Friday/Saturday), begin just before sundown and end at nightfall 24 hours later. Muslim, Christian, and Druze holidays are observed by the respective minorities.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in southwestern Asia along the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, Israel claims an area of 20,770 sq km (8,019 sq mi), extending about 320 km (200 mi) n–s and 110 km (70 mi) e–w; at its narrowest, just north of Tel Aviv–Yafo, it is 19 km (12 mi) across. This total includes the Golan Heights area (1,176 sq km/454 sq mi), captured from Syria during the Six-Day War in 1967 and annexed on 14 December 1981; the annexation (technically described as the extension of Israeli "law, jurisdiction, and administration" to the region) was condemned by Syria and by unanimous resolution of the UN Security Council. The Labor Government in 1984 indicated that some (possibly all) of the Golan could be returned to Syria in a peace agreement. Other territories captured in 1967 and classified as administered territories were the West Bank (Judea and Samaria), 5,878 sq km (2,270 sq mi), and the Gaza Strip, 362 sq km (140 sq mi). (The Gaza Strip and Jericho area were transferred in 1994 to Palestinian administration, and six more West Bank cities were included in Palestinian control in 1997. All seven West Bank cities were reoccupied by Israel in 2002, but Jericho was returned to the Palestinians in 2005.) East Jerusalem, captured in 1967, was annexed shortly thereafter.

Israel is bordered on the n by Lebanon, on the e by Syria and Jordan, on the s by the Gulf of Aqaba (Gulf of Elat), on the sw by Egypt, and on the w by the Mediterranean Sea. Comparatively, the area occupied by Israel is slightly smaller than the state of New Jersey. The total land boundary length is 1,017 km (632 mi) and the coastline is 273 km (170 mi).

Israel's capital city, Jerusalem, is located near the center of the country (including the West Bank).

TOPOGRAPHY

The country is divided into three major longitudinal strips: the coastal plain, which follows the Mediterranean shoreline in a southward widening band; the hill region, embracing the hills of Galilee in the north, Samaria and Judea in the center, and the Negev in the south; and the Jordan Valley. Except for the Bay of Acre, the sandy coastline is not indented for its entire length. The hill region, averaging 610 m (2,000 ft) in elevation, reaches its highest point at Mt. Meron (1,208 m/3,963 ft). South of the Judean hills, the Negev desert, marked by cliffs and craters and covering about half the total area of Israel proper, extends down to the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea. The Jordan River, forming the border between Israel (including the West Bank) and Jordan, links the only bodies of water in the country: the Sea of Galilee (Yam Kinneret) and the heavily saline Dead Sea (Yam ha-Melah), which, at 408 m (1,339 ft) below sea level, is the lowest point on the earth's surface.

CLIMATE

Although climatic conditions are varied across the country, the climate is generally temperate. The coldest month is January; the hottest, August. In winter, snow occasionally falls in the hills, where January temperatures normally fluctuate between 4–10°c (40–50°f), and August temperatures between 18–29°c (65–85°f). On the coastal plain, sea breezes temper the weather all year round, temperature variations ranging from 8–18°c (47–65°f) in January and 21–29°c (70–85°f) in August. In the south, at Elat, January temperatures range between 10–21°c (50–70°f) and may reach 49°c (120°f) in August. The rainy season lasts from October until April, with rainfall averaging 118 cm (44 in) annually in the Upper Galilee and only 2 cm (0.8 in) at Elat, although dewfall gives the south another several inches of water every year.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The Bible (Deuteronomy 8:8) describes the country as "a land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey." The original forests, evergreen and maquis, have largely been destroyed, but some 200 million new trees have been planted during this century, in a major reforestation program. Vegetation cover is thin except in the coastal plain, where conditions are favorable to the cultivation of citrus fruit, and in the Jordan Valley with its plantations of tropical fruit. Among surviving animals, jackals and hyenas remain fairly numerous. There are wild boars in the Lake Hula region. With the growth of vegetation and water supplies, bird life and deer have increased.

As of 2002, there were at least 116 species of mammals, 162 species of birds, and over 2,300 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Water pollution and adequate water supply are major environmental issues in Israel. Industrial and agricultural chemicals threaten the nation's already depleted water supply. Israel has only 1 cu km of renewable water resources with 54% used for farming activity and 7% used for industrial purposes. Air pollution from industrial sources, oil facilities, and vehicles is another significant environmental problem. In 1996, Israel's industrial carbon dioxide emissions totaled 52.3 million metric tons; in 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was 63.1 million metric tons.

Reforestation efforts, especially since 1948, have helped to conserve the country's water resources and prevent soil erosion. Israel has reclaimed much of the Negev for agricultural purposes by means of large irrigation projects, thereby stopping the desertification process that had been depleting the land for nearly 2,000 years. Principal environmental responsibility is vested in the Environmental Protection Service of the Ministry of the Interior.

In 2000, about 6.1% of the total land area was forested. In 2003, about 15.8% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 18 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 12 species of fish, 5 types of mollusks, and 5 species of other invertebrates. Endangered species included the northern bald ibis, South Arabian leopard, Saudi Arabian dorcas gazelle, and three species of sea turtles. The Mediterranean monk seal, cheetah, Barbary sheep, and Persian fallow deer became extinct in the 1980s. The Israel painted frog and Syrian wild ass have also become extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Israel in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 7,105,000, which placed it at number 97 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 10% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 28% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as too low. The projected population for the year 2025 was 9,262,000. The population density was 337 per sq km (874 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 92% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005 and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.73%. The capital city, Jerusalem (Yerushalayim, Al-Quds), had a population of 686,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated populations are Tel Aviv-Yafo, 3,025,000; Haifa, 948,800; Rishon LeZiyyon, 217,400; Holon, 200,000; Beérshebá, 184,500; Petah Tiqwa, 176,200; Netanya, 163,700; and Yam, 145,300.

MIGRATION

In 1948, 65% of Israel's Jewish population consisted of immigrants; many of these 463,000 immigrant Jews had fled from persecution in Russia and, especially during the Nazi period, Central and Eastern Europe. Israel's declaration of independence publicly opened the state "to the immigration of Jews from all countries of their dispersion," and the 1950 Law of Return granted every returning Jew the right to automatic citizenship. The Nationality Law specifies other ways—including birth, residence, and naturalization—that Israeli citizenship may be acquired. In the years 1948–92, Israel took in 2,242,500 Jewish immigrants; during 1948–51, the flow was at its heaviest, averaging 171,685 per year, about evenly divided between Eastern European Jews, who were war refugees, and Jews from ancient centers of the Arab world. In the years 1952–56, most immigrants came from French North Africa; in 1957–58 there was a renewed inflow from Eastern Europe. After a lull in 1959–60, the flow of immigrants was renewed, reaching substantial proportions by 1963, when 64,364 Jews arrived. Immigration fell to an annual average of 20,561 persons for 1965–68, rose to an average of 43,258 per year for 1969–74, then declined to an average of 24,965 for 1975–79. The number declined further to an average of 15,383 for 1980–89. As of March 1995, around 525,000 immigrants had arrived in Israel since 1990. Most of these immigrants came from the former Soviet Union; this was the largest wave of immigration since the independence of Israel. In 1991, 14,000 Ethiopian Jews immigrated due to the Operation Solomon airlift. The proportion of Jewish immigrants from Europe and North America (as opposed to those from Asia and Africa) varied during the 1960s, but it rose from 40.4% in 1968 to 97.3% in 1990. (For this purpose the Asiatic republics of the Soviet Union were counted as part of Europe). In 1984–85, some 10,000 Ethiopian Jews, victims of famine, were airlifted to Israel via Sudan. In 1992, the Jewish immigrant population was 39.4% of all Israeli Jews and 31.8% of all Israelis.

A certain amount of emigration has always taken place, but the pace increased after 1975. In a typical year after 1980, about 10,000 Israelis were added to the number who had been away continuously for more than four years. From 1967 to 1992, Israel established 142 settlements in the occupied territories; about 130,000 Jews were living there by 1995. The number of migrants living in Israel in 2000 was 2,256,000.

Considerable Arab migration has also taken place, including an apparent wave of Arab immigration into Palestine between World War I and World War II. During the 1948 war there was a massive flight of an estimated 800,000 Palestinians. As of 1997 there were 3.2 million Palestinian refugees living in the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon under the mandate of the Gaza-based United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).

Immigration to Israel dropped from 43,000 in 2001 to 33,000 in 2002 and 23,226 in 2003. According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics the number of immigrants arriving in Israel continues to drop, by 5% in 2005 compared to the first six months of 2004. In addition, according to Migration News, in 2005 the number of immigrants from the former Soviet Union fell by 18%, to 3,649 compared to 4,400 in 2004. In 2002 there were about 300,000 foreign migrants in Israel with an estimated 100,000 unauthorized foreigners. After a special unit of Immigration Police was created in 2003 an estimated 100,000 left by July 2004.

In 2004 there were 150,000–300,000 internally displaced persons. In that same year there were 574 asylum seekers from Ethiopia and Nigeria in Israel, and 619 Israelis seeking asylum in Canada. In 2005, the net migration rate for Israel was zero migrants per 1,000 population. This is a significant drop from 18.7 per 1,000 in 1990.

ETHNIC GROUPS

About 80.1% of the total population is Jewish, with European and American-born Jews accounting for 32.1% and Israeli-born Jews for 20.8%. African-born Jews make up 14.6% and Asian-born 12.6%. About 19.9% of the population is non-Jewish, mostly Arab.

The traditional division of the Jews into Ashkenazim (Central and East Europeans) and Sephardim (Iberian Jews and their descendants) is still given formal recognition in the choice of two chief rabbis, one for each community. A more meaningful division, however, would be that between Occidentals and Orientals (now also called Sephardim). Oriental Jews, who are in the majority, generally believe themselves to be educationally, economically, and socially disadvantaged by comparison with the Occidentals.

The minority non-Jewish population is overwhelmingly Arabic-speaking, but Israel's minorities are divided into a number of religious groups and include several small non-Arab national groups, such as Armenians and Circassians. The government of Israel has declared its intention to strive for equality between the Arab and Jewish sectors of the population. Israel's Arab citizens do not share fully in rights granted to, and levies imposed on, Jewish citizens. The rights of citizenship do not extend to Arabs in the administered territories. The living standards of Arabs in Israel compare favorably with those of Arabs in non-oil-producing Arab countries, but they are considerably below those of the Jewish majority, especially the Ashkenazim. As a consequence of repeated wars between Israel and its Arab neighbors and the development of Palestinian Arab nationalism and terrorism, tensions between Jews and Arabs are a fact of Israeli daily life, especially in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

LANGUAGES

The official languages are Hebrew and Arabic, the former being dominant. Hebrew is the language of most of the Old Testament; modern Hebrew is the biblical language as modified by absorption of elements from all historical forms of Hebrew and by development over the years. Arabic is used by Arabs in parliamentary deliberations, in pleadings before the courts, and in dealings with governmental departments, and is the language of instruction in schools for Arab children. English is taught in all secondary schools and, along with Hebrew, is commonly used in foreign business correspondence and in advertising and labeling. Coins, postage stamps, and bank notes bear inscriptions in Hebrew, Arabic, and Latin characters.

RELIGIONS

The land that is now Israel (which the Romans called Judea and then Palestine) is the cradle of two of the world's great religions, Judaism and Christianity. In the Hebrew Scriptures, Jewish history begins with Abraham's journey from Mesopotamia to Canaan, to which the descendants of Abraham would later return after their deliverance by Moses from bondage in Egypt. Jerusalem is the historical site of the First Temple, built by Solomon in the 10th century bc and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 bc, and the Second Temple, built about 70 years later and sacked by the Romans in ad 70. Belief in the life, teachings, crucifixion, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth (who, according to the Christian Scriptures, actually preached in the Second Temple) is the basis of the Christian religion. Spread by the immediate followers of Jesus and others, Christianity developed within three centuries from a messianic Jewish sect to the established religion of the Roman Empire. Jerusalem is also holy to Islam; the Dome of the Rock marks the site where, in Muslim tradition, Muhammad rose into heaven.

Present-day Israel is the only country where Judaism is the majority religion, which is professed by 80% of the population; over one-fourth of all the world's Jews live there. About 300,000 of these citizens, however, do not qualify as a Jew under government and/or Orthodox definitions. Most in the Jewish population describe themselves as secular or traditional Jews. About 4.5% are Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) and about 13% are Orthodox. There are also a number of adherents who claim affiliation with Conservative, Reform, and Reconstructionist branches of Judaism, but these are not officially recognized.

Of the 20% non-Jewish population, 80% are Muslims, 10% are Christians, and 10% are Druze. Most of the Muslims are Arabs. The Druzes, who split away from Islam in the 11th century, have the status of a separate religious community. The Baha'i world faith is centered in Haifa. The Christians are largely Greek Catholic or Greek Orthodox, but there are also Roman Catholics, Armenians, and Protestants.

Freedom of religion is guaranteed. The Ministry of Religious Affairs assists institutions of every affiliation and contributes to the preservation and repair of their holy shrines, which are protected by the government and made accessible to pilgrims. Supreme religious authority in the Jewish community is vested in the chief rabbinate, with Ashkenazim and Sephardim each having a chief rabbi.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2002, Israel's highway system totaled 17,237 km (10,721 mi) all of which were paved, and included 126 km (78 mi) of expressways. With the building in 1957 of a highway extension from Beérshebá to Elat, the Red Sea was linked to the Mediterranean. Trackage of the state-owned railway totaled 640 km (398 mi), all standard gauge, in 2004. Railways, buses, and taxis formerly constituted the principal means of passenger transportation; however, private car ownership nearly tripled during the 1970s. In 2003 there were 1,881,092 motor vehicles, including 1,522,112 private cars and 358,980 commercial vehicles.

As of 2005, Israel had 17 merchant vessels of 1,000 gross registered tonnage (GRT) or more, with a total capacity of 752,873 GRT. Haifa can berth large passenger liners and has a 10,000-ton floating dock, but Ashdod (south of Tel Aviv) has outstripped Haifa in cargo handled since the early 1980s. Elat (Eilat) is also a seaport with full freight services.

Israel had an estimated 51 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 28 had paved runways, and there were also three heliports. Israel Inland Airlines (Arkia) provides domestic service. Israel Airlines (El Al) was founded shortly after Israel became a nation in 1948 and is almost entirely owned by the government. Ben-Gurion International Airport between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem is the center of passenger and cargo operations; Israel is building a new Ben-Gurion International Airport Terminal. Another principal airport is J. Hozman at Eilat. In 2003 about 3.672 million passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Archaeologists have established that the world's earliest known city was Jericho, on the present-day West Bank, built about 7000 bc. The formative period of Israel began in approximately 1800 bc, when the Hebrews entered Canaan, and resumed in approximately 1200 bc, when the Israelite tribes returned to Canaan after a period of residence in Egypt. At various times, the people were led by patriarchs, judges, kings, prophets, and scribes, and the land was conquered by Assyrians, Babylonians (or Chaldeans), Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The ancient period neared its end in ad 70, when the Roman legions conquered Jerusalem after an unsuccessful revolt and destroyed the Temple, and it ended in ad 135, when the Roman Empire exiled most Jews after another unsuccessful revolt, led by Simon Bar-Kokhba, and renamed the region Syria Palaestina, which eventually became Palestine. During the next two millennia there were successive waves of foreign conquerors—Byzantines, Persians, Arabs, Crusaders, Mongols, Turks, and Britons. Most Jews remained in dispersion, where many nourished messianic hopes for an eventual return to Zion; however, Jews in varying numbers continued to live in Palestine through the years. It is estimated that by 1900, only about 78,000 Jews were living in Palestine (less than 1% of the world Jewish population), compared with some 650,000 non-Jews, mostly Arabs.

Modern Zionism, the movement for the reestablishment of a Jewish nation, dates from the late 19th century, with small-scale settlements by Russian and Romanian Jews on lands purchased by funds from Western European and US donors. The movement received impetus from the founding of the World Zionist Organization in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897, under the leadership of Theodor Herzl. Zionist hopes for a Jewish national homeland in Palestine were greatly bolstered when the British government pledged its support for this goal in 1917, in the Balfour Declaration, which was subsequently incorporated into the mandate over Palestine (originally including Transjordan) awarded to the United Kingdom by the League of Nations in 1922. Under the mandate, the Jewish community grew from 85,000 to 650,000, largely through immigration, on lands purchased from Arab owners. Th is growth was attended by rising hostility from the Arab community, which felt its majority status threatened by the Jewish influx. In 1939, shortly before the outbreak of World War II, the British mandatory authorities issued a White Paper that decreed severe restrictions on Jewish immigration and a virtual freezing of land purchase and settlement. Armed Jewish resistance to this policy, as well as growing international backing for the establishment of a Jewish state as a haven for the survivors of the Nazi Holocaust, finally persuaded the British government to relinquish the mandate.

On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted a plan for the partition of Palestine into two economically united but politically sovereign states, one Jewish and the other Arab, with Jerusalem as an international city. The Arabs of Palestine, aided by brethren across the frontiers, at once rose up in arms to thwart partition. The Jews accepted the plan; on 14 May 1948, the last day of the mandate, they proclaimed the formation of the State of Israel. The next day, the Arab League states—Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria—launched a concerted armed attack. There followed a mass flight of hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs abroad. The war left Israel in possession of a much larger territory than that awarded the Jews under the UN partition plan; the planned Arab state failed to materialize, as Jordan annexed the West Bank. Meanwhile, the Palestinian refugees were resettled in camps on both banks of the Jordan River, in the Gaza Strip (then under Egyptian administration), in southern Lebanon, and in Syria.

Armistice agreements concluded in 1949 failed to provide the contemplated transition to peace, and sporadic Arab incursions along the borders were answered by Israeli reprisals. Tensions were exacerbated by Arab economic boycotts and by Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956. On 29 October 1956, Israel (with British and French support) invaded Egypt and soon gained control of the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula. Fighting ended on 4 November; Israel, under US pressure, withdrew from the occupied areas in March 1957 and recognized borders consistent with its military position at the end of the 1948 war. A UN Emergency Force (UNEF) patrolled the armistice line.

Violations by both sides of the armistice lines persisted, and in May 1967, Egypt, fearing an Israeli attack on Syria, moved armaments and troops into the Sinai, ordering withdrawal of UNEF personnel from the armistice line, and closed the Strait of Tiran to Israeli shipping. On 5 June, Israel attacked Egypt and its allies, Syria and Jordan. By 11 June, Israel had scored a decisive victory in the conflict, since termed the Six-Day War, and had taken control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights, and the West Bank (including Jordanian-ruled East Jerusalem). The Security Council on 22 November unanimously adopted UK-sponsored Resolution 242, calling for establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East, withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied during the war, and acknowledgment of the "sovereignty, territorial integrity, and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force." Israel indicated that return of the captured territories would have to be part of a general settlement guaranteeing peace; in 1967, the Israeli government began Jewish settlement in these areas; due in good part to the later encouragement of the Likud governments, by 1997 there were some 160,000 settlers in the occupied territories.

Serious shooting incidents between Egypt and Israel resumed in June 1969, following Egypt's declaration of a war of attrition against Israel. In response to a US peace initiative, a cease-fire took effect in August 1970, but tensions continued, and Palestinian Arab guerrillas mounted an international campaign of terrorism, highlighted in September 1972 by the kidnap and murder of Israeli athletes at the Olympic Games in Munich.

On 6 October 1973, during Yom Kippur, Egypt and Syria simultaneously attacked Israeli-held territory in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights. The Arabs won initial victories, but by 24 October, when a UN cease-fire took effect, the Israelis had crossed the Suez Canal and were 101 km (63 mi) from Cairo and about 27 km (17 mi) from Damascus. Under the impetus of the "shuttle diplomacy" exercised by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, formal first-stage disengagement agreements were signed with Egypt on 18 January 1974 and with Syria on 31 May 1974. On 4 September 1975, a second-stage disengagement pact was signed in Geneva, under which Israel relinquished some territory in the Sinai (including two oil fields) in return for Egyptian declarations of peaceful intent, free passage of nonmilitary cargoes to and from Israel through the Suez Canal, and the stationing of US civilians to monitor an early warning system.

The 30-year cycle of Egyptian-Israeli hostilities was broken in November 1977, when Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat (as-Sadat) paid a visit to Jerusalem on 19–21 November 1977, during which, in an address to parliament, he affi rmed Israel's right to exist as a nation, thereby laying the basis for a negotiated peace. In September 1978, at a summit conference mediated by US president, Jimmy Carter at Camp David, Maryland, Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Sadat agreed on the general framework for a peace treaty which, after further negotiations, they signed in Washington, DC, on 26 March 1979. The treaty provided for the withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai over a three-year period and for further negotiations concerning autonomy and future status of Arab residents of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, territories still under Israeli occupation. Israel withdrew from the Sinai oil fields within a year, and from the remainder of Sinai by 25 April 1982. However, the two countries failed to reach agreement on Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank and Gaza, and Israel continued to establish Jewish settlements in the West Bank despite Egyptian protests. Sadat was assassinated by Muslim fundamentalists on 6 October 1981.

Israel's relations remained tense with other Arab countries, which ostracized Egypt for signing the peace accord. In March 1978, Israel (which had long been supporting Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestine Liberation Organization—PLO—and its Muslim backers) sent troops into southern Lebanon to destroy PLO bases in retaliation for a Palestinian terrorist attack; Israel withdrew under US pressure. In April 1981, Israeli and Syrian forces directly confronted each other in Lebanon; Israeli jet aircraft shot down two Syrian helicopters in Lebanese territory, and Syria responded by deploying Soviet-made antiaircraft missiles in the Bekaa (Biqa') Valley, which Syria had been occupying since 1976. On 7 June 1981, Israeli warplanes struck at and disabled an Iraqi nuclear reactor under construction near Baghdād; the Israeli government claimed that the reactor could be employed to produce nuclear bombs for use against Israel.

Hostilities between Israel and the PLO and Syria reached a climax in early June 1982, when Israel launched a full-scale invasion of southern Lebanon, citing continued PLO shelling of the north and terrorist acts elsewhere. An estimated 90,000 troops rapidly destroyed PLO bases within a 40 km (25 mi) zone north of the Israeli border, captured the coastal towns of Tyre (Sur) and Sidon (Sayda), and then moved on to bomb and encircle Beirut by 14 June, trapping the main force of PLO fighters in the Lebanese capital and causing massive casualties and destruction. Meanwhile, Israeli warplanes destroyed Syria's Soviet-built missile batteries in the Bekaa Valley—the announced objective of the invasion. A negotiated cease-fire was arranged by US envoy Philip Habib on 25 June, and more than 14,000 Palestinian and Syrian fighters were allowed to evacuate Beirut in late August. A multinational peace-keeping force of British, French, Italian, and US military personnel was stationed in the Beirut area.

Within Israel, the Lebanese war was divisive, and there were protest rallies against the Begin government. The protests increased when, after Israeli troops moved into West Beirut in the wake of the assassination of Lebanese President Bashir Gemayel, Christian militiamen were allowed to "mop up" remaining resistance in the Palestinian camps. The ensuing massacres, for which an Israeli government investigating commission determined that some of Israel's civilian and military leaders were indirectly responsible, led to the resignation of Ariel Sharon as defense minister. Subsequent Israeli attempts to extricate its occupying forces from Lebanon by negotiating an agreement for the withdrawal of all foreign forces were rejected by Syria. In September, Israel pulled back its forces from the Shuf Mountains, east of Beirut, to south of the Litani River. In 1985, withdrawal from southern Lebanon took place in stages over six months, punctuated by terrorist acts of Shia Muslim militants against departing Israeli troops, resulting in retaliatory arrests and detention of hundreds of Lebanese. Negotiations over a Trans World Airlines (TWA) jetliner hijacked en route from Athens to Rome by Shia militants in June 1985 led to gradual release by Israel of its Shia prisoners. In 1986, troubles continued despite the occupation of a swath of southern Lebanon, which Israel continued to term a "security zone," as Shia militants and infiltrating Palestinian guerrillas continued to launch attacks. The war was a drain on the economy, already suffering from hyperinflation and huge foreign-exchange deficits. Prime Minister Begin resigned because of failing health in the autumn of 1983 and was replaced by Yitzhak Shamir, who, after inconclusive elections in 1984, was replaced on a rotational basis by Labor Party leader Shimon Peres. In 1986, a ground-breaking summit meeting took place when Prime Minister Peres traveled to Morocco for two days of secret talks with King Hassan II. In that year, Israel also improved relations with Egypt when Prime Minister Peres conferred with Egypt's President Hosni Mubarak in the first meeting of the two nations since 1981. Shamir replaced Peres as prime minister in October 1986. Elections were again held with equally inconclusive results in November 1988, leading to a coalition government of the Labor and Likud parties. Four years later, Labor edged Likud in elections and was able to form a government supported by left wing and religious parties. Yitzhak Rabin became prime minister with Shimon Peres as Foreign Minister; both were committed to reaching peace agreements with Arab antagonists.

In December 1987, unarmed Palestinians in Gaza began what became a multi-year series of stone-throwing riots against Israeli troops in the occupied territories. In this uprising (or intifada in Arabic), well over 1,000 Palestinians were killed and—by Palestinians—several hundred Israelis and Palestinian collaborators. Israeli use of lethal force, curfews, deportations, destruction of houses, and ten thousand detentions failed to stop the demonstrations while producing criticism abroad and anxiety at home. Waves of Jewish immigrants from the collapsing Soviet Union further provoked Palestinians.

During the Gulf War of 1991, Israel was hit by Iraqi missile attacks, demonstrating for some the state's vulnerability and need to move toward peace with the Arabs. Prime Minister Shamir, who opposed the return of occupied territory, reluctantly accepted a United States and Russian invitation to direct peace talks in Madrid in October 1991. These and subsequent negotiations produced few results until, under a Labor government, Israeli and Palestinian representatives met secretly in Oslo to work out a peace agreement involving mutual recognition and transfer of authority in Gaza and Jericho to interim Palestinian rule with the final status of a Palestinian entity to be resolved in five years. The Oslo Accords were signed at the White House in Washington on 13 September 1993. Promises of international aid for the new Palestinian units poured in but the agreement was opposed by extremists on both sides and further set back by a massacre of 30 Muslims at prayer in the Hebron mosque on 25 February 1994 by a militant Israeli settler. Finally, delayed by several months, the withdrawal of Israeli forces from certain sectors and establishment of Palestinian self-rule took place on 18 May 1994. By 1997, six West Bank cities had been turned over to the Palestinian Authority. Israel balked at turning over control of Hebron even though it agreed to do so. A 1997 Hebron Protocol split the city between Palestinian rule in one part of it and Israeli rule in the remaining 20%, to guarantee the security of settlers living in Jewish enclaves. All seven of the major cities controlled by the Palestinian Authority were reoccupied by Israel in 2002.

In November 1995, the greatest setback to the peace process occurred when a militant Israeli assassinated Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in retaliation for slowing Jewish settlement in the occupied territories and for his generally dovish policy toward the PLO. The nation then entered into a tumultuous period as Shimon Peres, Rabin's co-prime minister, took control of the government. Peres was not as popular as Rabin had been and in response to civil protest he called for early elections, which were held in May 1996. For the first time in these elections, Israelis were given the opportunity to directly elect their prime minister, and Peres, Likud, and Benjamin Netanyahu fought a bitter campaign, focusing mainly on the status of the occupied territories and the threat of terrorism from radical Palestinians. The prime minister race was very close and some news reports early on suggested, based on exit polling, that Peres had won. By morning of the next day, however, Netanyahu had emerged as Israel's first directly elected prime minister and Likud emerged with a slight majority (in coalition with a range of right wing parties) in the Knesset. Netanyahu immediately took a tough stance on the occupied territories, increasing the construction of Jewish settlements and enraging the Palestinians and the international community.

As expected, progress in the Middle East peace process slowed under Netanyahu. Hostilities between Palestinians and Israeli soldiers in the fall of 1996, following the opening of a tunnel in the Old City of Jerusalem, were the worst to occur since the days of the intifada. In 1997 and 1998 peace talks stalled over the terms of Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank. A new agreement, the Wye Memorandum, was reached at an October 1998 meeting in the United States between Netanyahu, Yasser Arafat, and President Bill Clinton. It set up a timetable for Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank. However, Netanyahu faced stiff opposition to the plan at home, and by the end of 1998, his governing coalition had collapsed, and implementation of the Wye plan was suspended until a new government could be formed following national elections the following May.

Labor candidate Ehud Barak triumphed in the May 1999 elections and formed a coalition government in July. In September, Barak and Arafat signed an agreement reviving the Wye accord (the Sharm el-Sheikh Memorandum), and in December peace talks between Israel and Syria—broken off in 1996—were resumed. In May 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew from the nine-mile-wide security zone in southern Lebanon.

At the end of 1999 and into early 2000, three-way negotiations took place between Israel, the Palestinians, and the United States as mediator. In July 2000, President Clinton invited Barak and Arafat to Camp David, Maryland, for peace talks. The summit began on 11 July and ended on 25 July without an agreement being reached. President Clinton was determined to achieve a peace agreement before he left office, however, and he hosted talks with Israeli and Palestinian teams in Washington in December 2000. Negotiations between Israeli and Palestinian delegations were also held in Taba, Egypt, in late January 2001. By then President Clinton was out of office and incoming President George W. Bush took a position of nonengagement in the conflict.

On 28 September 2000, Likud leader Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) in Jerusalem in what was seen as a provocative move, setting off large-scale Palestinian demonstrations, beginning the al-Aqsa intifada. By the end of 2000, Barak was presiding over an extremely violent situation. On 9 December 2000 Barak resigned, making a special prime ministerial election necessary, in which he stated he would seek a new mandate to pursue peace with the Palestinians. On 6 February 2001, Sharon was elected prime minister in a landslide victory over Barak. Barak announced he would resign his seat in the Knesset, step down as head of the Labor Party as soon as a new government was formed, and retire from politics.

The intifada intensified, with Israel assassinating Palestinian militants and conducting air strikes and incursions into Palestinian self-rule areas; Palestinian militants increased suicide bomb attacks in Israeli cities. In spring 2002 Israel launched its largest military offensive in 20 years, since the invasion of Lebanon. In December 2001 Israeli forces besieged Yasser Arafat's headquarters in Ramallah, and until being flown to Paris for an undisclosed illness on 29 October 2004, Arafat remained confined in his compound. Arafat died on 11 November 2004.

On 28 January 2003, Ariel Sharon's Likud Party won a strong victory in parliamentary elections, defeating the Labor Party and its chairman Amram Mitzna. The Shinui or "Change" Party, which campaigned on a platform of curtailing privileges and benefits the state offers to highly observant Orthodox Jews, also registered a clear win.

In 2002 Israel began erecting a security barrier around the West Bank, intended to separate Israelis and Palestinians. The barrier, part wall, part fence, is up to 30 ft (9 m) high in some areas. When completed it will stretch some 375 mi (603.5 km) through the West Bank to Jerusalem. In July 2004 the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that the security barrier violates international law and must be torn down. Israel said it would ignore the ruling, but it later made changes in the barrier route according to a ruling of the Israeli Supreme Court.

On 22 March 2004 Hamas founder and spiritual leader Sheikh Ahmed Yassin was assassinated in a targeted Israeli airstrike as he was leaving a Gaza City mosque. In another targeted killing, Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi—who took over the Hamas leadership after Yassin's death—was assassinated on 17 April 2004. These killings provoked widespread outrage among Palestinians. Palestinian attacks on Israeli soldiers in Gaza followed.

In January 2005 Prime Minister Sharon formed a unity government with Likud, Labor, and the United Torah Judaism parties to implement the planned withdrawal of Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip. On 8 February 2005, a summit conference in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, was held; attending were Sharon, Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, and King Abdullah II of Jordan. Abbas and Sharon declared an end to violence. Israel announced it would release some 900 Palestinian prisoners and withdraw from Palestinian cities in the West Bank. Jordan and Egypt agreed to return ambassadors to Israel. The intifada that began in 2000 was declared over. However, after a Palestinian suicide bombing, Israel froze the return of Palestinian cities to Palestinian control.

The evacuation of Israeli settlements from Gaza began on 15 August 2005 and continued until 24 August. Ultra-Orthodox Jews and ultra-nationalists sympathetic to the settlers' cause traveled to the settlements, held protests, and clashed with Israeli armed forces and police trying to remove them. The "disengagement plan" was marked by high emotions. That month, former Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu made a bid to challenge Sharon's leadership, threatening to split the Likud Party. Netanyahu accused Sharon of betraying the core values of Likud in withdrawing from occupied territory and of moving to the left. On 21 November, Sharon resigned as head of Likud and dissolved parliament. He formed a new center-right party, Kadima ("Forward"), to participate in elections on 28 March 2006. On 20 December 2005, Netanyahu was named Sharon's successor as head of Likud.

On 4 January 2006, Sharon suffered a massive stroke and cerebral hemorrhaging. He underwent brain surgery. He was declared "temporarily incapable of discharging his powers," and Ehud Olmert, the deputy prime minister, was named acting prime minister of Israel.

Palestinian legislative elections were held on 25 January 2006. The radical Islamic party Hamas won an overwhelming victory, taking 76 out of 132 seats in parliament, deposing the former governing Fatah party, which won only 43 seats. This ended more than 40 years of domination by Fatah, which along with the Palestinian Authority was looked upon by Palestinians as corrupt and ineffective. Hamas is regarded as a terrorist organization by Israel, the United States, and the European Union (EU). Israel declared it would not negotiate with a Palestinian administration led by Hamas, and refused to continue transferring about $50 million in monthly tax and customs receipts to the Palestinian Authority, collected on behalf of the Palestinians. The "Quartet"—composed of the United States, Russia, the EU, and the UN—was looking for a way to continue financial support for the Palestinian Authority without providing direct assistance to a Hamas-led government. Palestinians receive approximately $1 billion of their $1.9 billion annual budget from overseas donors. Hamas indicated it would turn to the Arab world to supplant the monthly tax and customs revenue being withheld by Israel. A Hamas leader, Ismail Haniya, was named the new Palestinian prime minister in February 2006.

GOVERNMENT

Israel is a democratic republic, with no written constitution. Legislative power is vested in the unicameral Knesset (parliament), whose 120 members are elected for four-year terms by universal secret vote of all citizens 18 years of age and over, under a system of proportional representation. New elections may be called ahead of schedule, and must be held when the government loses the confidence of a majority of parliament.

The head of state is the president, elected by the Knesset for a seven-year term. The president performs largely ceremonial duties and traditionally chooses the prime minister from the ruling political party. In 1996, however, a new law went into effect whereby the prime minister would be directly elected by the people. In May of that year, Benjamin Netanyahu became Israel's first directly elected prime minister. Three years later he was succeeded in that post by Ehud Barak. In March 2001, the Knesset voted to change the system of direct elections and restore the one-vote parliamentary system of government that operated until 1996. The law went into effect with the January 2003 elections, won by Likud. The cabinet, headed by the prime minister, is collectively responsible to the Knesset, whose confidence it must enjoy.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Israel's multiparty system reflects the diverse origins of the people and their long practice of party politics in Zionist organizations. The first five Knessets were controlled by coalitions led by the Mapai (Israel Workers Party), under Israel's first prime minister (1949–63), David Ben-Gurion, and then under Levi Eshkol (1963–69). The Mapai formed the nucleus of the present Israel Labor Party, a socialist party, which in coalition with other groups controlled Israel's governments under prime ministers Golda Meir (1969–74) and Yitzhak Rabin (1974–77 and 1992–95).

In September 1973, four right wing nationalist parties combined to form the Likud, which thus became the major opposition bloc in the Knesset. Unlike the Israel Labor Party, the core of support of which lies with the Ashkenazim and older Israelis generally, the Likud has drawn much of its strength from Oriental Jewry, as well as from among the young and the less well-educated. Besides the State List and the Free Center, the Likud consists of the Herut (Freedom) Movement, founded in 1948 to support territorial integrity within Israel's biblical boundaries and a greater economic role for private enterprise, and the Liberal Party, formed in 1961 to support private enterprise, a liberal welfare state, and electoral reform. The Likud originally advocated retention of all territories captured in the 1967 war, as a safeguard to national security. It won 39 seats in the 1973 elections and then became the largest party in the Knesset by winning 43 seats in the May 1977 elections, to 32 seats for the Israel Labor Party–United Workers (Mapam) alignment. Likud leader Menachem Begin became prime minister of a coalition government formed by Likud with the National Religious Party and the ultraorthodox Agudat Israel.

In elections on 30 June 1981, Likud again won a plurality, by taking 37.1% of the popular vote and 48 seats in the Knesset, compared with the Labor coalition's 36.6% and 47 seats. Begin succeeded in forming a new government with the support of smaller parties. The elections of July 1984 again left both Labor (with 44 seats) and Likud (with 41) short of a Knesset majority; under a power-sharing agreement, each party held an equal number of cabinet positions in a unity government, and each party leader served as premier for 25 months. Labor's Shimon Peres became prime minister in 1984, handing over the office to Likud's Yitzhak Shamir in late 1986. Elections in 1988 produced a similar power-sharing arrangement. In 1989, rotation was ended as Likud and Labor joined in a coalition. After a vote of no confidence, Likud formed a coalition of religious and right wing parties which held power for two years until 1992. Elections in June gave Labor 44 seats (32 for Likud) and enabled it to form a coalition with Meretz (a grouping of three left wing parties) and Shas (a religious party) and the support of two Arab parties.

In 1995, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by an extremist Jew. Shimon Peres became prime minister and called for early elections, which were held in May 1996. The main issue of the election was Israel's response to terrorist attacks and the disposition of the occupied territories. Labor favored continued and increased negotiations with the PLO and the Palestinian Authority (PA), while Likud favored a tougher stance, increased settlement on occupied lands, and a rethinking of the Oslo accords—at the very least a slowing of the process of land-turnover. The elections were extremely close with the Likud-Geshe-Tsamet coalition winning a slim majority, or 62 seats. In a separate election, Benjamin Netanyahu was directly elected prime minister, the first such election in Israeli history after the passage of a 1996 law.

After Netanyahu's governing coalition collapsed at the end of 1998, new elections were called for May of 1999. In the election for a new prime minister, Ehud Barak, heading a Labor-led center-left coalition (One Israel), defeated Netanyahu 56% to 44%. In the legislative elections, Barak's One Israel/Israeli Labor Party coalition won a plurality of 26 seats, followed by 19 for the Likud. After Barak resigned in December 2000, Ariel Sharon won a special prime ministerial election in February 2001 with the largest vote margin ever in Israeli politics. He took 62.4% of the vote to Barak's 37.6%.

In March 2001, the Knesset voted to replace the system of direct election for the prime minister established in 1996 back to the parliamentary system. In parliamentary elections held in January 2003, Likud won 29.4% of the vote to Labor's 14.5%. The Shinui, or "Change" Party, came in third with 12.3% of the vote. Overall, the distribution of seats in the Knesset after the election was as follows: right wing parties held 45 seats (Likud 38, National Unity 7); center-left parties held 34 (Labor-Meimad 19, Shinui 15); left wing parties held 17 (Meretz 6, Hadash 3, Am Ehad 3, Balad 3, United Arab List 2); religious parties accounted for 22 seats (Shas 11, National Religious Party 6, United Torah Judaism 5); and the immigrant party Israel Ba-Aliya held 2.

Due to friction within his ruling coalition over the planned evacuation of Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip, Ariel Sharon in January 2005 formed a new unity government with Likud (40 seats in the Knesset), Labor (19 seats), and the United Torah Judaism (5 seats) parties. In November 2005, in response to friction within Likud, Sharon dissolved parliament and formed a new party, Kadima ("Forward"). Netanyahu took over the helm as leader of Likud. After Sharon suffered a massive hemorrhagic stroke in January 2006, Ehud Olmert took over as leader of Kadima.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Israel is divided into six administrative districts: Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Hefa, Northern (Tiberias), Central (Ramla), and Southern (Be'ér Sheva'). The occupied Golan Heights is a subdistrict of the Northern District. Each district is governed by a commissioner appointed by the central government. At the local level, government is by elected regional and local councils, which govern according to bylaws approved by the Ministry of the Interior. Local officials are elected for four-year terms. Until 1994, Israel governed all of the occupied territories through the Civil Administration, which is responsible to the Ministry of Defense. Palestinian towns have Israeli-appointed mayors. Israeli settlers were removed from the Gaza Strip in 2005; settlers in the West Bank are subject to Israeli law. In 1994 a Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was established; control over Gaza and some Palestinian towns on the West Bank were turned over to the PNA. The West Bank towns were reoccupied in 2002, but Jericho was handed back over to the Palestinians in March 2005.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The law of Israel contains some features of Ottoman law, English common law, and other foreign law, but it is shaped largely by the provisions of the Knesset. Judges are appointed by the president on recommendation of independent committees. There are 29 magistrates' courts, which deal with most cases in the first instance, petty property claims, and lesser criminal charges. Five district courts, serving mainly as courts of appeal, have jurisdiction over all other actions except marriage and divorce cases, which are adjudicated, along with other personal and religious matters, in the religious courts of the Jewish (rabbinical), Muslim (Shariah), Druze, and Christian communities. Aside from its function as the court of last appeal, the Supreme Court also hears cases in the first instance brought by citizens against arbitrary government actions. The number of Supreme Court justices is determined by a resolution of the Knesset. Usually, twelve justices serve on the Supreme Court. There is no jury system. Capital punishment applies only for crimes of wartime treason or for collaboration with the Nazis, and has been employed only once in Israel's modern history, in the case of Adolf Eichmann, who was executed in 1962. In the occupied territories, security cases are tried in military courts; verdicts may not be appealed, and the rules of habeas corpus do not apply. There are also labor relations and administrative courts.

There is no constitution, but a series of "basic laws" provide for fundamental rights. The judiciary is independent. The trials are fair and public. Legislation enacted in 1997 limits detention without charge to 24 hours. Defendants have the right to be presumed innocent and to writs of habeas corpus and other procedural safeguards.

ARMED FORCES

The defense forces of Israel began with the voluntary defense forces (principally the Haganah) created by the Jewish community in Palestine during the British mandate. Today Jewish and Druze men between the ages of 18 and 26 are conscripted for 36 and 24 months, respectively. Drafted Jewish women are trained for noncombat duties. Christians and Muslims may serve on a voluntary basis, but Muslims are rarely allowed to bear arms. All men and unmarried women serve in the reserves until the ages of 54 and 24, respectively. Men receive annual combat training until age 45.

In 2005, the Israeli Army had 125,000 active duty soldiers and could mobilize as many as 500,000 more. Armament included 3,657 main battle tanks, 408 reconnaissance vehicles, over 10,419 armored personnel carriers, and 5,432 artillery pieces. The Navy had an estimated 5,500 active personnel that upon mobilization could reach 11,500. Major naval units included 3 tactical submarines, 3 corvettes, and 51 patrol/coastal vessels. The Air Force had 35,000 regulars and 24,500 reservists. There were 402 combat capable aircraft, including 199 fighters and more than 177 fighter ground attack aircraft, along with more than 95 attack helicopters. It is believed that Israel maintained a nuclear arsenal of up to 200 nuclear warheads. The reserve forces can be effectively mobilized in 48–72 hours. In addition, there are an estimated 8,000 paramilitary border police and an estimated 50 Coast Guard personnel. In 2005, the Israeli defense budget totaled $7.87 billion. Foreign Military Assistance from the United States totaled $2.2 billion that same year.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Israel was admitted as the 59th United Nations member on 11 May 1949 and subsequently joined several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNCHR, IAEA, IFC, the World Bank, and WHO. It is also a member of the WTO. Israel holds observer status with the Council of Europe, the OAS, and the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Zone. The country is a partner in the OSCE.

During the 1970s and early 1980s, Arab governments sought through the "oil weapon" to isolate Israel diplomatically and economically, but Israel's 1979 peace treaty with Egypt helped ease some of the pressure. The United States is Israel's major political, economic, and military ally. A number of African countries reestablished diplomatic relations with Israel in the 1980s; these ties had been broken in 1973, following the Arab-Israeli war. After signing peace accords with the Palestinians in 1993 and 1994, Israel opened liaison and trade missions in certain Arab countries, including Qatar and Oman. Israel also signed a peace agreement with Jordan in 1994, and the two nations exchanged ambassadors in 1995.

Violence between Israel and the Palestinians resulting from the intifada that began in September 2000 increased tensions with the Arab world. In November 2002, 18 of the 22 members of the Arab League agreed to reactivate a half-century-old ban on trade with Israel. In August 2005, Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon called for the evacuation of Israelis from the West Bank and Gaza Strip settlements, a move that was meant to improve security inside of the main Israel borders. Though the withdrawal was praised by many international groups and several other nations, many Israelis were opposed to the plan. The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was established in 1949 to provide assistance to the Palestinian Refugees of the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflicts. This mission, which was meant to be temporary, has been continually renewed, with the latest mandate extended to 30 June 2008. Ten nations serve on the advisory commission for UNRWA.

In environmental cooperation, Israel is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Since independence, Israel's economy has been faced with serious problems. The government makes large outlays for social welfare purposes, but is obliged to divert a considerable portion of its income to defense. In addition, traditional Middle Eastern sources of supply (e.g., of oil and wheat) and nearby markets for goods and services have been closed off. Israel must export on a large scale to maintain its relatively high standard of living; hence, it remains dependent on a continuing flow of investment capital and of private and public assistance from abroad.

The economy is a mixture of private, state, and cooperative ownership and holdings of the labor movement. In the first 35 years of Israel's existence, the number of industrial enterprises more than doubled; over 700 agricultural settlements were established; and there were notable advances in housing, transportation, and exploitation of natural resources. From 1975 to 1980, GNP grew at an annual rate of 3.1% (at constant prices). Between 1980 and 1985, real GNP growth was 10%. In the period 1990–96, real GDP growth averaged 2.6%. It was below this average in the period after 1989 when the country had to absorb more than half a million new immigrants. Most of these immigrants were relatively well educated, however, adding to Israel's already considerable base of technologically aware workforce and population. Real growth in per capita income was 2% in 1990 and 1991, and increased to 3% in 1992, but then fell back to 0.9% in 1993.

The Oslo Peace Accords were signed on 13 September 1993 between Israel and the PLO, ending the first intifada (uprising) that had begun in 1987. The Peace Treaty with Jordan followed quickly, signed on 26 October 1994. The Oslo Accords granted the Palestinian Authority (PA) limited sovereignty over areas in the West Bank and Gaza within the context of a timetable of confidence-building expansions. From the inception of the Oslo process, the Israeli economy has wavered between hopeful spurts of growth and cooperation, as openings and investor confidence increase, and recession, as extremists on both sides have sought to shut the process down. The accords brought to a formal end the Arab Boycott of Israel (BOI), in place since 1951, with the shutdown of the Central Boycott Office (CBO) in Damascus. From 1992–95, Israeli exports to Asia grew by 86% and by 1999 accounted for 20% of Israel's total exports. In October 2000, however, following the eruption of the second intifada in September, the Arab League passed a resolution calling for the reinstatement of the BOI. Th is time, however, agreement was not unanimous among the 22 members, and international pressure was strong against it. In May 2002 in a meeting in Damascus, 19 Arab states drew up a list of firms to be blacklisted, but did not publish it. Tourism also benefited from the Peace Accords. Tourism grew to be Israel's second- or third-largest industry, reaching $4.3 billion in 2000. In October 2000, however, the month following the eruption of the renewed intifada, the number of tourists declined 43%. An estimated 50,000 workers in the tourist industry were laid off, helping push unemployment from 8.8% in 2000 to 9.3% in 2001 and an estimated 10.5% in 2002. In 2002, the Israeli Ministry of Tourism estimated that revenues from tourism had fallen by over half, to $2.1 billion. Foreign investment, once very hard to obtain, also grew substantially in years following the signing of the Oslo Accords.

The Oslo Accords were both a political agreement and an economic program that explicitly acknowledged that peace could not be attained or sustained without the establishment of mutually beneficial economic relationships. Two annexes to the Oslo Accords laid out protocols for joint economic cooperation and regional development, listing specific projects to be pursued, including a Gaza seaport, a Gaza airport, a Mediterranean-Dead Sea Canal (MDSC) project, (that would also provide water desalinization and farm irrigation), and a Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal (RSDSC) project (similarly aimed at providing desalinization and crop irrigation), as well general provisions for the establishment of border and local industrial estates to encourage economic cooperation and investment. International donors pledged more than $2.4 billion over the years 1994–99, much of which was to be used on the infrastructural projects identified in Oslo protocols. While the canal projects, which had been under consideration for many years, remained tied up in political and economic controversies, construction proceeded on the sea port and airport for Gaza, and the Kami Industrial Estate on the Gaza-Israeli border, funded primarily by aid from the United States and the European Union (EU). In the years immediately following the Peace Accords, 1994 to 1996, real per capita GDP growth in Israel was propelled to a relatively high sustained average of 4.1% despite the continued heavy influx of immigrants from ex-Soviet countries. In 1995, the political process moved a step forward with an interim agreement, Oslo II, providing for elections under the PA. However, in November of that year, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, who had received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994 for his work on the Oslo Accords, was assassinated by an Orthodox Jew.

The process became increasingly hobbled by rising violence and distrust on both sides, and required the constant vigilance of both its external supporters, primarily the United States and the EU, as well as its domestic supporters, to keep it from being derailed. In May 1996, Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu defeated Israel's other Nobel Prize recipient for the Oslo Accords, Shimon Peres, by less than 1% under revised election laws that provided for the direct election of the prime minister. For the next three years, real GDP growth moderated to an annual average of 2.87% in part because of the conservative government's greater wariness about moves to greater economic openness and cooperation. Also important, however, was the government's determined adherence to tight monetary and fiscal policies aimed at subduing Israel's chronically high inflation rate and tax burden. In the early 1980s, after the second oil shock, Israeli inflation had soared to triple digits, reaching a peak of 373.8% in 1985, the year before world oil prices collapsed. In 1986, inflation fell abruptly to 48%, and then, from 1987 to 1996, yearly inflation ranged from 10–20%. In 1997, Israel experienced its first single-digit level of inflation (9%) since 1970. Inflation rates continued to fall in 1998 and 1999, to 5.4% and 5.2%, respectively. Strict monetary policies were not reversed by the return of a Labor-led government in 1999, as inflation fell to a record low of 1.1% in 2000 despite a spurt of real GDP growth of 6.4%. In the recession that accompanied the emergence of the 2000 intifada, inflation remained low to moderate, at 1.1% for 2001 and an estimated 3.5% for 2002. The moderate real GDP growth 1997 to 1999 was not suffi cient to prevent per capita income from declining during this period because of continued immigration from Russia and other Eastern European countries. Although down from earlier peaks, Israel reported 64,164 immigrants in 1998 and 77,000 in 1999. Per capita GDP, at $17,720 in 1997, declined 2.5% to $17,068 in 1998, and a further 1.8% to $16,756 in 1999.

In 2000, increased investments, foreign and domestic, as well as decreased immigration, helped produce a 6.9% increase in per capita income, which reached a record $17,913. In the political unrest that ensued, however, per capita income fell back, first moderately, to $17,158 in 2001 and then sharply, to $15,895 in 2002. Israel's privatization program, begun in 1986, was given a strong impetus after the election of the Likud-led government in 1996, highlighted by the 1997 divestment of Bank Hapoalim, the country's largest bank. Privatization continued in 1998 and 1999 and the election of a Labor-led coalition in 1999 did not result in a reversal of the privatization initiatives.

Between 1986 and 2000 the total extent of privatization amounted to $7.7 billion, with 60% raised from 1998 to 2000. A total of 77 companies ceased to be state-owned during this period. In 1999, elections by a margin of over 12% replaced Netanyahu with Ehud Barak of the Labour Party, who reopened peace negotiations on virtually all fronts, seeking a final status agreement. Barak and Arafat signed the Sharm El-Sheikh Agreement on 5 September 1999 finalizing border adjustments in the peace accord with Jordan and setting the Oslo Accords' seventh anniversary, 13 September 2000, as the target for reaching a final status agreement.

For the first nine months of 2000, both Israel and the areas under PA control experienced strong growth spurts. Per capita income growth in Israel was in double digits and there was aggressive investment in new businesses, stimulated by Israel's unilateral withdrawal from southern Lebanon in May 2000. Exports surged ahead 23% on top of increases of 11.6% in 1999 and 6.6% in 1998. In the same nine months, in the areas under PA control, GDP grew 7% and unemployment dropped to an estimated 10%, down from highs of 30% in the West Bank and almost 40% in Gaza in 1996. In July 2000, however, Palestinian negotiators broke off US-sponsored negotiations at Camp David over the status of Jerusalem, scuttling progress toward final agreement. On 28 September 2000, opposition leader Ariel Sharon, and some other Knesset members, paid a visit to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif (the Noble Sanctuary, Arab name for the 35-acre complex that includes the remains of the Jewish temple), to symbolically assert their position that these holy places should remain under Israeli sovereignty. The day after Sharon's visit, on 29 September 2000, the second intifada erupted bringing with it an abrupt reversal of the economic progress that had marked the first part of the year. Urgently renewed US-sponsored status negotiations failed to produce an agreement and were in any case allowed to lapse by the incoming George W. Bush administration.

On 6 February 2001 Ariel Sharon was elected prime minister, and on 4 March, three days before he assumed office, the violence of the intifada was ratcheted up to a new level. The proliferation of suicide bomb attacks and Israel's retaliatory incursions into the Palestinian areas brought economic decline on both sides, particularly after the conflict was effectively globalized in the 11 September 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and on the Pentagon in Washington, DC. Official statistics estimate that Israel's economy declined 0.6% in 2001 as foreign investment fell by 7% and exports fell 16.7% from $45 billion in 2000 to $37.65 billion in 2001.

In 2002, the economy continued to stagnate at an estimated real GDP growth rate of 0.7%, and a decline in per capita income of over 11% from the peak reached in 2000. However, if the Israeli economy stagnated under the impact of the renewed intifada and the closely related global slowdown following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, the economy under PA control all but collapsed. A World Bank report on Palestine in 2002 estimated that unemployment had risen from 10% in 2000 to 26% by December 2001, and that the average income had fallen 40%, from $1,716 to $1,030, well below the $1,400 that had been reached five years before in 1996. Tourism, which is Israel's second- or third-leading industry, is the leading industry in PA areas, and it doubly suffered from the loss of security and the destruction of infrastructure in Israeli retaliatory incursions. Virtually all of the projects built under the protocols of the Oslo Accords, including the Gaza seaport, Gaza airport, and Kami Industrial Estate, were significantly damaged or destroyed in the fighting.

In 2005, rising consumer confidence, tourism, and foreign investment in Israel, as well as a high demand for Israeli exports, contributed to GDP growth of 4.3%. Slower global economic growth was expected to be offset by strong domestic performance in 2006, and real GDP expansion therefore was forecast to ease only modestly in 2006–07. Due to improved fiscal management, over the long term the budget deficit was projected to decrease. Per capita GDP in 2005 was $22,200 in purchasing power parity terms (PPP). Agriculture accounted for 2.8% of GDP in 2003, with industry contributing 37.7% and services 59.5%. The unemployment rate in 2005 was 8.9%, and the inflation rate was 1.3%. Unemployment in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank stood at half the labor force, and more than 80% of the population lives below the poverty line. Per capita GDP in Gaza in 2003 was $600 and $1,100 in the West Bank (PPP). International aid in the amount of $2 billion to the West Bank and Gaza in 2004 prevented the complete collapse of the economy and allowed some reforms in the government's financial operations.

An agreement reached between Israel and the PA in Sharm al-Sheikh, Egypt, in February 2005 significantly reduced violence between the two sides. The election in January 2005 of Mahmoud Abbas as leader of the PA following the November 2004 death of Yasser Arafat, and the Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip in August and September 2005 presented an opportunity for renewed peace. However, in January 2006 Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon suffered a massive stroke and went into a coma, seriously shaking up the Israeli political establishment. Palestinian elections were held on 25 January 2006, with Hamas routing Abbas's Fatah faction, taking 76 of 132 seats in parliament to Fatah's 43. In response, Israel was predicted to take unilateral actions, speed up the construction of a separation barrier along the West Bank, and establish its future on its own, as talks with Hamas were out of the question.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Israel's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $139.2 billion. The per capita GDP was estimated at $22,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 4.3%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 1.3%. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange. It was estimated that in 2003 agriculture accounted for 3% of GDP, industry 37%, and services 60%. Foreign aid receipts amount to about $27 per capita.

The World Bank reports that in 2000 per capita household consumption (in constant 1995 US dollars) was $10,684. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the same period private consumption grew at an annual rate of 4%. Approximately 23% of household consumption was spent on food, 11% on fuel, 2% on health care, and 6% on education. The richest 10% of the population accounted for approximately 28.3% of household consumption and the poorest 10% approximately 2.4%.

The West Bank and Gaza Strip have experienced a general decline in economic growth and degradation of economic conditions since the beginning of the second intifada in 2000. In the West Bank, GDP (PPP) was estimated at $1.8 billion in 2003, and per capita GDP (PPP) amounted to $1,100. The GDP growth rate in 2004 in the West Bank was 6.2%. In 2003, GDP (PPP) in the Gaza Strip was estimated at $768 million and per capita GDP (PPP) amounted to $600. The GDP growth rate in 2003 in Gaza was 4.5%.

In 2002, in the West Bank and Gaza, agriculture accounted for 9% of GDP, industry for 28%, and services for 63%. The average inflation rate for the West Bank and Gaza in 2001 was 2.2%. Unemployment continues at half the labor force. In 2004, the West Bank and Gaza were the recipients of $2 billion in foreign aid, which prevented the collapse of the economy. With the election of a Hamas government in 2006, Israel froze its monthly transfer of some $50 million in tax and customs revenue to the Palestinian Authority. The United States and the European Union, which, along with Israel, consider Hamas to be a terrorist organization, indicated they would cut off foreign aid to Hamas, but continue to provide assistance to the Palestinian civilian population via nongovernmental organizations.

LABOR

In 2005 Israel's estimated workforce was 2.42 million people. As of 2003, agriculture accounted for 1.8% of the nation's labor force, with industry accounting for 22.6%, the services sector 74.8%, and undefined occupations 0.7%. The unemployment rate in 2005 was an estimated 8.9%.

The majority of Israeli workers, including those in agriculture, are union members belonging to the General Federation of Labor (Histadrut, founded by Jewish farm workers in 1920), which has a membership of 650,000. Histadrut's collective bargaining agreements are also available to nonmembers. The right to strike is exercised; 15 days notice must be provided to the employer. Palestinians in the occupied territories are permitted to organize their own unions and have the right to strike.

Children under 15 are not permitted to work except for school holidays. Employment for those between the ages of 16 to 18 is restricted, and these laws are regularly enforced. The law provides for a maximum eight-hour day and 47-hour week, and establishes a compulsory weekly rest period of 36 hours. By collective agreement the private sector has a maximum workweek of 45 hours, and the public sector went to a 42-hour week. The minimum wage is adjusted periodically for cost of living increases. As of 2002, the minimum wage was about $760 per month and was supplemented by allowances to provide a family with a decent standard of living.

AGRICULTURE

Between 1948 and 2003, the cultivated area was expanded from 165,000 to 428,000 hectares (from 408,000 to 1,057,000 acres). Principal crops and 2004 production totals (in tons) were wheat, 165,000; cotton, 20,000; peanuts, 24,600; sunflowers, 12,700; and potatoes, 571,000.

Owing to the uniquely favorable soil and climatic conditions, Israel's citrus fruit has qualities of flavor and appearance commanding high prices on the world market. Total citrus production in 2004 was 540,000 tons, with grapefruit accounting for 44%. Exports of citrus in 2004 generated $29.5 million. Other fruits, and their 2004 production amounts (in thousands of tons) included: apples, 125; bananas, 95; avocados, 65; table grapes, 95; peaches, 61; olives, 50; plums, 22; pears, 27; and mangoes, 30.

The main forms of agricultural settlement are the kibbutz, moshav, moshav shitufi, and moshava (pl. moshavot ). In the kibbutz all property is owned jointly by the settlement on land leased from the Jewish National Fund, and work assignments, services, and social activities are determined by elected officers. Although predominantly agricultural, many kibbutzim have taken on a variety of industries, including food processing and the production of building materials. Devoted entirely to agriculture, the moshavim (workers' smallholder cooperatives) market produce and own heavy equipment, but their land is divided into separate units and worked by the members individually. This form of settlement has had special appeal to new immigrants. The moshavim shitufiyim are 47 collective villages that are similar in economic organization to the kibbutzim but whose living arrangements are more like those of the moshav. The moshavot are rural colonies, based on private enterprise. They were the principal form of 19th century settlement, and many have grown into urban communities.

New immigrants settling on the land are given wide-ranging assistance. The Jewish Agency, the executive arm of the World Zionist Organization, absorbs many of the initial costs; agricultural credits are extended on a preferential basis, and equipment, seeds, livestock, and work animals are supplied at low cost.

Israeli agriculture emphasizes maximum utilization of irrigation and the use of modern techniques to increase yields. A national irrigation system distributed water to 194,000 hectares (479,000 acres) in 2003, down from 219,000 hectares (541,100 acres) in 1986 but still far exceeding the 30,000 hectares (74,000 acres) served in 1948. Water is transported via pipeline from the Sea of Galilee to the northern Negev. More than 90% of Israel's subterranean water supply is being exploited. Agriculture accounts for over 60% of Israel's water consumption.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

There is little natural pasturage in most areas and livestock is fed mainly on imported feeds and farm-grown forage. Domestic beef production only satisfies between 33% and 40% of demand. Livestock farmers are aided by subsidies. There are 2,500 sheep and goat farms raising 455,000 head, 42% by the Bedu population, 36% by the Jewish sector, and 22% by the Arab and Druze populations. In 2005 there were 30,000,000 chickens, 5,000,000 turkeys, 400,000 head of cattle, 195,000 pigs, 11,000 equines, and 5,300 camels. About 90,700 tons of eggs, 325,000 tons of poultry meat, and 82,000 tons of beef were produced in 2005. That year, milk and honey production were 1,240,000 and 3,200 tons, respectively.

FISHING

Jewish settlers introduced the breeding of fish (mostly carp) into Palestine. The total marine catch was 6,350 tons in 2003. In addition to carp, important freshwater fish include catfish, barbel, and trout. The marine catch consists mainly of gray and red mullet, rainbow trout, grouper, sardines, and bogue. Total fish production in 2003 was 24,831 tons, with aquaculture from 2,000 fish ponds accounting for 84%, mostly carp and tilapia. Total production in 2003 was valued at $94.4 million, or 26% of total agricultural value.

FORESTRY

Natural forests and woodlands cover about 132,000 hectares (326,000 acres), mostly in the north. About 180 million trees were planted between 1902 and 1986. Roundwood production in 2004 was 27,000 cu m (953,000 cu ft). Forestry production in 2004 included 181,000 cu m (6.4 million cu ft) of wood-based panels, and 275,000 cu m (9.7 million cu ft) of paper and paperboard.

MINING

Israel was the second-largest producer of bromine, ranked fifth in potash production, and eighth in phosphate rock output in 2004. Israel also produces flint clay, kaolin, silica sand gypsum, magnesia and sulfur, as well as metals such as steel, lead, and magnesium. Diamond cutting (from imported rough diamonds) was also performed. In 2003, the value of nonmetallic mineral products fell by 5.2%, and the value of production in the mining and quarrying industry fell by 3%.

Mineral production in 2004 included: beneficiated phosphate rock, 2.947 million metric tons, down from 3.208 million metric tons in 2003; potash, 2.060 million metric tons, up from 1.960 million metric tons in 2003; elemental bromine, 202,000 metric tons; caustic soda, 64,000 metric tons (estimated), up from 57,000 metric tons in 2003; and silica sand, 196,330 metric tons, down from 210,815 metric tons in 2003. Israel also produced in 2004, primarily for the construction sector, crude steel, refined secondary lead, magnesium metal, hydraulic cement, brick and Fuller's clays, gypsum, lime, magnesia, marble, phosphatic fertilizers, phosphoric acid, salt (mainly marine), sand, crushed stone, sulfur, sulfuric acid, and crude construction materials. Dead Sea Works in 2004 produced 2.06 million metric tons of potash. Although Israel did not mine diamonds in 2004, an estimated 770,000 carats of imported diamonds were cut, down from 771,000 carats in 2003.

The Negev Desert contained deposits of phosphate, copper (low grade), glass sand, ceramic clays, gypsum, and granite. Most of the phosphate deposits, located in the northeastern Negev, were, at best, medium grade, and were extracted by open-pit mining. The government was the principal owner of most mineral-related industries. Privately held industries included the diamond cutting and polishing industry, and cement and potassium nitrate manufacturing.

ENERGY AND POWER

Israel's energy sector is largely nationalized and state-regulated, ostensibly for national security reasons. With extremely modest reserves of oil and natural gas, and no coal reserves, Israel must rely almost entirely upon imports to meet its fossil fuel needs.

Israel has produced oil in the Negev desert since 1955; exploration there continued. The country's proven oil reserves were placed at two million barrels as of 1 January 2005. In 2004, domestic consumption and imports of oil averaged an estimated 274,000 barrels per day. There was no domestic oil production that year.

As of 1 January 2005, Israel's proven reserves of natural gas totaled 1.4 trillion cu ft (40 billion cu m). Natural gas production and demand in 2003 was each estimated at 7 billion cu ft (200 million cu m).

Domestic refinery output in 2002 averaged 229,610 barrels per day. Demand for refined oil products in that year averaged 270,460 barrels per day.

Nearly all electricity is supplied by the Israel Electric Corp. (IEC), a government owned monopoly. Electricity is generated principally by thermal power stations. As of 31 December 2004, the IEC reported that installed electric power generating capacity totaled 10,083 MW, of which 79.1% of capacity was generated by coal, followed by fuel oil at 16.8%, and by gas oil at 4.1%. In 2003, total electric power output was estimated at 44.2 billion kWh, with demand that year estimated at 39.6 billion kWh.

INDUSTRY

More than half of the industrial establishments are in the Tel Aviv-Yafo area, but a great deal of heavy industry is concentrated around Haifa. Most plants are privately owned. State enterprises are mainly devoted to exploitation of natural resources in the Negev; some other enterprises are controlled by the Histadrut. Israel is research and development-oriented. Hundreds of foreign companies invested in Israel during the 1990s, the bulk in strategic high-technology projects in such fields as aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), medical electronics, fine chemicals, pharmaceuticals, solar energy, and sophisticated irrigation. There was an 88% increase in exports in the 1990s.

Major expansion took place in textiles, machinery and transport equipment, metallurgy, mineral processing, electrical products, precision instruments, and chemicals in the 1990s. However, industry remains handicapped by reliance on imported raw materials, relatively high wage costs, low productivity, and inflation. Incentive schemes and productivity councils, representing workers and management, have been set up in an attempt to increase work output. Whereas in the past Israel's industry concentrated on consumer goods, by the 1980s it was stressing the manufacture of capital goods.

In the early- and mid-2000s, manufacturing activity successfully branched out into such industries as electronics, albeit at the expense of traditional industries such as textiles and footwear. Textile and clothing firms have gone through structural changes and have outsourced labor-intensive activities to neighboring countries such as Jordan, Egypt, and Turkey, where wages are substantially lower than in Israel. This allows Israeli manufacturers to concentrate on their relative advantage in product design and trade agreements with the United States and EU as part of a free-trade zone. Despite the economic recession period that began in 2000, these and other medium- and low-technology export-oriented firms faired relatively well, largely due to greater levels of efficiency. The electronics, communications, and other high-tech industries have gone through high and low cycles in the early- and mid-2000s. The expansion of Israel's high-tech industries and start-up companies soared in 2000, reflecting strong global demand and intense financial market interest in this field. Th is sector became a focal point of foreign investment. However, the collapse of the US financial markets, especially the NASDAQ, hurt Israel's technology sectors. Nevertheless, as a result of efficiency measures, lower labor costs, and a depreciation of the shekel, many high-tech sub-sectors, particularly electronic component production and exports, recorded growth after 2002.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Israel manufactures and exports an expanding array of high-technology goods, especially for military purposes. In 2002, Israel spent $6,547,743, or 5.11% of GDP on research and development (R&D) in science, engineering, agriculture, and medicine. In 2000 (the latest year for which the following data was available) business accounted for 69.9% of R&D spending, followed by the government at 24.7%, with foreign sources and higher education each accounting for 2.8%. National and local governments and industry shared equally in the funding. A privatization program, begun by the government, has resulted in the creation of many science and technology parks and high technology towns, like Migdal He'Emck. Israel has an advanced nuclear research program, and it is widely believed that Israel has the capacity to make nuclear weapons.

Among scientific research institutes are seven institutes administered by the Agricultural Research Organization; the Rog-off–Wellcome Medical Research Institute; institutes for petroleum research, geological mapping, and oceanographic and limnological research directed by the Earth Sciences Research Administration; institutes of ceramic and silicate, fiber, metals, plastics, wine, and rubber research directed by the Office of the Chief Scientist, Ministry of Industry and Trade; the Institutes of Applied Research at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev; the Israel Institute for Biological Research; the Israel Institute for Psychobiology; the National Research Laboratory; and the Soreg and Negev nuclear research centers attached to the Israel Atomic Energy Commission. The country has eight universities and colleges offering courses in basic and applied sciences; among them are the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot and the Technion–Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 49% of all college and university students.

Immigration into Israel may be its best science and technology policy. Some consider this a "brain drain" in reverse and claim that it will help Israeli high technology competitiveness in the future. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $5.414 billion and accounted for 20% of all manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Banks, commercial institutions, and the Histadrut labor federation have their headquarters in Tel Aviv–Yafo, the business capital. Supermarkets and department stores are on the increase; installment sales are widespread. Packaged goods are becoming more common, but many sales are still made in bulk. Cooperative societies market the agricultural produce of their affiliated settlements and farms. Tnuva, the Histadrut agricultural marketing society, sells most of Israel's farm products. Advertising media include newspapers, periodicals, posters, billboards, television and radio broadcasts, and motion picture theaters.

Larger shopping centers and malls are becoming more popular in the country. There are about 200 malls nationwide and construction plans for many others. At least half of all food sales are through supermarket and retail chains, but small, open-air produce markets are still common. Foreign franchises have been well established since the mid-1980s, primarily in the fast-food and hardware industries.

Business hours vary widely, depending on the religion of the proprietor. Saturday closing is the custom for all Jewish shops, offices, banks, public institutions, and transport services. Office hours are generally Sunday to Thursday, 8 am to 5 pm. Retail hours run from 9 am to 7 pm Sunday through Thursday and 9 am to 2 pm on Fridays. Shops in malls usually stay open until 10 pm. On days preceding holidays, shops shut down about 2 pm, offices at 1 pm. Banks are open 8:30 am to 12:30 pm and 4 to 5:30 pm; they close at noon on Fridays and days before holidays and have no

afternoon hours on Wednesdays. Many Islamic-owned establishments are closed all day Friday, while Christian ones are closed on Sunday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Israel is a relatively small country with limited natural resources and an affl uent, bourgeois citizenry; as such, it is highly dependent on international trade, both to supply its industry with natural resources, and to purchase its value-added products. The vast majority (66%) of Israeli exports are manufactured goods and their primary destinations are the United States and the European Union, which together buy 65% of Israel's exports. Imports are primarily industrial resources (63%)—other large sectors are capital goods (19%) and consumer products (11%).

Cut diamonds top the list of Israel's export commodities. In 2005, Israel's polished and rough diamond exports broke the $10 billion level for the first time, maintaining Israel's position as a major trading and manufacturing center for polished and rough diamonds. Net polished diamond exports were $6.7 billion, and rough diamond exports reached $3.5 billion. Net imports of rough diamonds totaled $5.3 billion, and Israel's imports of polished diamonds rose 9.3% in 2005 to reach $3.9 billion. The US is the major export market for Israel's polished diamonds, although its export share dropped from 67% in 2004 to 61% in 2005, with exports to Europe and Asia increasing.

The list of major exports in 2004 included: polished diamonds (gross) (31.4% of all exports); electronic communication, medical, and scientific equipment (17%); chemicals and chemical products (excluding refining) (16.9%); and machinery and equipment (4%). Israel's major imports in 2004 were: diamonds (gross) (22.7% of all imports); machinery and equipment (12.1%); fuel (11.1%); consumer nondurable goods (7%); and chemicals and chemical products (excluding refining) (6.7%).

Israel's leading markets in 2003 were: the United States (42.2% of all exports); Belgium (6.1%); the United Kingdom (4.7%); Germany (4.4%); and the Netherlands (3.7%). Leading suppliers included: the United States (22.4% of all imports); Germany (8.9%); Belgium (8.4%); the United Kingdom (7.3%); and Switzerland (7.2%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Israel's foreign trade has consistently shown an adverse balance, owing mainly to the rapid rise in population and the expansion of the industrialized economy, requiring heavy imports of machinery and raw materials. The imbalance on current accounts has been offset to a large extent by the inflow of funds from abroad. Deficits are often offset by massive US aid and American Jewish philanthropy. Even with these funds, however, Israel still runs significant trade deficits. Financing this deficit is easier on Israel than on many nations primarily because of its relationship with the United States.

After falling sharply in 2001–02, merchandise exports recovered in 2003 to $30.1 billion, and increased to $36.2 billion in 2004. Imports also increased in 2003, to $32.3 billion, before rising even more strongly to $38.6 billion. Overall, the trade deficit fell sharply in 2003 before stabilizing at $2.4 billion in 2004, which kept the current account in surplus at $504 million. In 2005, exports were estimated at $40.14 billion, and imports at $43.19 billion. The current account remained stable at $500 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Bank of Israel, with headquarters in Jerusalem, began operations as the central state bank in December 1954. Total banking assets at year-end 2001 were nis435 billion. The bank issues currency, accepts deposits from banking institutions in Israel, extends temporary advances to the government, acts as the government's sole banking and fiscal agent, and manages the public debt. Among the largest commercial banks are the Bank Leumi, the Israel Discount Bank, and the Histadrut-controlled Bank Hapoalim. There were 24 licensed commercial banks in 1997; one investment bank; and nine mortgage banks. There are also numerous credit cooperatives and other financial institutions. Among the subsidiaries of commercial banks are mortgage banks (some of which were also directly established by the government). The largest of these specialized institutions, the Tefahot Israel Mortgage Bank, provides many loans to home builders.

Industrial development banks specialize in financing new manufacturing enterprises. The Industrial Bank of Israel, formed in 1957 by major commercial banks, the government, the Manufacturers' Association, and foreign investors, has received aid from the IBRD and has played a major role in the industrial development of the Negev area. The government-owned Bank of Agriculture is the largest lending institution in that sector. The Post Office Bank, similar to France's La Poste, is concerned mainly with clearing operations, savings, sale of savings certificates, and postal orders.

The structure of the banking industry is based on the central European model of "universal banking," whereby the banks operate as retail, wholesale, and investment banks, as well as being active in all main areas of capital market activity, brokerage, underwriting, and mutual and provident fund management. However,

the banks are barred from insurance operations, other than as owners of insurance agents, and have only recently been allowed to enter the pension market.

The Bank of Israel's power to fix the liquidity ratio that banks must maintain against deposits has been an important instrument in governing both volume and types of loans. Legal interest rate ceilings formerly were 10% on loans to industry and agriculture and 11% for commercial loans, but in the early 1980s, rampant inflation caused the large commercial banks to raise the interest rate to 136%. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $9.0 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $114.2 billion. In the financial sector, the banks have benefited from a very slow program of financial deregulation and the absence of foreign competition; until 2000, the only foreign bank licensed to operate in Israel was the Polish PKO Bank, more of a historical curiosity than a serious commercial consideration. However, as deregulation progressed, the prospect of foreign ownership of Israeli banks, in part or whole, grew more real. In 2000, Citibank set up a full branch in Israel, the first major international bank to do so; HBSC followed soon afterward, and Bank of America has also set up a branch office there.

Growing activity on the Israeli securities market made it necessary to convert the rather loosely organized Tel Aviv Securities Clearing House into the formally constituted Tel Aviv Stock Exchange (TASE) in 1953. A further expansion took place in 1955, when debentures linked either to the US dollar or to the cost-of-living index—with special tax privileges—made their first appearance on the market. The market is largely devoted to loans of public and semipublic bodies, with provident funds and banks acquiring most of the securities placed. There is only one quotation daily for each security. As of 2004, there was a combined total of 571 companies listed on the TASE and the S&P EMDB Israel indices, which in that year had a market capitalization of $95.505 billion. In 2004, the Tel Aviv 100 index rose 19% from the previous year to 636.

By 1983 the price of bank shares was steadily becoming more detached from their true value. When it became obvious in 1983 that the government would have to devalue its currency, many people began to liquidate their holdings of shekel-denominated assets in favor of foreign currency. The assets most widely held and most easily liquidated were bank shares. The selling wave began in the summer of 1983 and peaked in October, forcing the government to intervene. The closing of the TASE, on 6 October 1983, became known as the "economic day of atonement" and represented the end of the speculators' paradise created and supported by leading Israeli banks.

By the mid-1990s, as Israel moved to liberalize its economy, the banking sector underwent significant reconstruction. In two sell-offs in 1997 and 1998, the government divested itself of a majority of Bank Hapoalim. It also sold sizeable shares of United Mizrahi Bank, Israeli Discount Bank, and Bank Leumi, in the hopes of shedding all remnants of ownership in these banks. In addition to bank privatization, the Israeli government moved to reduce capital markets regulations.

Occupied Territories

In 1994 the Palestinian Authority (PA) began to take over the management of an economy with a limited capacity to support its expanding population. The PA has acted within the constraints of the economic protocol to revive the financial sector. The reconstruction effort requires the creation of financial markets and institutions that perform the key functions of supplying liquidity, encouraging savings and investments, and facilitating the management of risk.

In expectation of a boom in the financial sector, a number of Jordanian and Palestinian banks opened, or reopened, branches in the West Bank and Gaza. The banks have mainly limited themselves to establishing checking accounts and accepting deposits, specifically noninterest bearing accounts. Despite their success in attracting deposits from Palestinians, the banks have maintained a limited role in lending. The reluctance to invest locally stems from doubts over the political environment and it is widely believed that banks are investing abroad, particularly in Central Bank of Jordan treasury bills. The Commercial Bank of Palestine, one of the first banks to open after the return of the Palestinian Authority, was capitalized at $14 million and raised its capital to $20 million by end-2003.

A key factor in the success of the banks will be the supervisory activities of the Palestinian Monetary Authority (PMA), set up as a result of the Paris protocol. The PMA has most of the functions of a central bank. It is empowered to act as the PA's adviser and sole financial agent; to hold its foreign currency reserves; to regulate foreign-exchange dealers; and to supervise the banking sector, as the self-rule areas come under PA jurisdiction. However, in the absence of a Palestinian currency, the PMA's ability to be a lender of last resort is questionable.

The Arab Palestine Investment Bank (APIB) held its first annual general meeting in Ramallah on 15 September 1996 and its first board meeting in 'Ammān the next day. The bank, with paid-up capital of some $15 million, has four principal shareholders, Jordan's Arab Bank (55%), the International Finance Corp. (25%), the German Investment and Development Co. (15%), and the Palestinian private-sector Enterprise Investment Co. (5%). Total deposits of the Palestinian banking system expanded by over 125% during the year ended June 1996, reaching $2.06 trillion. However, it was estimated that over half the local deposits were invested abroad, while only $300 million were loaned internally to the Palestinians.

On 25 February 2004, Israel raided certain banks in the West Bank, seizing some $8.5 million from bank vaults. However, this move did not significantly affect public confidence in banks, as private sector deposits increased by almost 4% in the first three quarters of 2004. Bank credit to the private sector grew strongly by some 13% in the first three quarters of 2004, after being stagnant in 2001–03. This was partly due to greater demand for loans by creditworthy businesses and an increase in bankable projects, and partly due to the PMA's pressures on banks to increase their financial intermediation role, since only 29% of deposits are invested in the West Bank and Gaza.

Due to the election of a Hamas government in January 2006, and Israel's subsequent decision to cease transferring some $50 million in monthly tax and customs receipts to the PA (collected on behalf of the Palestinians), Palestinians realized they would have to take significant steps to court new investment and development funds to support the economy, improve infrastructure, reduce poverty, and secure the living standards of the people. In January 2006, the Palestinian Minister for the National Economy pledged to provide a number of political and financial guarantees to those wishing to invest in Palestine: first on the list was a plan to establish a $250 million Investment Security Fund as insurance against further political action. The fund was to be established by various entities, including OPEC, the World Bank, the Islamic Investment Bank, German Investment Bank, European Investment Bank, and the Palestinian Investment Fund.

INSURANCE

The State Insurance Controller's Office may grant or withhold insurance licenses and determine the valuation of assets, the form of balance sheets, computations of reserves, and investment composition. Automobile liability insurance, workers' compensation, and aviation liability are compulsory. War-damage insurance is compulsory on buildings and also on some personal property.

The insurance sector is dominated by a few large firms, of which Migdal and Clal Insurance are the most prominent. However, the easy, cartel-like conditions that have characterized the sector for many years are beginning to crumble and new direct insurance companies are gaining market share. In 1997, the US-based AIG group entered the fray, via a direct insurance joint venture with an Israeli communications company, Aurec, which signaled the opening up of the industry to much greater competition from both domestic and foreign entities. In 2003, the value of direct premiums written totaled $6.892 billion, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $3.840 billion. Clal was Israel's top nonlife insurer in 2002, with gross written nonlife premiums of $479.3 million. Migdal, that same year was the country's leading life insurer, with gross written life premiums totaling $839.9 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Israel has the most advanced economy in the Middle East, although the country has been plagued with political and social woes for much of its independence. The onset of the intifada in September 2000 threatened to reverse much of the economic progress that had been made in the prior few decades. The violence has left several industries, especially the tourism sector, in critical states. Also, Israel's sizeable external debt, which was equivalent to about 38% of GDP in 2000, has put a damper on the economy's expansion.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Israel's central government took in revenues of approximately $43.8 billion and had expenditures of $58 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$14.2 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 101% of GDP. Total external debt was $73.87 billion.

In 2002, government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 14.5%; defense, 20.2%; public order and safety, 3.5%; economic affairs, 4.7%; environmental protection, 0.2%; housing and community amenities, 1.3%; health, 12.8%; recreation, culture, and religion, 1.7%; education, 15.0%; and social protection, 25.6%.

In the West Bank and Gaza in 2004, revenues amounted to $964 million and expenditures amounted to $1.34 billion. The occupied territories held no external debt.

TAXATION

Israel's population is heavily taxed. The personal income tax is progressive, with a top rate of 50%. In addition, there are personal income taxes on gross income from employment, trade, business, dividends, and other sources, with limited deductions. However, special tax concessions are granted to residents in border settlements, new settlements, and the Negev. Taxes of salaried persons are deducted at the source; self-employed persons make advance payments in 10 installments, subject to assessment. Also levied are a value-added tax (VAT) of 25%, a purchase tax, various land taxes, and a national health insurance premium tax on a rising scale to 4.8%.

The main corporate income tax rate is 34%, although tax reliefs are available to "approved enterprises" and international trading companies. Municipalities and local and regional councils levy several taxes. There is an annual business tax on every enterprise, based on net worth, annual sales volume, number of employees, and other factors. General rates, a real estate tax (commonly based on the number of rooms and the location of the building), and water rates are paid by the tenants or occupants rather than the owners.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Israel has a single-column import tariff based on the Brussels nomenclature classification. Ad valorem rates predominate, although specific and compound rates are also used. Most basic food commodities, raw materials, and machinery for agricultural or industrial purposes are exempt from customs duties. The highest rates are applied to nonessential foodstuffs, luxury items, and manufactured goods that are of a type produced in Israel. There are also an 18% value-added tax (VAT), which is levied on virtually all commodities

except fresh fruits and vegetables, and a purchase tax ranging from 5–90% on most consumer goods.

A free-trade agreement between Israel and the then-European Community (today, the European Union) took effect on 1 July 1975. Under this agreement, EC tariffs on Israel's industrial exports were immediately reduced by 60% and were subsequently eliminated. Preferential treatment has also been extended to Israel's agricultural exports. In return, Israel has granted concessions to the European Union on many categories of industrial and agricultural imports and agreed to gradually abolish its customs duties on imports from the European Union.

Israel also belongs to the World Trade Organization (WTO) and operates its trade regime according to WTO guidelines. Most significantly, the WTO calls for the elimination of nontariff barriers. Israel also signed a free trade agreement with the United States in 1985, which called for the elimination of all remaining duties on US-made products by 1 January 1995. However, Israel and the United States differ on the interpretation of the treaty and it has yet to be fully implemented.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Israel is open to foreign investment, and the government encourages and supports the inflow of capital. There are few restrictions on foreign investment, excepting parts of the defense industry, which are closed to outside investors on national security grounds.

Apart from reparations, capital imports mainly consist of long-term loans and grants designed for investment by the government or the Jewish Agency.

A 1951 law was designed to encourage foreign investment in those industries and services most urgently required to reduce Israel's dependence on imports and to increase its export potential. Applying mainly to investments in industry and agriculture, the law offers such inducements as relief from property taxes during the first five years, special allowances for depreciation, exemption from customs and purchase tax on essential materials, and reductions in income tax rates. In a further effort to attract foreign investment, the government approved the "Nissim Plan" in 1990. This plan gives the investor the option of state loan guarantees for up to two-thirds of a project or the bundle of benefits offered under the "Encouragement of Capital Investments Law." A 1985 US–Israeli Free Trade Area (FTA) agreement reduces tariffs and most nontariffs barriers for US firms. Israel also has an FTA agreement with the European Union (EU) under which tariffs on industrial products and certain agricultural products fell to zero on 1 January 1989. In 1995, Israel attracted $2.5 billion in foreign investment. Th is figure came on the heels of several years of economic growth and fiscal austerity.

New direct foreign investment amounted to $3.7 billion in 2003, about 3.4% of GDP. Portfolio investment stood at $2.4 billion. The estimated stock of foreign direct investment in Israel was $31.8 billion at the end of 2003, just under 29% of GDP. Net direct investment by Israelis abroad in 2003 amounted to approximately $1.8 billion.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic policy is dictated by goals of national security, full utilization of resources, integration of immigrants, and institution of a broad welfare program. The urgency of these goals imposes responsibilities on the government for planning, financing, and directly participating in productive activities. And, in fact, government infrastructure development since 1990 has played a large part in Israel's powerful economic performance in recent years. Major government projects include an expansion of the Ben-Gurion Airport, a subway for Tel-Aviv, a tunnel through Mt. Carmel, and a major new north-south highway.

In the years immediately following independence, the government influenced the setting in which private capital functions, through differential taxation, import and export licensing, subsidies, and high protective tariffs. The 1962 revaluation of the Israeli pound was accompanied by a new economic policy aimed at reduction of protective tariffs, continued support of development, planning and implementation of long-range development, and maximization of efficiency. Subsequently, the government has periodically decreed further monetary devaluations, new taxes, and other austerity measures designed to curb consumption and stimulate exports. By the mid-1990s, the Israeli government was actively engaged in an economic liberalization program that is a stark contrast from the largely state regulated economy of Israel's first few decades.

By the mid-2000s, security issues remained Israel's top political priority, which impact the economy. The government has made progress stabilizing the economy, widening fiscal reforms, and accelerating privatization and market deregulation.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Israel has a universal social insurance system that covers all residents aged 18 and over, including housewives. Benefits are extensive and include old age pensions, disability, medical care, and family allowances. Employee-based programs include maternity benefits, worker's compensation for injuries, and unemployment benefits. These programs are funded by contributions by employees, employers, and the government. Beginning in 2004, the age for retirement is being increased until it reaches 67 for both men and women. All residents are covered for medical care.

The Equality of Women Law provides equal rights for women in the military, workplace, health, education, housing, and social welfare. It also entitles women to protection from sexual harassment, exploitation, and violence. There were still many reports of spousal abuse in 2004, and some harassment in the military. Although the law mandates equal pay for equal work, a wage gap remains. Jewish women are subject to military draft, and can volunteer to serve in combat units. Jewish and Muslim women are subject to limitations in their respective faiths. Children's rights are protected and education is free and compulsory.

The use of limited physical force during interrogations has been legal, but a high court ruling banned a variety of specific abuses, including sleep deprivation and violent shaking. Administrative detention without trial remains legal, but it is rarely used. Prison conditions for Palestinians have improved but still do not meet all international standards. The government generally protects the human rights of its citizens.

HEALTH

The Ministry of Health supervises all health matters and functions directly in the field of medical care. Total health care expenditure was estimated at 9.5 % of GDP. The Arab Department of the Ministry of Health recruits public health personnel from among the Arab population and its mobile clinics extend medical aid to Bedouin tribes in the Negev. As of 2004, there were an estimated 391 physicians, 616 nurses, 68 pharmacists, and 18 midwives per 100,000 people. In addition, Israel had the third most dentists per capita at an estimated 120 per 100,000 population. The Ministry of Health also operates infant welfare clinics, nursing schools, and laboratories. The largest medical organization in the country, the Workers' Sick Fund (Kupat Holim, the health insurance association of Histadrut), administers hospitals, clinics, convalescent homes, and mother-and-child welfare stations.

The infant mortality rate was 7.03 per 1,000 live births in 2005. The maternal death rate is the lowest in the Middle East and North Africa. As of 2002, Israel's birth and death rates were estimated respectively at 18.9 and 6.2 per 1,000 people. Life expectancy was 79.32 years in 2005. The fertility rate has decreased steadily over the years from 3.9 in 1960 to 2.8 children in 2000 for each woman during childbearing years. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 92%; polio, 93%; and measles, 95%.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 3,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 100 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Israel suffered from a severe housing shortage at its creation. Despite an extensive national building program and the initial allocation of some abandoned Arab dwellings to newcomers, in early 1958, nearly 100,000 immigrants were still housed in transit camps. By the mid-1960s, however, the extreme housing shortage had been overcome and newcomers were immediately moved into permanent residences. From 1960 to 1985, a total of 943,350 housing units were constructed. In 1986, 94% of all housing units had piped water, 58.2% had flush toilets, and 99% had electric lighting. The period 1990–2001, a surge of immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia resulted in a dramatic increase in housing demand. The government responded with mortgage packages making it possible for new immigrants to afford housing.

As of the 1995 census, there were about 1,639,410 residential dwellings throughout the nation. The average building rate seems to be at over 30,000 new dwellings per year. About 38,000 new dwellings were added in 1996; 32,482 were added in 2004. In 2003, about 70% of all households lived in dwellings owned by a resident. Homelessness and overcrowding are serious problems in the West Bank and Gaza.

EDUCATION

In Israel, Education is compulsory for 11 years and free for all children between 5 and 15 years of age. Primary education is for six years followed by three years of lower secondary and three more years of upper secondary education. A state education law of 1953 put an end to the separate elementary school systems affiliated with labor and religious groupings, and established a unified state-administered system, within which provision was made for state religious schools. Four types of schools exist: public religious (Jewish) and public secular schools (the largest group); schools of the orthodox Agudat Israel (which operated outside the public school system but were assisted with government funds); public schools for Arabs; and private schools, mainly operated by Catholic and Protestant organizations. The language of instruction in Jewish schools is Hebrew; in Arab schools it is Arabic. Arabic is taught as an optional language in Jewish schools, while Hebrew is taught in Arab schools from the fourth grade. The school year runs from October to June.

Most children between the ages of three and five are enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 99% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 89% of age-eligible students. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 15:1 in 2003.

Israel has eight main institutions of higher learning. The two most outstanding are the Hebrew University (founded in 1918) in Jerusalem and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion, founded in 1912) in Haifa, both of which receive government subsidies of about 50% of their total budgets; the remaining funds are largely collected abroad. The Tel Aviv University was formed in 1956. Other institutions include the Bar-Ilan University in Ramat-Gan, opened in 1955 under religious auspices; the Weizmann Institute of Science at Rehovot, notable for its research into specific technical, industrial, and scientific problems; Haifa University; and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beérshebá. An Open University, promoting adult education largely through home study, was established and patterned on the British model. In 2003, about 57% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program; with 49% for men and 66% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 96.9%, with 98.3% for men and 95.6% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 7.5% of GDP, or 13.7% of total government expenditures.

In the Palestinian school system, basic education covers 10 years of study followed by two years of secondary school or two years of vocational school. The final two years of general secondary school, students are placed in either arts or science courses depending on their performance in their basic education. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 91% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 84% of age-eligible students.

Universities and community colleges offer higher education programs for adults. Schools include Bethlehem University, Islamic University, and Palestine Polytechnic Institute. In 2003, about 35% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Israel's largest library, founded in 1924, is the privately endowed Jewish National and University Library at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, with three million volumes. Important collections are housed in the Central Zionist Archives and the Central Archives for the History of the Jewish People, both also in Jerusalem. There are more than 950 other libraries, and the Ministry of Education and Culture has provided basic libraries to hundreds of rural settlements. The Ben Gurion University of the Negev (1966) holds 720,000 volumes. Tel Aviv University holds two million volumes, including a Holocaust Studies collection.

The country's most important museum is the Israel Museum, opened in 1965 in Jerusalem. Found in the museum are the Bezalel Art Museum, with its large collection of Jewish folk art; a Jewish antiquities exhibit; the Billy Rose Art Garden of modern sculpture; the Samuel Bronfman Biblical and Archaeological Museum; and the Shrine of the Book, containing the Dead Sea Scrolls and other valuable manuscripts. The Rockefeller Archaeological Museum (formerly the Palestine Museum), built in 1938, contains a rich collection of archaeological material illustrating the prehistory and early history of Palestine and Transjordan. There is also in Jerusalem the Central Archives for the History of the Jewish People, containing documents from Jewish communities and organizations around the globe. The Tel Aviv Museum of Art, founded in 1926, has more than 30,000 paintings, drawings, and sculptures. Among Israel's newer cultural institutions are the Museum of the Diaspora in Tel Aviv–Yafo, founded in 1978; the Bible Lands Museum in Jerusalem, founded in 1992; the Museum of Israeli Art in Ramat Gan, founded in 1987; and the Tower of David Museum of the History of Jerusalem at the Jaffa Gate in Jerusalem, founded in 1989.

MEDIA

The state owns and operates the major telephone communications services, although radio and television are increasingly privately owned. In 2003, there were an estimated 458 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 961 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The state radio stations include the government's Israel Broadcasting Authority (Shidurei Israel ), the army's Defense Forces Waves (Galei Zahal ), and the Jewish Agency's Zion's Voice to the Diaspora (Kol Zion la-Gola ), aimed mostly at Jewish communities in Europe and the United States. The Second Television and Radio Authority is a public organization that operates 2 privately owned television channels and 14 privately owned radio stations. There are one satellite and three cable and television companies. In 2003, there were an estimated 526 radios and 330 television sets for every 1,000 people. Cable subscriptions are common. Also in 2003, there were 242.6 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 301 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 869 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

All Israeli newspapers are privately owned and managed. Most newspapers have 4–16 pages, but there are weekly supplements on subjects such as politics, economics, and the arts. In 2004, there were 12 daily newspapers, 90 weekly newspapers, and more than 250 periodical publications. The largest national daily Hebrew newspapers (with their average 2002 circulations) are Yediot Achronot (Latest News, 300,000), Ma'ariv Evening (Evening Prayer, 160,000), Hadashot (The News, 55,000), and Ha'aretz (The Land, 65,000), all published in Tel Aviv. Also out of Tel Aviv are two Russian papers, Nasha Strana (Our Country, 35,000) and Tribuna (Tribune ); the Polish Nowiny Kurier (12,000); the German Hadashot Israel ; the Hungarian Uj Kelet (20,000); and the Romanian Viata-Noastra (30,000). The English-language Jerusalem Post (30,000) is published in Jerusalem.

Although there is no political censorship within Israel, restrictions are placed on coverage of national security matters. Individuals, organizations, the press, and the electronic media freely debate public issues and often criticize public policy and government officials.

ORGANIZATIONS

The World Zionist Organization (WZO) was founded by Theodor Herzl in 1897 for the purpose of creating "for the Jewish people a home in Palestine, secured by public law." The organization is composed of various international groupings represented in its supreme organ, the World Zionist Congress. The Jewish Agency, originally founded under the League of Nations mandate to promote Jewish interests in Palestine, comprises the executive arm of the WZO; since 1948, it has been responsible for the organization, training, and transportation to Israel of all Jews who wish to settle there. The United Israel Appeal (Keren Hayesod ) is the financial instrument of the Jewish Agency; it recruits donations from world Jewry. The Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemet le'Israel ) is devoted to land acquisition, soil reclamation, and reforestation. Hadassah, the Women's Zionist Organization of America, is also active in Israel; it sponsors the Hadassah Medical Organization, which provides hospital and medical training facilities.

The main labor organization is the General Federation of Labor (Histadrut ), a large economic complex whose interests include some of the largest factories in the country, an agricultural marketing society (Tnuva ), a cooperative wholesale association (Hamashbir Hamerkazi ), and a workers' bank. Trade and industry unions as fairly active, including such groups as the Manufacturers Association of Israel, Israel Association of Craft and Industry, and the Citrus Marketing Board of Israel. There are professional associations representing a wide variety of fields. The Israel Medical Organization promotes research and education on health issues and works to establish common policies and standards in healthcare. There are several other associations dedicated to research and education for specific fields of medicine and particular diseases and conditions, such as the Israel Heart Society and the Israel Cancer Association.

There are numerous cultural and religious societies and organizations. The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities promotes public interest in science and cooperates with foreign academies in research and dissemination of information. The Hebrew Writers Association in Israel represents Hebrew writers worldwide.

An important youth organization is Youth Aliyah, founded in 1934, which has helped to rehabilitate and educate children from all countries of the world. Other national youth organizations include the Israeli Boy and Girl Scouts Federation, National Working Youth Movement of Israel, Orthodox Youth Movement of Israel (Ezra ), Socialist Youth Movement of Israel, Sons of Akiva Youth Movement of Israel, Tel Aviv University Students' Association, Trumpeldor Covenant Youth Movement of Israel, United Kibbutz Youth Movement of Israel, Young Herut, Zionist Youth Movement, and chapters of the YMCA/YWCA. The Association for Arab Youth was founded in 2000 to be a bipartisan organization promoting pluralism and tolerance through educational and recreational youth activities. Sports associations are also active, including such pastimes as baseball, badminton, ice skating, cricket, and frisbee.

The Council of Women's Organizations in Israel is an umbrella organization promoting legal and social rights for women.

The Arab Association for Human Rights is in Nazareth and the Association for Civil Rights in Israel is in Jerusalem. The Democracy and Workers Rights Center represents those working to create a civil society within the Palestinian-administered territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Disaster relief and aid services in Israel are organized by the Red Shield of David (Magen David Adom), which cooperates with the International Red Cross. Other international organizations include Defence for Children International and Amnesty International.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Principal tourist attractions are the many holy and historic places, which include sites sacred to three religions: Judaism, Islam, and Christianity. In particular, the Old City of Jerusalem contains the Western ("Wailing") Wall, the Dome of the Rock, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; nearby are the Mount of Olives and Garden of Gethsemane. Another holy place is Bethlehem, the birthplace of both King David and Jesus. Also of great interest are the ruins of Jericho, the world's oldest city; the caves of Qumran, near the Dead Sea; and the rock fortress of Masada, on the edge of the Dead Sea Valley and the Judean Desert. Tourists are also drawn to Israel's rich variety of natural scenery, ranging from hills and greenery in the north to rugged deserts in the south, and including the Dead Sea, the lowest spot on Earth. The most popular team sports are football (soccer) and basketball; popular recreations include swimming, sailing, and fishing.

A valid passport, proof of suffi cient funds, and onward/return ticket are required for tourists; a three-month visa may be issued upon arrival. The Tourist Industry Development Corporation fosters tourism by granting loans for hotel expansion and improvement. A total of 1,063,381 tourists visited Israel in 2003, a 23% increase from 2002. There were 46,368 hotel rooms with 114,041 beds and an occupancy rate of 45%. The average length of stay was two nights.

In 2004, the US Department of State estimated the daily average of staying in Tel Aviv at $336. Estimated daily expenses in Jerusalem were $312 per day in 2002.

FAMOUS ISRAELITES AND ISRAELIS

The State of Israel traces its ancestry to the settlement of the Hebrews in Canaan under Abraham (b.Babylonia, fl.18th cent. bc), the return of the Israelite tribes to Canaan under Moses (b.Egypt, fl.13th cent. bc) and Joshua (b.Egypt, fl.13th cent. bc), and the ancient kingdom of Israel, which was united by David (r.1000?–960? bc) and became a major Near Eastern power under Solomon (r.960?–922 bc). A prophetic tradition that includes such commanding figures as Isaiah (fl.8th cent. bc), Jeremiah (650?–585? bc), and Ezekiel (fl.6th cent. bc) spans the period of conquest by Assyria and Babylonia; the scribe Ezra (b.Babylonia, fl.5th cent. bc) and the governor Nehemiah (b.Babylonia, fl.5th cent. bc) spurred the reconstruction of the Judean state under Persian hegemony. Judas (Judah) Maccabaeus ("the Hammerer"; fl.165–160 bc) was the most prominent member of a family who instituted a period of political and religious independence from Greek rule. During the period of Roman rule, important roles in Jewish life and learning were played by the sages Hillel (b.Babylonia, fl.30 bc–ad 9), Johannan ben Zakkai (fl.1st cent.), Akiba ben Joseph (50?–135?), and Judah ha-Nasi (135?–220), the compiler of the Mishnah, a Jewish law code; by the military commander and historian Flavius Josephus (Joseph ben Mattathias, ad 37–100?); and Simon Bar-Kokhba (bar Kosiba, d.135), leader of an unsuccessful revolt against Roman rule. Unquestionably, the most famous Jew born in Roman Judea was Jesus (Jeshua) of Nazareth (4? bc–ad 29?), the Christ, or Messiah ("anointed one"), of Christian belief. Peter (Simon, d.ad 67?) was the first leader of the Christian Church and, in Roman Catholic tradition, the first pope. Paul (Saul, b.Asia Minor, d.ad 67?) was principally responsible for spreading Christianity and making it a religion distinct from Judaism.

The emergence of Israel as a modern Jewish state is attributed in large part to Chaim Weizmann (b.Russia, 1874–1952), the leader of the Zionist movement for 25 years, as well as a distinguished chemist who discovered methods for synthesizing acetone and rubber. Theodor Herzl (b.Budapest, 1860–1904), the founder of political Zionism, is buried in Jerusalem. Achad Ha'am (Asher Hirsch Ginsberg; b. Russia, 1856–1927) was an influential Zionist and social critic. Vladimir Jabotinsky (1880–1940) was a dedicated advocate of Jewish self-defense, both in his native Russia and in Palestine. David Ben-Gurion (Gruen; b.Poland, 1886–1973), also a leading Zionist and an eloquent spokesman on labor and national affairs, served as Israel's first prime minister. Golda Meir (Meyerson; b.Russia, 1898–1978), like Ben-Gurion a former secretary-general of Histadrut, became well known as Israel's prime minister from 1970 to 1974. Other prominent contemporary figures include Pinhas Sapir (b.Poland, 1907–75), labor leader and minister of finance; Abba Eban (Aubrey Eban; b. South Africa, 1915–2002), former foreign affairs minister and representative to the UN; and Moshe Dayan (1915–81), military leader and cabinet minister. Menachem Begin (b.Russia, 1913–92), the former leader of guerrilla operations against the British, was prime minister from 1977 to 1983 and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. He was succeeded by Yitzhak Shamir (b.Poland, 1915) in 1983, who gave way to Shimon Peres (b.Poland, 1923) in 1984. Shamir succeeded Peres in 1986. Yitzhak Rabin (1922–1995) was instrumental in the peace accords with the PLO signed in 1993 in Washington. Benjamin Netanyahu (b.1949) succeeded Peres, who had succeeded the assassinated Rabin. Ehud Barak (b.1942) followed Netanyahu as prime minister; Barak was succeeded by Ariel Sharon (b.1928). Sharon suffered a hemorrhagic stroke in January 2006; because he was incapacitated, his deputy prime minister, Ehud Olmert (b.1945), took over the duties of prime minister.

Israel's foremost philosopher was Martin Buber (b.Vienna, 1878–1965), author of I and Th ou. Outstanding scholars include the literary historian Joseph Klausner (1874–1958); the Bible researcher Yehezkel (Ezekiel) Kaufmann (b.Ukraine, 1889–1963); the philologists Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (b.Lithuania, 1858–1922) and Naphtali Hertz Tur-Sinai (Torczyner; b. Poland, 1886–1973); the archaeologist Eliezer Sukenik (1889–1953); and the Kabbalah authority Gershom Gerhard Scholem (b.Germany, 1897–1982).

The foremost poets are Haim Nahman Bialik (b.Russia, 1873–1934), Saul Tchernichowsky (b.Russia, 1875–1943), Uri Zvi Greenberg (b.Galicia, 1896–1981), Avraham Shlonsky (b.Russia, 1900–1973), Nathan Alterman (b.Warsaw, 1910–70), Yehuda Amichai (b.Germany, 1924), and Natan Zach (b.Berlin, 1930); and the leading novelists are Shmuel Yosef Halevi Agnon (b.Galicia, 1888–1970), a Nobel Prize winner in 1966, and Hayim Hazaz (b.Russia, 1898–1973). Contemporary Israeli writers include Amos Oz (b.1939), Aharon Appelfeld (b.1932), and David Grossman (b.1954). Painters of note include Reuven Rubin (b.Romania, 1893–1975) and Mane Katz (b.Russia, 1894–1962). Paul Ben-Haim (Frankenburger; b. Munich, 1897–1984) and Ödön Partos (b.Budapest, 1907–77) are well-known composers. Famous musicians include Daniel Barenboim (b.Argentina, 1942), Itzhak Perlman (b.1945), and Pinchas Zukerman (b.1948).

Significant contributions in other fields have been made by mathematician Abraham Halevi Fraenkel (b.Munich, 1891–1965); botanist Hugo Boyko (b.Vienna, 1892–1970); zoologist Shimon (Fritz) Bodenheimer (b.Cologne, 1897–1959); parasitologist Saul Aaron Adler (b.Russia, 1895–1966); physicist Giulio Raccah (b.Florence, 1909–65); rheologist Markus Reiner (b.Czernowitz, 1886–1976); gynecologist Bernard Zondek (b.Germany, 1891–1966); and psychoanalyst Heinrich Winnik (b.Austria-Hungary, 1902–82).

DEPENDENCIES

Beginning at the end of the 1967 war until the 1990s, Israel administered the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The Golan Heights, captured from Syria during the same war, was annexed in 1981; the Sinai Peninsula, taken from Egypt, was restored to Egyptian sovereignty in 1983, in accordance with a 1979 peace treaty. In 1994 Israel returned small pockets of some of the land captured in the war, to be administered in a less than totally sovereign fashion, by the Palestinian Authority. The move was in accord with a peace agreement (the Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements or DOP) signed in Washington, DC, on 13 September 1993 by representatives of Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). In January 1996, a Palestinian Legislative Council was elected to form the foundation for the interim self-government for the West Bank and Gaza Strip. In May 1994, a new agreement (the Israel-PLO 4 May 1994 Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area) transferred responsibility for the Gaza Strip and Jericho to the Palestinians. Over the next several years, agreements between Israel and the PLO transferred responsibility for West Bank territory from Israel to Palestinian control. According to the terms of the DOP, Israel was to continue to provide security for the territories transferred to Palestinian control during the period of transition. In 1999, negotiations to set the terms for permanent status for the West Bank and Gaza began, but a number of factors—continuing expansion of Israeli settlements in territory transferred to Palestinian control, outbreaks of violence and terrorism beginning in 2000 and continuing for the next two years, instability in the Palestinian Authority, and severe reaction on the part of the Israeli military—combined to undermine further progress. The estimated population of the West Bank in 2002 was 2,163,667, not including an estimated 187,000 Israeli settlers; the estimated population of the Gaza Strip that year was 1,225,911, not including an estimated 5,000 Israeli settlers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alexander, Yonah (ed.). Combating Terrorism: Strategies of Ten Countries. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press, 2002.

Beilin, Yossi. Israel: A Concise Political History. New York: St. Martin's, 1993.

Ben-Ami, Shlomo. Scars of War, Wounds of Peace: the Israeli-Arab Tragedy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Cohen, Michael Joseph. Truman and Israel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Eban, Abba. My Country: The Story of Modern Israel. New York: Random House, 1972.

Encyclopedia Judaica. 16 vols. Jerusalem: Keter, 1972.

Etzioni-Halevy, Eva. The Divided People: Can Israel's Breakup Be Stopped? Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2002.

Faure, Claude. Dictionary of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: Culture, History and Politics. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005.

Frank, Mitch. Understanding the Holy Land: Answering Questions about the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. New York: Viking, 2005.

Ichilov, Orit. Political Learning and Citizenship Education under Conflict: The Political Socialization of Israeli and Palestinian Youngsters. New York: Routledge, 2004.

International Smoking Statistics: A Collection of Historical Data from 30 Economically Developed Countries. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Sachar, Howard Morley. A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. 2nd ed. New York: Knopf, 1996.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

Slater, Robert. Rabin of Israel. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993.

ISRAEL

The Biblical name of the people of God and of its eponymous ancestor who was also called Jacob. By way of introduction, this article first explains the origin, meaning, and usage of the name; then in the following sections it treats of the religion of ancient Israel and the biblical history of Israel. For information on the Catholic Church in the modern state of Israel, see the separate essay following.

1. Introduction

The Bible insists that the name Israel was conferred on the Patriarch jacob by God, yet there are divergent accounts of its bestowal on him and various theories regarding its meaning. Besides being used to designate the Patriarch, it is more frequently employed as a collective title for his blood or spiritual descendants, the "children of Israel," the "house of Israel."

Origin and Meaning of the Name. There were two different traditions in Israel regarding the origin of its name. That they were ancient can be seen in the fact that they are already combined in Hosea 12.4–5. According to one account (Gn 32.22–31) the name Israel was bestowed on Jacob at Phanuel, near the Jaboc, east of the Jordan; according to the other account (Gn 35.9–15) God changed Jacob's name to Israel after the Patriarch had left Phanuel and returned to bethel. The first account ventures a folk etymology, whereas the second offers no conjecture on the origin or meaning of the name. The first account is boldly anthropomorphic; it depicts Jacob wrestling with God or the angel of the lord and stresses the Patriarch's victory (as also in Hos 12.5).

Traditionally this mysterious passage has been interpreted as signifying the conversion of Jacob, a spiritual victory over his natural tendency to self-reliance rooted in his native cunning and great strength (cf. Gn 29.2–3,10), and the birth of his trust in God, grounded in the omniscience and omnipotence of God. It has been suggested that Israelite tradition used a pre-Israelite myth of a struggle between a river spirit and a man to dramatize the inner conflict that raged within the Patriarch. Although there is little probability to this theory, inspiration would not forbid the use or adaptation of such a pagan myth to dramatize the interior struggle between exuberant self-reliance and humble, trustful submission to God's plan, a contest between a man who represents his nation and God.

The actual derivation and meaning of yiśrā’ēl (Israel) is still uncertain. It is clear that the name is theophoric, a compound of a verb and the proper noun ’ēl [see el (god)]. If the verbal component is the root śry, the name means "God contends," or perhaps (from a related root) "God is strong, sovereign, He rules." If the verbal root is śrr or yśr (both of which occur in Arabic but not in Hebrew), the name would mean, respectively, "God shines forth" or "God heals."

Use of the Name. The name Israel is often used as a mere substitute for the personal name Jacob. It is frequent also in the phrase, "the sons [or children] of Israel" (benê yiśrā’ēl ), which is used of the immediate sons of Jacob in Ex 1.1, but which, along with such terms as the "seed of Israel," the "house of Israel," and the "assembly of Israel," is used very frequently of the more distant descendants of Jacob also.

The name Israel (alone) is applied to the immediate family of Jacob in Gn 34.7. Prior to the secession of the northern tribes and again after the restoration of the people of the southern kingdom, Israel designated the entire people of God. But during the period of the existence of the Northern Kingdom, Israel signified that kingdom in contradistinction to the Southern Kingdom, which was called Judah. In postexilic times, Israel was occasionally used to designate the laity in contrast to the priests, the levitical orders, and the Temple servants (1 Chr 9.2; Ezr6.16; Neh 11.3). As used by St. Paul, the term is complex. It may signify the elect of the new dispensation, the "Israel of God" (Gal 6.19), or the unconverted Jews, "Israel according to the flesh" (1 Cor 10.18).

Bibliography: r. de vaux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, suppl. ed. l. pirot, et al. (Paris 1928–) 4:730–31. Encyclopedia Dictionary of the Bible, tr. and adap. by l. hartman (New York 1963), from a. van den born, Bijbels Woordenboek 1086–87.

[j. a. pierce]

2. Religion of Ancient Israel

An investigation will be made here of Israel's convictions and practice with respect to God. Of the many possible approaches to this consideration, this section will adopt the historical. Accordingly, Israelite religion will first be seen as it is described in the earliest literary sources that treat it as a contemporary phenomenon. Second, an examination will be made of the formative history of this religion according to the available sources. In turn, its subsequent development within Israelite history will be pursued; and finally, with a consideration of the influence of the Exile, the changes effected in the emergence of judaism will be noted.

Early Israelite Religion. As can be seen in the references of the classical prophets of the 8th century b.c., the external forms of Israelite worship differed little from

the native Canaanite forms from which they had doubtless been principally drawn. Animal sacrifice was normative (Is 1.11; Am 5.4); there was also the offering of incense and cereal sacrifices (Is 1.13; Am 5.22). Festivals were kept at ancient shrines such as Gialgal and Bethel (Hos 4.15; Am 4.4; 5.4–5) on the occasion of Sabbaths, feast days, and new moons (Is 1.13–14; Hos 2.13; Am8.4–5). Tithes were paid for the support of these sanctuaries (Am 5.4), and sacred banquets were eaten there (Am2.8).

The motivation of this cult, however, differed sharply from that of the natural religions of the Gentiles, whose cult practices reflected and sought to control the annual cycle of nature and its seasons. Israel's God could not be controlled; rather, it was He who controlled the destiny of all peoples (Am 1.3–2.6; 9.7) as Creator of all things (Am 4.13; 5.8–9; 9.5–6) and as present, not immanent, in nature as its Lord and Master (Am 9.2–4). This God had revealed Himself and His moral will to Israel through His saving deeds (literally "justices": Mi 6.5). He revealed Himself as a loving God by calling Israel out of the slavery of Egypt (Hos 11.5; Am 3.1) and by settling it in the land of Canaan; this, the donation of the land of promise as Israel's inheritance, rather than the chthonic deities of paganism, was the source of the fertility of the soil (Hos 2.10; Am 2.9–10), which in turn was subject to yahweh's continual historical intervention (Am 4.6–10). Above all, Yahweh had given to Israel the gift of Himself, a continuing closeness revealed through prophecy (Hos 6.5; Am 2.11), whereby He might be known as He is, a God of righteousness and justice and love (Hos2.20–21; 4.1–2) who truly spoke to Israel. True Israelite religion, therefore, was to "know" this God by living His law (torah, "instruction") as He had made it known in salvation history (Hos 4.6). Yahweh's holiness was thus a constant challenge to the emulation of His people; His kingship implied a way of life to be pursued and a constant rebuke to moral shortcomings (Is 6.5).

The prophetic minimizing of the cultic expression of religion never (even in Am 5.25–27) amounted to an out-right rejection of it in principle, but displayed a concern for the distinctively moral and social character of Israelite religion (Hos 6.6). The Prophets rebuked the priesthood, not for offering sacrifice, but for dereliction in their duty to inculcate Yahweh's moral torah (Hos 4.4–6; 5.1–2; Mi3.11). Without this, no cult could ever be truly Israelite, directed to the God who had gratuitously chosen Israel to this end. It then became no different from the Gentile rites that it resembled and, in popular practice, all too frequently imitated: sacrifice on high places and under sacred trees (Is 1.29; Hos 4.13), the use of idols [Is 2.8; Hos2.15; 8.5; 10.5; Mi 1.7; see idolatry (in the bible)], fertility rites (Hos 2.7; 3.1; 4.14; 7.14), divination (Is 2.6; Hos 4.12; Mi 3.5–8), and the like.

The "ethical monotheism" of the Prophets of the 8th century was no new discovery of theirs superimposed on a folk religion of ritual and sacrifice. It was, rather, the most primitive tradition of Israelite religion, a tradition, however, that had become clouded through lack of instruction and guidance on the part of Israel's civil and religious leadership (Is 1.26; 5.13; 10.1; Hos 4.4–6). The election by Yahweh (see election, divine), in which Israel so passionately believed and which it could abuse as a false guarantee of security, was accepted by the Prophets implicitly; they found in it all the moral imperatives that they preached (Am 3.2). The moral God of the Prophets was the Yahweh of Israel's cult, whose living presence isaiah experienced in the Jerusalem Temple (Is6.1–13). Prophetic teaching nowhere opposes any of the priestly torah of the Mosaic Law; Hos 4.1–6 implies a systematic summary of the moral code like that of the Decalogue, and Hos 8.12 refers even to a written torah (see commandments, ten).

Formative History of Israelite Religion. The Prophets themselves ascribe the origins of Israelite religion to the Mosaic age and make frequent reference to

the Exodus traditions (Hos 9.10; 11.1, 5; Am 2.9–11; 3.1;4.10). They presume a knowledge of the kerygmatic interpretation (see kerygma) of Israel's history that both the pentateuch and the deuteronomists record.

Covenant Relationship. The basis of this traditional faith was Israel's experience of divine election and covenant. see covenant (in the bible). Contrary to the Canaanite conception of covenant (see Jgs 8.33; 9.46: cult in exchange for the protection of a chosen deity) and to the patriarchal conception faithfully represented by Gns 28.20–22, the Mosaic covenant signified an act of grace by which Yahweh chose Israel out of love (Dt 7.7–8), imposing on it a law of reciprocal love (Dt 6.5) as the condition of His continued protection and beneficence (Dt7.9–16). Though it is the Deuteronomic theologians, following the Prophets, who have evolved the theological language of the covenant, the distinctive concept itself (law founded on history; covenant an act of beneficence; reciprocal fealty) has been convincingly related, in the studies of G. Mendenhall (and after him W. Baltzer, W. Beyerlin), to the treaty forms of the ancient Near East current in the time of moses. The covenant explains Israelite Law, but the covenant relation itself is less legal than familial; its guiding norm is not legal justice but reciprocal loyalty (ḥesed, "steadfast love," pietas: the norm of the brotherbond between David and Jonathan, 1 Sm 20.8; see also 18.3). Through the covenant, Israel was constituted Yahweh's family (Am 3.1); Yahweh became the father (Dt 32.6; Hos 11.1; Jer 3.19) of many brethren. Hence the duty of loving God above all (Dt 6.5) is only the vertical dimension of a covenant love that is familial: "You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Lv 19.18). The prescriptions of the Law spelled out the obligations of ḥesed to God and neighbor (see Hos 6.6; 3.4, where "knowledge of God" and "fidelity" parallel ḥesed; see also Mi 6.8). Yahweh is the "faithful God who keeps covenant and ḥesed with those who love him and keep his commandments" (Dt 7.8).

Mosaic Law. The Law of Moses, as presented in the kerygma, has the formality of covenant duty and disregards specific origins or earlier intents of the individual prescriptions. The ancient feasts and observances of the past, whatever their original meaning, have been related to the covenantal history of Israel. Similarly, the ancient dietary customs and purificatory practices have been interpreted as outward manifestations of the holiness that must characterize a people consecrated to God. It would be impossible to isolate the oldest Mosaic nucleus of the

Law from the unities discernible in the Pentateuch and Deuteronomy, since all of these presuppose progressive development and more recent formulation and collection. The form-critical studies of the Mosaic Law by A. Alt and M. Noth, among others, however, have perhaps made a more decisive contribution toward establishing its earliest dimensions. Israel's apodictic Law is substantially without parallel in the ancient Near East. This distinctively Israelitic form itself argues for the prophetic origin (and succession; see Dt 18.15–18) that Biblical tradition ascribes to Moses (Ex 33.7–11; etc.). The casuistic law, which had its origin in judicial decisions, often parallels other ancient Near Eastern law codes; however, this is the result of an independent application of common legal principles that owes little if anything to the influence of the legislations of the more advanced cultures that surrounded Israel (see law, ancient near-eastern; law, mosaic; holiness, law of).

Israel, the Product of its Religion. It is less correct to say that Israelite religion came out of Israel than that Israel itself was the product of its religion. It was a common religion with its central sanctuary at shechem (possibly a proto-Israelite center from patriarchal times; see Gn 34; 48.22; Jos 24) or Shiloh (1 Sm 1.3; Jer 7.12) that provided the first unity of the federation of tribes whose historical and ethnic complexity can still be perceived behind the traditions that have combined to make up the united history of Israel. Acceptance of the common covenant-God in rites such as the one described in Joshua 24.1–28 continually introduced new elements into the religious federation and assured the preservation and recasting of the Mosaic traditions. Israel's wars were religious wars, as is attested alike by the historical narratives and the ancient poetry preserved in them (e.g., Gn 49.22–26; Ex 15.21; Dt 33.26–29; Jgs 5.1–31). Israel's religion, with its unique conception of God and His relation to man, made this people unassimilable to either Canaanite or Philistine, and thus eventually brought it to nationhood. Even then, the constitutive influence of its religion continued to prevent Israel from ever becoming in reality "like all the nations" (1 Sm 8.5).

Relationship to Patriarchal Religion. The relation of Mosaic Yahwism to the religion of the Patriarchs is not easy to determine (see patriarchs, biblical). While the patriarchal stories preserved in the Pentateuch have retained a remarkably accurate historical contact with the social and cultural milieu they presuppose, their continuity is artificial; popular tradition had inevitably assimilated patriarchal theology to that of the later Israel. The Prophets knew the patriarchal stories (see Is 1.10; Hos 11.8; 12.2–14; Am 5.11), but they made no effort to find Israelite origins in the Patriarchs; for them, as for the Deuteronomic historians, Israel's history began with the Mosaic age. The Pentateuchal traditions, however, saw in the patriarchal history partly a remote preparation for the Mosaic covenant, partly an additional proof of Yahweh's goodness in giving Israel a land in which its earliest ancestors had dwelt merely as pilgrims and strangers (Gn 23.3; etc.). The tradition of the patriarchal "covenant" [in reality, as represented in Gn 15.7–11, 17–21 (J), etc., an unconditioned promise on the part of God] has not been simply imagined after the analogy of the covenant of Sinai. It is a distinct tradition whose omission by the preexilic Prophets may well have been calculated; with its character of unconditioned promise it was hardly the emphasis needed in dealing with a people all too prone to take election for granted and to ignore covenant duties. Historically, covenant with the tribal God, "the God of the Fathers" (cf. God of Abraham, God of Isaac: Gn 28.13; 31.53; Shield of Abraham: Gn 15.1; Mighty One of Jacob, Shepherd, Rock of Israel; Gn 49.24; etc.), corresponds to the cultural background predicated of the Patriarchs; and their worship of the Deity under the name of el (El Shaddai: Gn 17.1; 35.11, etc.; El Elyon: Gn 14.19–20; El Bethel: Gn 35.7; El Ro'i: Gn 16.13; El Olam: Gn 21.33; etc.) authentically reflects the Canaan of patriarchal times, as has been confirmed by the Ugaritic tablets, which contain some of the same titles (see ugarit; ugaritic-canaanite religion). Though Israelite

religion and Law have their proper beginnings with Moses, there must have been some real continuity with the patriarchal religion. A new religious movement rarely emerges that has not taken account of and built on prior beliefs.

Subsequent Development. The religion of Israel that began in historical events was also strongly affected by them in its subsequent development. There was a progressive revelation and an unfolding of doctrine that produced various theologies.

In the Period of the Kingdom. With the coming of Israel to nationhood and its adoption of kingship, the equilibrium between religion and people was disturbed and new postures were called forth. The covenant idea itself with its law was now challenged by the existence of a state possessed of a royal bureaucracy and ruled by kingly decrees; in any case, some of the ancient law was now manifestly inadequate in the face of changes that time had brought in culture and polity. Israelite religion responded to this threat to its existence through prophecy, which not only spoke with its own voice, but also influenced other currents of religious thought that offered partly alternative responses. The mixed reaction to monarchy discernible in the source material of the book of Samuel [1 Sm 8.4–22; 10.17–24; 12.1–25 with9.1–10.16; see samuel, book(s) of] found echoes throughout Israelite history (contrast the idealized picture of the age of the Judges in the book of Ruth with the promonarchical supplement to the book of Judges in Judges ch. 17–21; see judges, book of; ruth, book of). On both sides the reaction was a religious one: on the one hand a reluctance to abandon a distinctive theocratic polity and to incur the concomitant danger of assimilation to the ways of "all the nations" from which Israel had been called, and on the other a discernment of Yahweh's guiding hand and will in the inevitable course of human events, a progressivism equally clear in the Israelitic tradition.

Work of the Prophets. Prophecy with its living word of God provided a religious direction for monarchic Israel that is unparalleled in any other ancient people and maintained the covenant ideal imperturbably in the face of institutions that should otherwise have brought about its eventual extinction. It remained always, however, a religious force that adopted no programmatic approach to Israelite society. It stood aloof from such reactionary movements as that of the Rechabites (see 2 Kgs 10.15–16; Jer 35.1–19); its frequent evocation of the

(partly idealized) nomadic past (Jer 2.2–3; Hos 2.16; etc.) was not to support a movement of return to a more primitive economy, but like the prophetic references to paradisaic peace (Is 11.6–9; Hos 2.20), it held up the image of a vanished age of Israelitic purity (Jer 2.21; Hos 2.17; Am6.25; a viewpoint not shared by Ezekiel ch. 16 and 20). Prophecy was always harsh in its criticism of the monarchy, but it did not seek its abolition. In general, prophetic religion was indifferent, even serenely indifferent, to human institutions and spoke beyond these institutions to the popular conscience.

Development of Older Laws. Another manifestation of the vitality of Israelite religion can be seen in the development and adaptation of its legal tradition. The Deuteronomic law code (Dt 12–26), which also shows evidence of prophetic influence, was elaborated probably in a circle of Levitical priests (a Deuteronomic term) and probably in northern Israel sometime before the capture of Samaria by the Assyrians in 721 b.c. It is in part a recasting of earlier laws (cf. Ex 21.2–11 with Dt 15.12–18) and in part legislation peculiar to itself; the latter too, however, may contain ancient legal formulations. It is noteworthy for its law of the single sanctuary (Dt 12.13–14), supporting the ancient amphictyonic principle, a law that influenced the reforms of the Judahite Kings Hezekiah (2 Kgs 18.3–7) and especially Josiah (2 Kgs 22.3–23.27; the "book of the law" featured in this narrative is usually taken to have been Deuteronomy). Deuteronomy's humanitarian tone and provisions (e.g., Dt 14.27–29; 15.7–11) and its theme of covenant love as the spirit of observance of law thoroughly wedded the best in the prophetic and the legal traditions and also inspired the postexilic Deuteronomic history with its prophetic judgment on Israel's history under the covenant and the kings. A parallel legal development was the legislation of the Pentateuchal Priestly writers, which was codified and elaborated during the Exile by a school of

Sadocite priests that had some relationship to the prophetic activity of ezekiel. Like the Deuteronomic, this priestly school also redacted the Mosaic traditions of the covenantal history and brought the Pentateuch to substantially its final form.

Influence of the Liturgy. Another dimension of priestly religion in which many Israelites found their most satisfying relation to God and to one another was the liturgy. The truly spiritual and productive influence of the liturgy is reflected in many ancient Psalms (see psalms, book of), and modern scholarship tends to detect liturgical influence in many other parts of the Old Testament, including the prophetical (Is 6.1–4; Hab 2.20; Zep 1.7; Zec 2.17). The liturgy became one of the mainstays of the postexilic religion. It obviously meant much to Ezekiel and the postexilic Prophets. It was central in the thought of the Biblical chronicler, and for a pious Jew such as the late writer Ben Sirach (see sirach, book of), it concretized all of Israel's religious heritage (Sirach 45.23–25; 50.1–21).

Development of Eschatological Ideas. Israelite religion likewise developed with respect to its doctrine on the destiny of the nation. Doubtless an eschatology of some kind was a part of Israelite religion from the beginning [see eschatology (in the bible)]; election itself, when taken in the context of a total divine purpose (cf. Am 3.7), implies an eschatological idea. The cult undoubtedly made its contribution to the development of the idea, dwelling on such themes as that of the glorification of Jerusalem [Is 2.2–3; 4.2–6; Mi 4.1–4; Ps 47 (48).2–4] and the universal kingship of Yahweh [Ps 92 (93); 96 (97); 98 (99); etc.]. The early Prophets actually exploited this eschatological idea when they insisted that Israel stood under the coming judgment of God. However, whereas the preexilic Prophets had to oppose an uncritical expectation of divine intervention for good, the Prophets of the Exile and postexilic period could indulge Israel's hopes of salvation, especially in view of the doctrine of redemption through suffering, first enunciated by preexilic Prophets (e.g., Hos 2.16–22) and applied to the exilic situation especially by Deutero-Isaiah (Is ch. 41–55; see isaiah, book of). Never, however, did prophetic eschatology become an unqualified assurance of salvation as it did in some of the post-Biblical apocalyptic writings. The restoration of Israel would still be a deed of God's grace, done for His own name's sake (Ez 36.32). By it Israel would be made a sign to the nations (Ez 34.29–31; 37.28) and a means whereby they might find the God of their own salvation (Is 45.6, 14; 49.22–23).

Development of Royal Messianism. One aspect of this salvation expectation, though by no means its only or exclusive aspect, is the Old Testament doctrine of royal messianism, the belief that Yahweh's universal domination would be effected through a Davidic king, the Lord's anointed (Heb. māšîaḥ ; Aramaic mešîḥā ; hence English Messiah). This belief, rising from the promise given to David through prophecy [2 Sm 7.4–16; Ps 88 (89).3–5, 19–37], strongly influenced the authors of the royal Psalms [Ps 2; 71 (72); 88 (89); 109 (110)] and some of the Prophets, notably Isaiah (Is 7.10–17; 9.2–7, etc.; see also such passages as Mi 4.14–5.3 and the additions to Hos 3.5; Am 9.11–12; etc.). It affected in varying degrees the thinking also of the Deuteronomic writers, the Chronicler, and other theologians of the Old Testament. It may be questioned whether in any part of the Old Testament the concept of a Messiah ever became, as it did in later Judaism, applied to a once-for-all ideal king in the pattern of David; generally speaking, the messianic hope of the Old Testament is fixed on the promise of the perpetuity of a dynasty. After the Exile royal messianism inspired the thoughts of the Prophets Haggai (Hg2.21–23) and Zechariah (Zec 6.9–14), but with the passing away of the monarchy and the increasing authority of the high priesthood, it tended to disappear, though it was later revived in Judaism under apocalyptic influence. The same apocalyptic influence contributed to a rethinking of eschatology, placing it in an end time beyond history and reinterpreting in these terms other soteriological figures such as the Servant of Yahweh (see suffering servant, songs of the) and the son of man.

Postexilic Judaism. The Babylonian Exile was the final formative event of magnitude in the history of pre-Christian Israel. Not only did it shatter the unity of land, people, and religion that had characterized the preexilic faith; it also altered the direction of personal religion by focusing attention on new unities that had to be as operative outside Palestine as within the land of promise. Though exilic Prophets had looked for a restoration of Israel and Judah as a single nation (Ez 37.15–23, etc.), this hope was never realized as a political fact; nor did the exiles who returned from Babylon (probably relatively few in number) assimilate with the remnants of the Israelite population that had not passed through the experience of the Exile (Ezr 4.1–5). The Israelite religion that reemerged in Palestine was that which had been formed by Judahite exiles in Babylonia. It became the normative, shared by the far greater number of Jews who henceforth would make up the diaspora.

Development of Personal Religion. This religion evidenced a new personalism, dictated by the changed conditions of the Exile and its aftermath, and already anticipated by jeremiah (Jer 31.29–30) and Ezekiel (Ez 18.2–30). It is not true that personal religion had been impossible before the Exile or that the individual had simply been submerged in the people; the evidence of innumerable Psalms and other records of personal piety (e.g., the "confessions" of Jer 11.18–12.6; 15.10–21, etc.) disproves this. Nevertheless, the new emphases in Judaism gave rise to a different kind of personal religion. The synagogue replaced the temple for the great majority of Jews; assemblies for the reading of the Law with instruction by the scribe [see scribes (in the bible)], and the later rabbi, like that described in Nehemiah chapter 9, became the norm of Jewish observance rather than the cultic rites that could be attended by the few in Jerusalem. The prophetic doctrine of the remnant of Israel, the true Israel of faith that was expected to be the residue of Yahweh's destructive judgment (Is 1.24–27; 10.17–23), such as Jeremiah had hoped to find in the return from the Exile (Jer 24.1–7), was now applied to the postexilic community by Trito-Isaiah (Is ch. 56–66) and the other postexilic Prophets to distinguish the faithful from the faithless by the standard of obedience to the Law. The faithful were seen as the ’ănāwîm of the Prophets, that is, the "poor," the "humble," originally the economically dispossessed, who could rely on Yahweh alone (Am 2.6–7, etc.), now simply those who were wholeheartedly devoted to Yahweh as evidenced by their adherence to His Law, and thus separated from the unrighteous who ignored the Law (the "fools" of the later Wisdom literature) [see wisdom (in the bible)].

Emphasis on the Law. The disappearance of prophecy contributed to the establishment of the Law as God's final and definitive revelation to Israel. As time drew on, the lack of prophecy was still keenly felt, but more and more the era of revelation was recognized as closed, and the reappearance of prophecy itself was expected merely as a means of solving problems of interpretation of law and custom (1 Mc 4.46). The covenant norm of ḥesed itself became synonymous with obedience to the Law; hence the hasidaeans (Hebrew ḥăsîdîm, the pious), the strict observers of the Law (1 Mc 2.42), who were the forerunners of the pharisees (the separated). As the late Biblical literature can testify, this legal religion could be a truly spiritual experience far removed from a soulless legalism.

Development of Doctrine. The tradition of Judaism, like that of the earlier Israel, laid far greater stress on moral performance and ethical conviction than on doctrinal formulation. It was a religion lived in the heart rather than the head, a fact not always appreciated by Christians, who are apt to find its attitude to doctrine vague and inadequate. Faith was first and foremost a complete reliance on God rather than the source of specific affirmations about the divine nature. Nevertheless, doctrine also developed in the postexilic Judaism. The Pharisees maintained a progressive attitude toward both law and doctrine, mitigating and adjusting the former in consideration of changed conditions and supplying for inadequacies in the latter, even with the help of non-Israelite forms of thought. Thus by recourse to the Greek idea of the immortality of the soul, an attempt is made in Wis 3.1–9 to solve the problem of the future life, which was never really faced before in the Old Testament, and a parallel solution is offered in 2 Mc 12.39–45 by testifying to a developing doctrine of personal resurrection (an idea fore-shadowed in Ez 37.1–14 and Dn 12.1–3). The book of Daniel likewise shows the increasing interest of postexilic Judaism in angels and the spirit world (see angels, 1). These works are Pharisaical in spirit; by contrast, the Sadducean Sirach (see sadducees) ignores all such ideas and is content to stand on the earlier content of Old Testament revelation (Sir 24.23–29). Characteristically, too, it is in Wis 13.1–9; 14.12–21 that such doctrinal themes are continued and developed as the "theoretical" monotheism of the Deutero-Isaiah (Is 44.9–20, etc.), which considerably influenced the doctrine of the Priestly creation narrative (Gn 1.1–2.4a).

Development of Wisdom Literature. The Wisdom literature, which in substance is postexilic, is instructive in showing how varied were the currents of Jewish thought and in warning against a tendency to oversimplify the complex vitality of Judaism as it extended down into New Testament times. The Wisdom literature, moreover, is a valuable source of information on the religion of Israel as a way of life lived by its contemporaries. Laws that may be harsh in formulation may also be mild as interpreted in life. A wife who, theoretically, was the chattel of her husband might also be, in reality, his cherished partner in life (Prv 31.10–31; Eccl 9.9; Sir 26.1–4, 13–18; etc.). From this literature and from the entire Old Testament as the record of Israel's religion, there emerges a history of faith and progress that is Israel's heritage to the New Testament and to the world. Not chiefly in its inadequacies, but rather in its ability to provide a fruitful and positive interpretation of life, has the religion of Israel found a fulfillment in the New Testament.

See Also: feasts, religious; god; prophetism (in the bible); sacrifice, iii (in israel); worship (in the bible)

Bibliography: r. de vaux, Ancient Israel, Its Life and Institutions, tr. j. mchugh (New York 1961), especially 271–517. j. p.e. pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, 4 v. in 2 (New York 1926–40; repr. 1959). w. f. albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel (Baltimore 1946; 4th ed. 1956); From the Stone Age to Christianity (2d ed. New York 1957). w. eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, tr. j. a. baker (London 1961) v.1. g. von rad, Old Testament Theology, tr. d. m. g. stalker, 2 v. (New York 1962–) v.1. g. e. mendenhall, "Covenant Forms in Israelite Tradition," The Biblical Archaeologist 17 (1954) 50–76. a. alt, "Die Ursprünge des israelitischen Rechts," Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel (Munich 1953–) 1:278–332; "Der Gott der Väter," ibid. 1:1–78. m. noth, Die Gesetze im Pentateuch (Halle 1940). s. o. mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel's Worship, tr. d. r. ap-thomas, 2 v. (Nashville 1962). j. w. gaspar, Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament (Washington 1947).

[b. vawter]

3. History of Israel

Israel as a nation with its own government and its own territory is considered to have existed from c. 1200 b.c. to a.d. 70. The brief historical summation that follows will cover this period, although, at the beginning, some historical evaluation of the Israelite traditions that extended Israel's history back to its origins in Abraham's migration into Palestine (c. 19th century b.c.) must be given also. After the formative periods of the Exodus from Egypt and the conquest and settlement of the land of Canaan, Israel's history may be reviewed during the following main periods: the united monarchy (c. 1000 to c. 922 b.c.), the separate kingdoms of Israel and Judah (c. 922 to 587), and the postexilic period (538 b.c. to a.d.70).

EMERGENCE OF ISRAEL

The ancient oral and liturgical traditions of the Israelite people were the foundations upon which they built the theologically centered summation of their origins, as it is now extant in the first seven books of the Bible. It was a popular, religious summation, not a history of Israel's origin in the modern sense. It was a unique type of literature that combined authentic, historical memories with profound theological insights into God's activity in bringing Israel into existence, an activity not subject to the historian's judgment. It was therefore salvation his tory (heilsgeschichte). Recent archeological discoveries have established, however, that the theological interpretation found in this sacred history did not nullify a basically accurate sketch of the Patriarchal age, the period of the Exodus from Egypt, and the settlement of the Israelite tribes in palestine.

Patriarchal Age. The Book of genesis relates episodes from the lives of the three Patriarchs, abraham isaac, and jacob, the ancestors from whom the Israelites and some of their neighboring nations originated. At the beginning of the 20th century, historical critics had almost completely discounted that any authentic historical memories were reported in these Patriarchal narratives. They held that the earliest document, the yahwist, at the basis of these narratives, was not written down until almost 1,000 years after the events it described. It could not have given any accurate account of the events through which the Patriarchs lived and by which the Israelite people were formed and their faith awakened.

Such a negative attitude has recently been shown to have been wholly erroneous. An extensive comparison between names in Genesis and Northern Mesopotamian names, now known from extra-Biblical sources of the 1st half of the 2d millennium b.c., has established that the names Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Haran, Nahor, Serug, Benjamin, etc., were common, or of a common form, during the general period ascribed by Genesis to the Patriarch's wanderings and in the general area whence Abraham and his seminomadic group migrated, a fact not true of the later period in Palestine when the Yahwistic traditions were definitively written down. The Genesis description of Patriarchal life and wanderings, including the places where they temporarily settled on the central Palestinian ridge, fits accurately into what is now known about the tribes of ass nomads, which were in the process of becoming sedentary during the major part of the 2d millennium b.c. Even journeys of such nomads to Egypt and their quasi settlement there on the fringe of the "sown" are well exemplified during this period from non-Biblical sources. Finally, many of the customs and institutions found in Genesis are now known not to have been those of Israel and judah in the later monarchical period but ones found in sources from the mid-2d millennium b.c. from Nuzi and Mari, sources that were themselves records of more ancient customs that were prevalent in the general northern Mesopotamian region.

The honest historian should therefore conclude that Israel's remembrances of its origins, although not to be classified as history by intent and plan, were nevertheless rooted in history. Israel's traditions evoked a response of faith from those who believed in the God who chose the Patriarchs, which is not contradicted by what is now known of Near-Eastern history during the Middle Bronze (c. 2250 to c. 1500 b.c.) and Late Bronze Ages (c. 1500 to c. 1200 b.c.).

The Exodus. Israel's remembrance of its originally happy and then bitter sojourn in Egypt was so strong that it could not possibly have been legend. There would have been no reason to emphasize an inglorious period of servitude in a saga of a nation's origins. Probably not all the tribes descended to Egypt or remained there for such a long period as is ordinarily thought. The Rachel tribes, Joseph and benjamin, elements of the Levi tribe, and sections of Judah and simeon, probably entered Egypt during the Hyksos period and dwelt for a long period on the northeastern fringe of the Egyptian Delta, "in the land of Gesen." There they were able to continue their traditional raising of sheep and goats (Gn 47.3–4).

Once this minority group began to be numerous and after Egyptian nationalism had reasserted itself against the Hyksos dynasty, as happens so often in human history, the nationalists began to persecute and enslave the growing minority group and eventually forced them to leave. The memory of this escape from Egyptian oppression remained throughout Israelite history the foremost example of God's saving protection for Israel, a theological conception that goes beyond mere human history [see exodus, book of].

Desert Wandering. The exact details of the desert journey of the Israelites and its stages have been lost in the liturgical and religious accounts of God's great saving act found in the Bible. The ancient traditional site of Mt. horeb or sinai has recently been called into doubt, so that some scholars map out a completely different route than the commonly accepted one; but the reasons for identifying Mt. Sinai with a mountain in the southern part of the Sinai peninsula still remain credible. The quasi settlement of the exiting Israelite tribes around Kadesh in southern Palestine is of more certain historicity. Here the nomadic tribes took a long step forward in their process of settlement. They learned more advanced social customs from the Madianites (Exodus ch. 18) and made some attempts to move more deeply into the ridge land of Palestine from the south, joining forces with neighboring tribes such as the sons of Caleb and the Kenites. Their experience with Yahweh at the time of their pilgrimage to Sinai became, however, the central magnet, the centripetal force, that made tribes of varying background cling together until they finally established a theocratic nation.

This process was directed by God's spokesmen and representatives, such as moses, joshua (Son of Nun), the judges, and King david. Recently, historical criticism has returned to a more positive view concerning the historicity of Moses and has rescued him from being a legendary figure. There are no strong reasons for doubting that he was the leader of the Exodus, the organizer of Israel's basic religio-civil laws, and the inspired teacher of their faith.

Date of Exodus. When the formative egress from Egypt took place is still a disputed question. The arguments for dating the Exodus in the 15th century b.c. are being more and more discounted, while those indicating the 13th century are gaining probability and adherents. Some of the reasons for the latter theory are: the pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty (13th century b.c.) resided in the Delta, where they carried on extensive building programs (cf. Ex 1.11–14); the kingdoms of the edomites moabites, and Ammonites are now known not to have existed before the 13th century, yet Israel's journey in the Transjordan supposes their existence; archeology shows a distinct retrogression in arts and crafts in Palestine at the beginning of the iron age in the last half of the 13th century, which would indicate the displacement of a higher civilization by nomadic tribes, such as were the Israelites; excavations at Bethel and Lachish date a destruction of these cities in the last half of the 13th century, and, finally, the stele of Mer-ne-Ptah (1223 to 1211 b.c.) names Israel as a defeated foe but classifies them as a people and not as a country, i.e., they were not yet sedentary. The Exodus took place, then, about the mid-13th century b.c. during the latter part of the reign of Ramses II.

The Conquest and Settlement. The Book of josh ua simplified drastically the details of Israel's complex and slow conquest and settlement of the land later known by its name. The Book of judges indicates that the tribes of Judah and Simeon, along with allied, non-Israelite tribes, gradually conquered southern Palestine from the south and perhaps also from the east, over a rather long period that was not completed until David took jerusa lem and some upland Philistine cities in the beginning of the 10th century b.c. The Book of numbers and the Book of joshua recount that the main body of the Rachel tribes led by Moses and Joshua followed the Transjordanian pastoral route past Edom, Moab, and Ammon to penetrate Palestine from the east through the valley of the jordan, a constant gateway throughout history to Palestinian agricultural regions for invading Bedouin.

Time of Joshua. Although religious tradition attributed to the great hero Joshua, the successor of Moses as God's charismatic leader, many of Israel's victories that were not his or that took place after his time, he still remains the predominant leader in the conquest of central Palestine and not a mere creation of etiological legends [see etiology (in the bible)]. An initial victory at jeri cho followed by that at Bethel would have opened up for the Israelite tribes the main central ridge, which was sparsely settled at this time by seminomadic tribes similar, and probably related, to the main body of the Israelites. Other Israelite tribes, of long residence in the pastoral regions of northern Palestine, would have joined with their brothers, just arrived from the desert and their experience with Yahweh, to form at Shechem a greater Israelite federation by the acceptance of the Sinaitic covenant. This seems to be the historical background of Joshua's renewal of the covenant with Yahweh described in Jos 8.30–35 and chapter 24. Such a strong federation of nomadic tribes would have led some smaller enclaves, such as the Horites of Gibeon, to join with them in peaceful alliance (Joshua chapter 9), while the Canaanite city-states became alarmed and tried unsuccessfully to impede the growth of the Israelite federation at the battles of Gibeon (Joshua chapter 10) and the waters of Merom (Joshua chapter 11). Yet, at Joshua's death the Israelite amphictyony had really gained a strong foothold only in the hill region of Palestine. Much remained to be conquered from the three centers of strength, Judah and Simeon in the south, the Joseph tribes in the central region on both sides of the Jordan, and the northern tribes in Galilee. These Israelite islands were cut off from each other by Canaanite strongholds, such as Jerusalem and Beth-Shan, along with other cities of the Plain of Jezreel. Another, and eventually more serious, obstacle to Israelite expansion than the Canaanite population was the philistines, who had settled along the southern and central Palestinian coast shortly after the Israelites had established control of their pastures and vineyards located in the highlands.

Time of the Judges. The period that followed the original partial conquest saw Israel fighting constantly, now in one region, now in another, to maintain and expand its hold on the hill territory against three archenemies, the settled Canaanites, the aggressive and iron-armed Philistines, and the raiding camel nomads, called Madianites and Amalekites, who envied Israel's advance toward better food and stability. The repeated battles for existence brought leaders to the fore, who throughout the 12th and 11th centuries b.c. were scarcely able to maintain Israel's hold on the land given to it by Yahweh but who gradually strengthened Israel's sense of national unity. The main victory was the one at Taanach, by which control of the valley of Jezreel was won and a bridge was formed uniting the Joseph tribes with those of Galilee. Judah and Simeon remained in a somewhat cut-off position in the south, a division that was one of the causes for the later schism between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Near the end of this period of the Judges the Philistines won a great victory over Israel at Aphek (c. 1050). The central symbol of Israel's religious and national unity, the ark of the covenant, was captured, and its sanctuary at Shiloh was destroyed. The Israelites had come to a crossroads: to maintain their very existence they had to have a central leader around whom all the tribes could rally against the Philistines. Israel had to have a king.

UNITED MONARCHY

The forces threatening Israel's existence led to a popular demand for a nāgîd, a martial, charismatic leader who would direct Israel's army against its foes. This desire was reluctantly implemented by samuel when he anointed Saul as nāgîd (c. 1020 b.c.) and eventually led to the union of all the Israelite tribes under one melek, king, during the reigns of kings David and solomon.

Institution. Two varying accounts of the institution of the monarchy are juxtaposed in the First Book of sam uel. The first account (1 Sm 9.1–10.16; 11.1–15) describes how Yahweh Himself guided the secret election of Saul as king of Israel, how Saul defeated the Ammonites, and how the people acclaimed him as king. The other account (1 Sm 8.1–22; 10.17–27; 12.1–25) shows Samuel first resisting the popular demand for a king and acceding to it only because of a divine command (8.7,22). After Saul's election by lot, Samuel proclaimed the dire consequences of government by a human king (8.11–18) and in a menacing farewell discourse gave up his judgeship in the very act of exercising his role as prophet, i.e., spokesman for God (ch. 12). Both traditions are ancient, and from different points of view (to which all history is invariably subject in varying degrees) they transmit the essential facts—the need for centralized political and military control to defend against outside pressure and a nostalgic reluctance to give up the freedom of amphictyonic rule with its closer, more intimate ties with the ultimate nāgîd, God.

The type of kingship Saul exercised very likely resembled that of the kings of the recently established kingdoms of Ammon, Moab, and Edom rather than the allied tyrannies of the Philistines and the princelings of the Canaanite city-states. It was a national monarchy joining together under one warlord previously federated tribes. Much of the king's hold over these clans depended upon his success in battle and his loyalty to the basic religious elan that united Israel's disparate tribal loyalties. Thus, after Saul's initial victories over the Ammonites, the Amalekites, and the Philistines in the hill country and his repulse of Philistine attempts to invade Israelite highland strongholds via the narrow valleys leading eastward from the coast, he inevitably lost popular favor for his dynasty by the disastrous confrontation of Philistine chariots on the plain below Mt. Gilboa c. 1000 b.c. There he and his oldest sons died. Israel's collapse before Philistia seemed irremediable. Only another nāgîd, wiser and more popular than Saul, more loyal to the Yahwistic religion, and better versed in Philistine warfare could save Israel. Such a man was already upon the scene, and he gradually won over to himself the loyalty of all Israel—David, son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah.

Reign of David. The ancient traditions recount the rise of David (r. c. 1000–c. 961) to prominence as a valiant warrior in Saul's militia, the jealousy of Saul that eventually led to David's life as the exiled leader of an outlaw band, and David's adventures as the prince of Ziklag in the employ of the Philistine ruler of Gath. These traditions have the form of popular sagas and are of different and variant origin, but they agree essentially in their picture of David as a very talented warrior and troubadour who could so charm the populace as to create violent jealousy in the unstable Saul. The loyalty he inspired in his small band of marauders and his partial friendship with certain Philistines gave him freedom to develop his power in the south, where he protected the established towns by his raids against pillaging nomads.

After Saul's death, David reigned as king in Hebron for about seven years and emerged, after Abner and Ishbaal were killed, as the only hero who could possibly save Israel from Philistine oppression. When the elders of the northern tribes had submitted to him and accepted him as the king of Israel, he wisely moved the capital to jerusalem, which had been conquered by his own army of loyal mercenaries, was not connected with tribal traditions, and was centrally located on the border between the southern and northern tribes. It became his own city, David's city, and he soon made it the central sanctuary for all Israel by bringing to it the ark of the covenant. He thus established a strong focus of unity for the northern and southern elements of Israel, although his reign always remained a divided one. He was separately the king of Israel (the north) and the king of Judah (the south) but never the king of a completely unified nation that had loyalties only to him.

By his victories over the Philistines, of which very little is known, and by his subjection of the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, and aramaeans of central Syria and the Damascus area, David secured Israel from all its surrounding enemies. He thereby established a small empire whose extent was never matched under any other Israelite king. He organized the liturgy around the ark by favoring the survivors of the high-priestly clan of eli, which Saul had almost exterminated.

One problem he never solved was the dynastic succession to his throne. His sons were at odds with him and each other. Absalom rebelled against him with the aid of some of David's formerly strongest supporters and of the Benjaminites who were in favor of Saul's line. After this revolt was suppressed by his loyal mercenaries, David had to deal with another rebellion by the Benjaminites. When he was near death, his oldest remaining son, Adonijah, attempted to overthrow his favored son Solomon by claiming the kingship. David was finally forced to have Solomon anointed king while he was still alive.

The history of David in the Bible is mainly that of Jerusalem and his own family's vicissitudes. It is not a chronicle of his political and military achievements. But from the point of view of salvation history it laid down a theme that would be almost as strong throughout the remainder of Israelite history as the original Mosaic covenant and legislation, God's new covenant with Zion and the Davidic dynasty. Henceforth Yahweh would never completely desert Jerusalem or David's house. He would correct and punish, but He would never entirely reject His chosen and anointed leader, His messiah. This theme was to control the national perspectives and hopes of Israel especially after the absorption of the northern tribes by Assyria in the last quarter of the 8th century.

Reign of Solomon. The successes of David were consolidated and organized by Solomon (c. 961–c. 922 b.c.), who was fortunate to reign in a period when the great powers, Egypt and Assyria, were at their weakest, when the Sidonians were interested in maritime expansion and trade, and when the Aramaeans had not completely recovered from David's victories. Solomon and his kingdom were thus at peace, a peace ensured by the chariot army and garrisons that he established at great expense throughout his kingdom, of which the excavations at Megiddo have provided noteworthy evidence. He freely engaged in all kinds of commercial endeavors with the surrounding countries, allying himself with Hiram of Tyre in the production of metals and other trade and taking advantage of and exploiting the newly established camel trade over the vast wastelands of Arabia.

His building program included, besides the Jerusalem temple and royal palace, many fortified cities such as Gezer and Hazor, a fact confirmed by recent excavations. The phoenicians aided him with artisans and material, but the main body of his workers were enslaved Canaanites and other neighboring peoples, and even Israelites themselves were drafted into forced labor battalions in alarming numbers.

Solomon continued his father's attempts to break down tribal barriers in order to concentrate Israel around the throne. Twelve governmental units were established over which the king appointed prefects whose main duty was to collect enough tribute from each unit to provide for the royal court for a month each year. From even a rough estimate of this tribute the magnitude of Solomon's court and the terrible burden of taxation on the people are clearly apparent. The seeds of rebellion had been sown by such extravagance and economic imbalance.

Yet the 70 years during which David and Solomon ruled the united kingdoms were prosperous and fruitful for the Israelite people. They increased immensely, perhaps even doubled in the period. New towns and cities were founded. Arts and crafts were perfected. Literacy and literature became no longer an extreme rarity relegated only to a few scribes. The hebrew language, so glorious already in its oral transmission, entered its golden age as a written language in both prose and poetry. The economic oppression and draining of the still tribally oriented people, especially of the north, however, were factors too explosive to allow for a peaceful transmission of power to the next Davidic king. Add to the burden of maintaining the royal court the weakening of the pristine, centralizing Yahwism by syncretistic religious practices encouraged by Solomon's foreign harem and by his commerce with neighboring nations and one can easily see why the northerners shouted in the adamant face of Rehoboam, King of Judah (c. 922–c. 915), "What portion have we in David?" (1 Kgs 12.16).

ISRAEL AND JUDAH

Jeroboam I, King of Israel (c. 922–c. 901), led the northern tribes into a political and religious schism that lasted until the Assyrian destruction and colonization of the Northern Kingdom in the last quarter of the 8th century. After that, for another century and a half, the less important Southern Kingdom (Judah) carried on Israelite history until its destruction by the Babylonians in 587 b.c.

The Separate Kingdoms. Under the influence of prophetism (1 Kgs 12.21–24), hostilities between the two kingdoms were kept minimal, but Israel's enemies, especially the resurgent Egypt and Aram (Damascus), took military advantage of the breakup of the Solomonic empire. Early in Rehoboam's reign Shishak I, the founder of the 22nd Egyptian Dynasty (c. 935–c. 725), drastically reduced Judah's boundaries to its highland region and levied a heavy tribute that emptied Jerusalem's coffers. He must also have secured freedom for his commercial enterprises along the caravan route that led through Israel's western territory. (A stele of Shishak has been unearthed at Mageddo, the city guarding the main north-south caravan route over Mt. carmel.) Hostilities between Israel and Judah continued during the short reign of Rehoboam's son Abijah (c. 915–c. 913). In the reign of Asa, King of Judah (c. 913–c. 873), Baasha (c. 900–c. 877) of Israel conquered Rama in a part of Benjamin previously occupied by Judah as a buffer region just north of Jerusalem and caused Asa to appeal to Damascus for aid. Henceforth Israel would have to contend constantly with Damascene incursions in Galilee and Gilead.

The Northern Kingdom in the meantime had already given evidence of a problem that would sap its strength throughout its existence—its dynastic instability. Baasha had usurped the throne by murdering Jeroboam's son Nadab in the second year of his reign (c. 901–c. 900); but Baasa's dynasty lasted only into the second year of the reign of his son Elah (c. 877–c. 876), who was murdered by Zimri. Zimri in turn was killed within a week. A civil war then broke out in Israel, and only after four years did one of the strongest of Israel's kings, Omri, secure his throne (1 Kgs 16.22).

Omri. King Omri (c. 876–c. 869) changed Israel's capital from Tirzah to the city of Samaria, thus orientating his economic outlook toward the prosperous land of the Phoenicians. He cemented relations with Phoenicia by marrying his son Ahab to a Sidonian, Princess Jezebel, and thereby gained an important ally against the continuing harassment of the Aramaeans. In Transjordan Omri retook Medeba and won tribute from the Moabites, as attested by the mesha inscription. He made such an impact among the neighboring nations by strengthening Israel that even after his dynasty's violent end the Assyrians continued to refer to Israel as the House of Omri.

Ahab. Omri's son Ahab (c. 869–c. 850) continued to follow a policy of useful alliances by concluding a pact with Asa's son Jehoshaphat of Judah (c. 873–c. 849) and by the marriage of his daughter (or sister) Athalia to Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram (r. c. 849–c. 842). Continued commercial ties with Phoenicia aided the economy, and the Moabite tribute remained a source of income. Only the Damascenes caused trouble, but they were eventually defeated by Ahab near the Sea of Galilee (1 Kgs 20.22–34). An alliance was made between the two states to confront the Assyrian advance under Shalmaneser III into Syria. At the battle of Karkor (853 b.c.) Shalmaneser won a victory against a coalition of 11 kings, among whom were numbered those of Israel and Damascus; but it was so indecisive that he withdrew to Assyria. After the Assyrian threat was over, Israel, in league with Judah, again tried to win back from Damascus the former Israelite territory around Ramoth in Gilead, but it was defeated when Ahab was killed in battle.

The gravest threat to Yahwism arose at this time as a consequence of Jezebel's propaganda for Baal worship. The details of prophetic reaction to the resulting syncretism are found in the sagas of elijah and elisha recorded in the Books of kings.

Ahab's son Joram of Israel (c. 849–c. 842), brother and successor of the short-lived Ahaziah (c. 850–c. 849), allied his kingdom with Judah and Edom in an attempt to reconquer the rebellious King Mesha of Moab, but the coalition, after an initial victory, was repelled, and Moab remained independent. Relations with the Aramaeans remained fluid: Israel was allied with them against the threat of Assyria, but whenever the Assyrians retreated, the two countries renewed their rivalry. Judah during this period was very much involved with Israel's campaigns and lost control of much of its southern sphere of influence after the disastrous defeat by Mesha.

Jehu Dynasty. The Omri dynasty and its Queen Mother Jezebel, an ardent devotee of Baal, were slaughtered by a military uprising led by a certain Jehu (2 Kgs9.1–10.11) and abetted by Elisha and his brother Prophets, who were reacting to the favoritism shown to Baal worship under the Omrides. Jehu (c. 842–c. 815) became the founder of the last strong dynasty of Israel. He tried, it seems, to destroy the Davidic dynasty and take control of Judah, for, when he wiped out the Omrides, he killed also Jehoshaphat's grandson Ahaziah, who was king of Judah for only one year (c. 842). But he never succeeded in this, either because soon after his usurpation he was hardpressed by Hazael of Damascus (2 Kgs 10.32–33), who conquered Transjordan as far as the Arnon, or because Athalia, the Queen Mother of Ahaziah of Judah, quickly seized power by murdering all his sons except an infant one. The pressure from Damascus became even more intense under Jehu's son Joahaz (c. 815–c. 801), and Israel lost much of its territory and most of its army (2 Kgs 13.7). However, Damascus' strength was greatly curtailed by an Assyrian siege of that city in 802, and Joahaz's son Jehoash (c. 801–c. 786) was able to win back the Israelite territories taken by Hazael, a reconquest brought to completion under Jehoash's son, the great King Jeroboam II (2 Kgs 14.25–27).

Jehoash and Amaziah of Judah. In Judah, after Athalia's short reign (c. 842–c. 837), the only remaining son of Ahaziah, Jehoash, enjoyed a long but rather disastrous rule (c. 837–c. 800), which was plagued by Aramaean invasions and was ended by his assassination when he was still in his forties. He fostered, however, a popular reaction to the Baal worship that had been introduced in Jerusalem by Athalia. He reformed the appropriation of temple revenues to insure that the priests would not become rich to the detriment of the necessary repairs of the temple's buildings and furniture (2 Kgs 12.5–17).

The son of Jehoash of Judah, Amaziah (c. 800–c. 783), began his reign well by a victory over the Edomites, which reopened for him the lucrative commerce with arabia; but he antagonized Jehoash of Israel, who conquered the Judean army at Beth-Shemesh and sacked Jerusalem, thus disturbing the long peace between the fraternal kingdoms. The crisis led to Amaziah's murder, the result of a palace rebellion (2 Kgs 14.19).

Jeroboam II of Israel and Azariah of Judah. A period of peaceful prosperity followed for both kingdoms during the long reigns of Jeroboam II (c. 786–c. 746) in Israel and of Azariah (known also as Ozia or Uzziah; c. 783–c. 742) in Judah. Since Damascus and Assyria were impotent at the time, Jeroboam was able to regain the fullest expanse of Israel and to enrich his country by commercial enterprises. Not all the populace benefited by this prosperity; the Books of amos and hosea bear witness to the extravagant luxury of the rich and the miserable poverty of the poor during Jeroboam's rule.

The prosperity in Judah was more evenly distributed but not so equitably as to prevent the recriminations against the rich, as described in the Books of isaiah and micah, dating from shortly after this period. Azariah continued his father's policy of controlling and exploiting the southern caravan routes from Arabia and may even have dominated the commercial routes passing through Philistia (2 Chr 26.6–8). After having become a leper (2 Kgs 15.5) he ruled for eight years (c. 750–c. 742) through his son Joatham (who reigned c. 750–c. 735) before he died. Extra-Biblical evidence (see J.B. Pritchard, Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 282–83) attests that a Syrian coalition was led by Azariah (c. 743) against the reawakening power of Assyria under Tilglath-Pileser III. The Jehu dynasty had passed from history with the assassination of Jeroboam's son Zechariah (c. 746–c. 745) by the usurper Shallum only six months after he had ascended the throne. Assyria was on the march, and the whole Palestinian and Syrian coastland was threatened.

The Fall of Samaria. Tiglath-Pileser III (called also Pul, the name he took when he became King of Babylon), by victories over Urartu, had freed his armies for campaigns in Syria. Menahem of Israel (c. 745–c. 738), who had killed Shallum a month after the latter's seizure of the throne, was forced to pay tribute to Tiglath-Pileser in 738.

Aramaean-Israelite Revolt. After Menahem's son Pekahiah (c. 738–c. 737) was killed by an anti-Assyrian faction led by Pekah (c. 737–c. 732), it was not long before Pul reacted to the Israelite revolt that, in the meantime, Pekah had strengthened by making an alliance with Rezin, King of Damascus. While Israel and Damascus were trying to force Judah, now ruled by Ahaz (c. 735–c. 715), into their anti-Assyrian coalition by threatening to replace him by Ben Tabeel, the Assyrians were busy in the north, giving the final blows to Urartu. It was in these circumstances (c. 735) that the Prophet Isaiah encouraged Ahaz to trust in Yahweh alone (Is 7.1–16), but Ahaz appealed to Tiglath-Pileser for help and sent him a vassal's tribute. In 734 the Assyrians marched on Philistia to cut off any aid that might come to the coalition from Egypt, conquering a good part of Galilee as they passed through it. They then turned on Damascus, took it in 732, and in the same thrust captured Israel's possessions in the Transjordan. The kingdom of Israel was thus reduced to the small highland area around Samaria, while a large part of the Israelite population of the occupied territories was deported and their land given to colonists from other regions of the Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians had found a practical plan for deterring the repetition of a vassal's rebellion [see deportation (in the bible).]

Last Days of Samaria. Israel's misfortune led to another palace revolution. Hosea assassinated Pekah, quickly sent tribute to the Assyrians, and was thus allowed to reign (c. 732–724) as a vassal king over a very reduced kingdom. Ahaz made his vassalage official by submitting to the Assyrians at Damascus and thus rendered any move that Judah might attempt against Assyria an act of rebellion. At the same time the Assyrian religious cult was forced upon Judah, and Yahwism was endangered (2 Kgs 16.3–4, 10–18).

The next Assyrian King, Shalmaneser V, in the course of a campaign against Tyre (725), invaded Samaria and laid siege to its capital. King Hosea, who had vainly hoped to receive military aid from the King of Sais in the Egyptian Delta and had refused to give his annual tax to Assyria, was taken prisoner by Shalmaneser. But the city of Samaria withstood the siege for almost three years. A few months before Shalmaneser died (Dec. 721) it fell to the Assyrians and was destroyed. Sargon II of Assyria, who boasted of this conquest in his inscriptions because it took place in his accession year, deported most of the remaining inhabitants of the Northern Kingdom to northern Mesopotamia. Thus Israel disappeared from history. Its deported people lost their identity in foreign lands. The people who remained in the land were mixed with the new colonists, and many of them succumbed to the new religions formed by the amalgamation of various pagan creeds with an already watered-down Yahwism. Those who remained true to Yahweh were the ancestors of the later samaritans. The history of the Israelite people and their religion was henceforth to continue in Judah alone.

Judah until Its Fall. Since the invasion of Judah by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, is certainly to be dated in 701, and since it occurred in the 14th year of Ahaz's son Hezekiah, King of Judah (2 Kgs 18.13), the date c. 715 for the beginning of Hezekiah's reign seems better than that indicated by the synchronism afforded by 2 Kgs 18.1–2, 9–10. Hezekiah had a long reign (until c. 687) in a period that saw the greatest extent (even into Egypt) of the Assyrian empire. That the tiny kingdom of Judah was not completely absorbed by the mammoth empire, as Israel had been absorbed, remains one of history's tantalizing problems. Sacred history has given an answer that transcends the historian's purview: Judah was saved because of a religious and, hence, also a national revival that procured for it Yahweh's protection. Whatever his judgment of this theological interpretation, the historian must admit that Judah could not have had a national renewal without a preceding religious renewal.

Hezekiah. During the first half of Hezekiah's reign the times were generally propitious for his reform. Assyria had temporary troubles at home, and except for the campaign of the Assyrian army against Ashdod in 712 (Is 20.1), Palestine was left in peace until Sennacherib's invasion of Judah in 701. The reform, which wiped away the Assyrian cultic importations, was motivated by the pure Yahwism preached by Isaiah and Micah. It then, apparently for the first time, attempted to destroy all local sanctuaries, even those dedicated to Yahweh, and to make the temple in Jerusalem the sole focus of the orthodox cult. The vital school of religious thinkers behind the attempt, probably never successful in Hezekiah's reign, remained dormant under the long and idolatrous reign of the weak Manasseh, to reappear in its full vigor under King Josiah of Judah.

The campaign of Sennacherib (705–683) as recounted in the Bible may be a telescoping to two separate Assyrian expeditions, one in 701, the other quite some time later. This would explain the appearance on the scene of the Egyptian King Taharqo (the Theraca of 2 Kgs 19.9), who did not begin his reign until c. 685. Another possible explanation is that in 701, after Sennacherib had quickly reduced to rubble most of Judah and while he was just about to crush some stubborn fortified cities (Lachish and Libna) more essential to his coastal campaign than Jerusalem, an Egyptian army, anachronistically said to have been under the command of Taharqo (who was only nine years old at the time), advanced from the south. It was in these circumstances that a plague broke out in the Assyrian army, and Sennacherib was forced to return home, leaving Judah devastated and Jerusalem "like a shed in a melon patch" (Is 1.8). The silence in the Assyrian royal records about such a setback is understandable, given the general success of the campaign and the relative unimportance of Jerusalem as an obstacle to an Assyrian invasion of Egypt.

Manasseh, Amon, and Josiah. Under Hezekiah's son Manasseh (c. 687–c. 642) a ravaged Judah returned to its vassal status, paying tribute to Esarhaddon in 673 and to Ashurbanipal in 668. The religious reform was suppressed and God's spokesmen, the Prophets, lay hidden. The next king, Amon (c. 642–c. 640), was murdered by his own officials, but another group started a counterrevolution and gained control of the small kingdom for Amon's son josiah when he was still a boy. Josiah reigned (c. 640–609) until his tragic death in the battle of Mageddo, when he vainly tried to prevent the Egyptian army under Neco from invading Syria.

Under Josiah a religious reform, with which the Bible is almost exclusively concerned, accompanied and abetted a national resurgence that was possible because of Assyria's entrance into a fatal decline. As the Judean political and military reorganization progressed, the reform expelled from the land all foreign influences, religious and cultural. The discovery in Josiah's 18th year of at least the legislative parts of the Book of deuteronomy (2 Kgs 22.3–23.24) gave added impetus and purpose to the renewal and led to the suppression of local sanctuaries and the concentration of priests in Jerusalem. Although the reform was shortlived, it expressed a religious fervor that was to survive the ruin of Jerusalem and the Exile and be developed and formulated in the homiletical sections of Deuteronomy and the doctrines of the Book of jeremiah.

When the cities of Asshur and nineveh were destroyed in quick succession (614 and 612) by the medes and chaldeans, the Judeans rejoiced to see their old archenemy Assyria humbled. Josiah was so eager to hasten the total destruction of the remaining Assyrian forces that he tried to impede the Egyptian pharaoh Neco from marching to their aid, and he was killed in 609 at the pass of Mageddo (2 Kgs 23.29–30).

Last Kings of Judah. After the death of Josiah the anti-Egyptian faction in Judah set his second-oldest son Shallum on the throne under the name of Jehoahaz. But after a reign of only threee months he was deposed by the Egyptians and taken a prisoner into Egypt.

The Egyptians then installed, as their puppet king of Judah, Josiah's oldest son Eliakim, who took the throne name of Jehoiakim. Despite the enormous tribute that Judah had to pay Pharaoh Neco, Jehoiakim received no substantial military aid from Egypt when the Chaldean King of Babylon, nebuchadnezzar, invaded Palestine in 603, and he was forced to become a vassal of Babylon. But three years later, egged on by Egypt, he threw off the Babylonian yoke. In 598 Nebuchadnezzar set out to punish his rebellious vassal in Judah. Jehoiakim, however, died on Dec. 8, 598 b.c., shortly before the Babylonian army encamped before Jerusalem.

As the only way to save the city, his son and successor, Jehoiachin, known previously as Conia, after a reign of only three months and ten days, offered himself, his family, his whole court, and most of the nobles as prisoners (March 16, 597 b.c.). This was the first deportation of Judeans to Babylon.

On the shaky throne of Jerusalem Nebuchadnezzar set Jehoiakim's younger brother Mattaniah, who took the throne name of Zedekiah. Although his nephew Jehoiachin received a somewhat liberal captivity in Babylon, so that he survived to carry on the Davidic line, Zedekiah ultimately brought a tragic end both to himself and to his kingdom. Against the pleadings of Jeremiah, who continually counseled him to submit to Babylon, Zedekiah followed the popular, stubborn nationalism in more than once seeking help from Egypt to start a rebellion. In 589 Nebuchadnezzar marched. He laid siege to Jerusalem in January 588, sent detachments to storm other Judean strongholds, and at the approach of the Egyptian king Apries (588–568) stirred up the false hopes of the fanatic defenders by sending most of his sieging forces against the Egyptians. But Egypt proved false once more: they withdrew across the sands, and Jerusalem remained alone the focus of Babylonian fury. In August 587 a breach was made from the north, and Zedekiah fled southward down the Kidron Valley; but he was captured, blinded, and imprisoned. Jerusalem was laid waste by fire, and most of the people of Judah who escaped the sword were deported as slaves.

With their temple destroyed, their last two kings held captive, their towns and country smoldering ruins, the people of God bitterly faced exile and oblivion. Yahweh had rejected His own. Yet already in Babylon a man of visions, ezekiel, had seen God's glory coming from His Temple to hover over His faithful and purified remnant, to give them new hope, and to lead them back to their home.

POSTEXILIC PERIOD

With the reduction of the kingdom of Judah to a province of the Babylonian empire, the history of what was left of God's holy people Israel reached a crisis. A thorough break with Israel's past, spelling the end of the theocratic amphictyony and monarchy, was mysteriously and sacrally changed into a renewal of the past and a resurgence of the sole rule of the one God over the Judean remnant of Israel. This dynamic rejuvenation germinated among the higher classes of the people who had been deported to Babylon, and it kept on developing after its most fervent devotees had returned to Palestine. During the Persian period it emerged as the social reality now known as Judaism, a reality so durable that it was to defy every attempt to exterminate it in the periods of Greek and Roman hegemony and, in fact, in every period up to the present day.

The Exile. First of all, it is clear that much of Judah's population remained in Palestine even after a third deportation in 582, but they were a disheartened lot, leaderless, harassed by the Edomites who occupied southern Judah, still plagued by religious syncretism, and only capable of lamenting bitterly over the ruins of Jerusalem. The sole hopeful note in their situation was that Babylon had not mongrelized them by settling foreign colonists in their midst, as Assyria had done to Samaria. However, the future of Yahwism rested rather with those exiles in Babylon who would rather have forgotten their right hand than Jerusalem and all it meant for them [Ps 136 (137).5]. In a quite liberal captivity the deportees kept a semblance of their traditional social structure ruled by the elders, priests, and Levites. Even more importantly, however, their Prophets were allowed free reign to preach their gospel of a new Israel, a new Jerusalem, and a new covenant and law written in the hearts of Yahweh's people (Ez 36.26–27; Is ch. 40–55). The religious revival borrowed almost nothing from the Babylonian culture and cult. It was a revival that defies rational explanation. God had chastized His people, had led them out into the desert again, had spoken tenderly to them through His Prophets (Hos 2.16), and had raised up for them a new school of holy men, the scribes, who kept rehearsing for them the sacred lessons of their past. When cyrus, King of Persia, gave the most enthusiastic of them leave to go to Palestine in 538, it was truly "a holy nation" and "a kingdom of priests" (Ex 19.6) who lifted their packs and followed the Lord Himself as He led them toward zion.

Persian Period. The literary and chronological problems arising from the disarranged and lacunary sources for this era (see ezra, book of; nehemiah, book of) make it difficult to give an accurate account of its various phases. The summary that follows, therefore, claims merely plausibility for the sequence of events and their dates.

Restoration of the Temple. The exiles did not return in one great caravan; they kept coming back after 538 in separate groups and at various times. Sheshbazzar, apparently a son of Jehoiachin, the king of Judah who had been deported in 598, led the first group. Their hopes of rebuilding the temple were soon frustrated by the necessity of providing food and lodging for themselves in a depopulated and desolate land and by the opposition of the Samaritans, who considered Jerusalem under their control. The first resettlers succeeded only in leveling the temple area and arranging the foundations of the temple.

Another Davidic prince, Zerubbabel, succeeded where his uncle had failed. Encouraged by the prophetic utterances recorded in the Books of haggai and Zechariah and, perhaps, by the loosening of Persian control of Palestine while the king of Persia, darius i, was securing his throne, the Judeans, under the leadership of Zerubbabel and the high priest Joshua, son of Josedec, began again in 520 to rebuild the temple. Against the Samaritans' objections, they were allowed, by an appeal to the original edict of Cyrus, to continue until they completed the reconstruction in 515. It was more than 20 years since the first group of the deported had returned. The glorious hopes of Deutero-Isaiah (Is ch. 40–55) had not materialized, but at least the temple had been restored. More than half a century would pass before a new religious reform led by ezra would pave the way for a political renewal under nehemiah that would culminate in the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls.

Reform of Ezra. According to the literary analysis of R. de Vaux (Dictionnaire de la Bible, suppl. ed. L. Pirot et al., 4:764–65), the collation or telescoping of Ezra's record of his religious reform with Nehemiah's memoirs by the Chronicler (who was not Ezra) is the basis for the confusion presently recognized in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. (For opposing opinions, see A. van Hoonacker and W. F. Albright in bibliography.) This opinion holds that in the 7th year of Artaxerxes I (458), Ezra, a secretary in charge of Jewish affairs in the Persian court, came, armed with a royal decree, to reorganize the Judean community in accordance with the law of Israel's God, in which he was an expert. He read the Law of Moses (not the whole pentateuch, of course, but more than just the Priestly code) to the assembled people, which they accepted by celebrating the rites of the feast of booths (Tabernacles). The law thus became the official constitution for the hieratic society. The outcome of Ezra's severe strictures on marriages with non-Jews is unknown, for his report ends abruptly. These strictures certainly caused a great commotion among the faithful and in all probability were not very effective, as is evidenced by Nehemiah's grappling with the same problem. Ezra's commission was temporary, and he probably returned to his duties in Babylon when it expired.

Reform of Nehemiah. Ezra's religious reform gave birth to a national resurgence that had as its primary object the rebuilding of Jerusalem's fortified walls. A first attempt was thwarted by the Samaritans (Ez 4.8–22), who, by going beyond Artaxerxes' command that the work of fortification should merely be interrupted until a further decision be made, destroyed what had been accomplished (Neh 1.3; 2.3). Nehemiah, a high official in the Persian court, heard of these events and won from Artaxerxes a commission to repair Jerusalem's battlements. Soon after he arrived in Judea (445), he received a further commission as temporary governor of the Judean enclave (Neh 5.14). He stood firm against the threats and connivances of the Samaritans and their Judean collaborators and completed the basic fortifications within a few months. He then proceeded to populate the city (Neh 11.1) and regulate its social institutions (Neh ch. 5). He returned to the Persian court in 433 but was again present in Judea some years later, when he was forced to reconfirm his reform by having the community solemnly accept the obligations of God's law (Neh ch. 10).

After Nehemiah's time until the Greek conquest, i.e., for about a century (until 333), hardly anything is known of the Judean ethnarchy. Thanks to the reforms of Ezra and Nehemiah, Judea had become a land ruled by its own sacred law and thus enjoyed a certain autonomy and even the power to coin its own money.

The Greek Period. Before the victory of Alexander the Great at Issus (333), Greek influences had already spread into Palestine, but soon after it the whole of the Near East began to take on a Hellenistic appearance.

Domination by the Ptolemies. After the confusion following Alexander's death, Judea became a liberally controlled border land of the kingdom of the Ptolemies until they lost control of Palestine in 198 at the battle of Paneion. Under this rule during the 3d century b.c. the Jewish diaspora grew, especially in alexandria, to whose Greek-speaking Jews the translation of the Hebrew Bible called the septuagint is usually attributed. In Palestine Jerusalem was allowed to retain its ethnarchic autonomy throughout the conflicts between the Seleucid Dynasty and the Ptolemies, which are alluded to in Daniel ch. 11. When Antiochus III finally succeeded in winning control of Palestine it was not long before the relatively peaceful existence in Jerusalem was disturbed by Seleucus IV and his brother antiochus iv epiphanes.

Maccabean Period. The history of the maccabees recorded in the Books of the Maccabees recounts the direst threat to the existence of God's people since the Babylonian deportation. Antiochus IV attempted to strengthen his hold on Palestine by destroying the core of Jewish unity, dedication to Yahweh's laws, by a thorough process of Hellenization. He attacked Judaism by forbidding the practice of fundamental Jewish customs, such as their dietary laws and circumcision, and by forcing them to idolatry.

The reaction was noble in its loyalty to Yahweh and its fierce bravery. Judas Maccabee led a guerrilla war that succeeded in repelling the Greek forces sent against his rebellion and in gaining enough victories to cleanse and rededicate the temple in 165 b.c., which had been desecrated by Antiochus in 168. After the death of Judas, his brothers Jonathan and Simon continued hostilities against the Seleucids, who were involved in a dynastic struggle. By playing one claimant for the Antiochean throne against the other, the Judean leaders were successful in winning Jewish independence. The hasmonaeans (the dynasty begun by Simon's son, John Hyrcanus) thenceforth ruled in Jerusalem until the Romans conquered Palestine.

The Roman Period. The Jewish sects of pharisees and sadducees, as well as the essenes and the qumran community, originated in the troubled Maccabean period and continued their bitter rivalry during the 1st century b.c. It was a land divided and ravaged by civil war between the two claimants to the royal high-priesthood of the Hasmonaean dynasty, Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, supported, respectively, by the Sadducees and the Pharisees, that the Roman General Pompey found when he marched on Jerusalem in 63. He demanded tribute from Judea and took from the rule of Hyrcanus, whom he allowed to serve as high priest, all the coastland conquered by the Hasmonaeans. An Idumean, Antipater, who had been continually aiding Hyrcanus's cause, during the civil wars that followed Caesar's rise to power and his assassination was quite adroit at staying in the favor of whoever gained control of the Roman Empire. His son herod the great finally succeeded in having the Roman Senate recognize him as King of Judea. In 37 Herod laid siege and took Jerusalem with Roman aid, killed Antigonus, the last Hasmonaean, and began his long rule, which was to last until 4 b.c.

Herod, like his father, cleverly changed policies to fit the changes in Roman politics. After the battle of Actium (31 b.c.) he submitted to Augustus and won a good deal of independence for the internal control of his kingdom, which was expanded to almost the extent it had under the most powerful Hasmonaean, Alexander Jannaeus. Of all his building programs, that of the reconstruction of the temple was the most important in Jewish eyes; but this half-Jew never won the support of his people, because of his fostering of emperor worship, his cruelty to his own family, and the opposition of the Pharisees.

After his death the Romans disregarded his disposition of his kingdom by dividing it between three of his sons, the Tetrarchs herod antipas, Archelaus, and Philip. In a.d. 6 Archelaus was deposed by the Romans on a complaint from the Jews, and the regions of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea were placed under the direct control of Roman procurators except for the period from 41 to 44, when Herod Agrippa (see agrippa i and ii) was allowed an internal control of Samaria and Judea. The increasing tyranny of the procurators, e.g., of Pontius pilate, despite the benign rule of Porcius festus, finally led to a Jewish rebellion in 66. It was put down with merciless efficiency in the campaigns of Vespasian and Titus between 67 and 70. Jerusalem with its holy temple was captured and destroyed in April of the year 70, and thus the political history of Israel ended. Its sacred history continued in that of Christianity and in the post-Biblical history of the jews.

Bibliography: r. de vaux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, suppl. ed. l. pirot, et al. (Paris 1928–) 4:729–77; "Les Patriarches hébreux et l'histoire," Revue biblique 72 (1965) 5–28. r. de vaux, Ancient Israel, Its Life and Institutions, tr. j. mchugh (New York 1961) f. schmidtke, Lexikon für theologie, ed. j. hofer and k. rahner, 10 v. (2d, new ed. Freiburg 1957–65) 5:803–09. a. alt and e. kutsch, Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart, 7 v. (3d ed. Tübingen 1957–65) 3:936–44. w. f. albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity (2d ed. Baltimore 1957); Archaeology and the Religion of Israel (Baltimore 1946; 4th ed. 1956); The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra (New York 1963). m. noth, The History of Israel, tr. p. r. ackroyd (2d ed. New York 1960). a. van hoonacker, "La Succession chronologique: Néhémie-Esdras," Revue biblique 32 (1923) 481–94; 33 (1924) 33–64. j. bright, A History of Israel (Philadelphia 1959). f. f. bruce, Israel and the Nations: From the Exodus to the Fall of the Second Temple (Grand Rapids 1963). l. johnston, A History of Israel (New York 1964). w. foerster, From the Exile to Christ: A Historical Introduction to Palestinian Judaism, tr. g. e. harris (Philadelphia 1964).

[j. e. fallon/

l. f. hartman]

Israel

Compiled from the October 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

State of Israel

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 20,330 sq. km. (7,850 sq. mi.) including Jerusalem; about the size of New Jersey.

Cities: Capital—Jerusalem. Israel proclaimed Jerusalem as its capital in 1950. The United States, like nearly all other countries, maintains its embassy in Tel Aviv. Other cities—Tel Aviv, Haifa.

Terrain: Plains, mountains, desert, and coast.

Climate: Temperate, except in desert areas.

People

Population: (2007 est.) 6.43 million.

Annual population growth rate: (2007 est.) 1.2%.

Ethnic groups: Jews 76.2%; Arabs 19.5%; other 4.3%.

Religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Druze.

Languages: Hebrew (official), Arabic (official), English, Russian.

Education: Years compulsory—11. Literacy—96.9% (female 95.6%; male 98.3%).

Health: Infant mortality rate (2005 est.)—7.03/1,000 births. Life expectancy at birth—79.32 years; female 81.55 years, male 77.21 years.

Work force: (2.68 million; Central Bureau for Statistics, 2004) Agriculture—2.1%; manufacturing—16.2%; electricity and water supply—0.8%; construction—5.4%; trade and repair of motor vehicles—3.6%; accommodation services and restaurants—4.3%; transport, storage, and communication—6.5%; banking, insurance, and finance—3.3%; business activities—13.4%; public administration—4.7%; education—12.7%; health, welfare, and social services—10.7%; community, social, and personal services—4.6%; services for households by domestic personnel—1.6%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary democracy.

Independence: May 14, 1948.

Constitution: None; however, the Declaration of Establishment (1948), the Basic Laws of the parliament (the Knesset), and the Israeli citizenship law fill many of the functions of a constitution.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state); prime minister (head of government). Legislative—unicameral Knesset. Judicial—Supreme Court.

Political parties: Labor, Likud, Kadima, and various other secular and religious parties, including some wholly or predominantly supported by Israel's Arab citizens. A total of 12 parties are represented in the 17th Knesset, elected March 2006.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy

GDP: (2006 est.) $170.3 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2006) 4.8%.

Per capita GDP: (2006) $26,800.

Currency: Shekel (4.13 shekels = 1 U.S. dollar; 2007 est.).

Natural resources: Copper, phosphate, bromide, potash, clay, sand, sulfur, bitumen, manganese.

Agriculture: Products—citrus and other fruits, vegetables, beef, dairy, and poultry products.

Industry: Types—high-technology projects (including aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufactures, medical electronics, fiber optics), wood and paper products, potash and phosphates, food, beverages, tobacco, caustic soda, cement, construction, plastics, chemical products, diamond cutting and polishing, metal products, textiles, and footwear.

Trade: Exports (2006 est.)—$42.86 billion. Exports include polished diamonds, electronic communication, medical and scientific equipment, chemicals and chemical products, electronic components and computers, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, rubber, plastics, and textiles. Imports (excluding defense imports, 2006 est.)—$47.8 billion: raw materials, diamonds, energy ships and airplanes, machinery, equipment, land transportation equipment for investment, and consumer goods. Major partners—U.S., U.K., Germany; exports—U.S., Belgium, Hong Kong; imports—U.S., Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, U.K.

PEOPLE

Of the approximately 6.43 million Israelis in 2007, about 76% were counted as Jewish, though some of those are not considered Jewish under Orthodox Jewish law. Since 1989, nearly a million immigrants from the former Soviet Union have arrived in Israel, making this the largest wave of immigration since independence. In addition, an estimated 105,000 members of the Ethiopian Jewish community have immigrated to Israel, 14,000 of them during the dramatic May 1991 Operation Solomon airlift. 32.9% of Israelis were born outside of Israel.

The three broad Jewish groupings are the Ashkenazim, or Jews who trace their ancestry to western, central, and eastern Europe; the Sephardim, who trace their origin to Spain, Portugal, southern Europe, and North Africa; and Eastern or Oriental Jews, who descend from ancient communities in Islamic lands. Of the non-Jewish population, about 68% are Muslims, about 9% are Christian, and about 7% are Druze.

Education is compulsory from age 6 to 16 and is free up to age 18. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, 3-year junior secondary schools, and 3-year senior secondary schools, after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. There are seven university-level institutions in Israel, a number of regional colleges, and an Open University program.

With a population drawn from more than 100 countries on 5 continents, Israeli society is rich in cultural diversity and artistic creativity. The arts are actively encouraged and supported by the government. The Israeli Philharmonic Orchestra performs throughout the country and frequently tours abroad. The Jerusalem Symphony and the New Israel Opera also tour frequently, as do other musical ensembles. Almost every municipality has a chamber orchestra or ensemble, many boasting the talents of gifted performers from the countries of the former Soviet Union.

Israel has several professional ballet and modern dance companies, and folk dancing, which draws upon the cultural heritage of many immigrant groups, continues to be very popular. There is great public interest in the theater; the repertoire covers the entire range of classical and contemporary drama in translation as well as plays by Israeli authors. Of the three major repertory companies, the most famous, Habimah, was founded in 1917.

Active artist colonies thrive in Safed, Jaffa, and Ein Hod, and Israeli painters and sculptors exhibit works worldwide. Israel boasts more than 120 museums, including the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, which houses the Dead Sea Scrolls along with an extensive collection of regional archaeological artifacts, art, and Jewish religious and folk exhibits. Israelis are avid newspaper readers, with more than 90% of Israeli adults reading a newspaper at least once a week. Major daily papers are in Hebrew; others are in Arabic, English, French, Polish, Yiddish, Russian, Hungarian, and German.

HISTORY

The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 was preceded by more than 50 years of efforts to establish a sovereign nation as a homeland for Jews. These efforts were initiated by Theodore Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, and were given added impetus by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which asserted the British Government's support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

In the years following World War I, Palestine became a British Mandate and Jewish immigration steadily increased, as did violence between Palestine's Jewish and Arab communities. Mounting British efforts to restrict this immigration were countered by international support for Jewish national aspirations following the near-extermination of European Jewry by the Nazis during World War II. This support led to the 1947 UN partition plan, which would have divided Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under UN administration.

On May 14, 1948, soon after the British quit Palestine, the State of Israel was proclaimed and was immediately invaded by armies from neighboring Arab states, which rejected the UN partition plan. This conflict, Israel's War of Independence, was concluded by armistice agreements between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria in 1949 and resulted in a 50% increase in Israeli territory.

In 1956, French, British, and Israeli forces engaged Egypt in response to its nationalization of the Suez Canal and blockade of the Straits of Tiran. Israeli forces withdrew in March 1957, after the United Nations established the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Gaza Strip and Sinai. This war resulted in no territorial shifts and was followed by several years of terrorist incidents and retaliatory acts across Israel's borders.

In June 1967, Israeli forces struck targets in Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in response to Egyptian President Nasser's ordered withdrawal of UN peacekeepers from the Sinai Peninsula and the buildup of Arab armies along Israel's borders. After 6 days, all parties agreed to a cease-fire, under which Israel retained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River, and East Jerusalem. On November 22, 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the “land for peace” formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries.

The following years were marked by continuing violence across the Suez Canal, punctuated by the 1969-70 war of attrition. On October 6, 1973— Yom Kippur (the Jewish Day of Atonement), the armies of Syria and Egypt launched an attack against Israel. Although the Egyptians and Syrians initially made significant advances, Israel was able to push the invading armies back beyond the 1967 cease-fire lines by the time the United States and the Soviet Union helped bring an end to the fighting. In the UN Security Council, the United States supported Resolution 338, which reaffirmed Resolution 242 as the framework for peace and called for peace negotiations between the parties.

In the years that followed, sporadic clashes continued along the cease-fire lines but guided by the U.S., Egypt, and Israel continued negotiations. In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made a historic visit to Jerusalem, which opened the door for the 1978 Israeli-Egyptian peace summit convened at Camp David by President Carter. These negotiations led to a 1979 peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, pursuant to which Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, signed by President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menahem Begin of Israel.

In the years following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet relative to its borders with other neighbors. After the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from Jordan in 1970 and their influx into southern Lebanon, however, hostilities along Israel's northern border increased and Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon. After passage of Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon peace-keeping force (UNIFIL), Israel with-drew its troops.

In June 1982, following a series of cross-border terrorist attacks and the attempted assassination of the Israeli Ambassador to the U.K., Israel invaded Lebanon to fight the forces of Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon in August 1982. Israel, having failed to finalize an agreement with Lebanon, withdrew most of its troops in June 1985 save for a residual force which remained in southern Lebanon to act as a buffer against attacks on northern Israel. These remaining forces were completely withdrawn in May 2000 behind a UN-brokered delineation of the Israel-Lebanon border (the Blue Line). Hezbollah forces in Southern Lebanon continued to attack Israeli positions south of the Blue Line in the Sheba Farms/Har Dov area of the Golan Heights.

The victory of the U.S.-led coalition in the Persian Gulf War of 1991 opened new possibilities for regional peace. In October 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union convened the Madrid Conference, in which Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders laid the foundations for ongoing negotiations designed to bring peace and economic development to the region. Within this framework, Israel and the PLO signed a Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, which established an ambitious set of objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority. Israel and the PLO subsequently signed the Gaza-Jericho Agreement on May 4, 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities on August 29, 1994, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.

On October 26, 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a historic peace treaty, witnessed by President Clinton. This was followed by Israeli Prime Minister Rabin and PLO Chairman Arafat's signing of the historic Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on September 28, 1995. This accord, which incorporated and superseded previous agreements, broadened Palestinian self-government and provided for cooperation between Israel and the Palestinians in several areas.

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by a right-wing Jewish radical, bringing the increasingly bitter national debate over the peace process to a climax. Subsequent Israeli governments continued to negotiate with the PLO resulting in additional agreements, including the Wye River and the Sharm el-Sheikh memoranda. However, a summit hosted by President Clinton at Camp David in July 2000 to address permanent status issues—including the status of Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, final security arrangements, borders, and relations and cooperation with neighboring states—failed to produce an agreement.

Following the failed talks, wide-spread violence broke out in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza in September 2000. In April 2001 the Sharm el-Sheikh Fact Finding Committee, commissioned by the October 2000 Middle East Peace Summit and chaired by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, submitted its report, which recommended an immediate end to the violence followed by confidence-building measures and a resumption of security cooperation and peace negotiations. Building on the Mitchell report, In April 2003, the Quartet (the U.S., UN, European Union (EU), and the Russian Federation) announced the “roadmap,” a performance-based plan to bring about two states, Israel and a democratic, viable Palestine, living side by side in peace and security.

Despite the promising developments of spring 2003, violence continued and in September 2003 the first Palestinian Prime Minister, Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen), resigned after failing to win true authority to restore law and order, fight terror, and reform Palestinian institutions. In response to the deadlock, in the winter of 2003-2004 Prime Minister Sharon put forward his Gaza disengagement initiative, proposing the withdrawal of Israeli settlements from Gaza as well as parts of the northern West Bank. President Bush endorsed this initiative in an exchange of letters with Prime Minister Sharon on April 14, 2004, viewing Gaza disengagement as an opportunity to move towards implementation of the two-state vision and begin the development of Palestinian institutions. In a meeting in May 2004 the Quartet endorsed the initiative, which was approved by the Knesset in October 2004.

The run-up to disengagement saw a flurry of diplomatic activity, including the February 2005 announcement of Lieutenant General William Ward as U.S. Security Coordinator; the March 2005 Sharon-Abbas summit in Sharm el-Sheikh; the return of Egyptian and Jordanian ambassadors to Israel; and the May 2005 appointment of former World Bank president James D. Wolfensohn as Special Envoy for Gaza Disengagement to work for a revitalization of the Palestinian economy after disengagement. Wolfensohn's direct involvement spurred Israeli-Palestinian agreement on the Gaza ‘crossings” at Karni and Erez, on the demolition of settler homes, water, electricity, and communications infrastructure issues, as well as other issues related to the Palestinian economy.

On August 15, 2005, Israel began implementing its disengagement from the Gaza Strip, and the Israeli Defense Forces completed their withdrawal, including the dismantling of 17 settlements, on September 12. After broad recognition for Prime Minister Sharon's accomplishment at that fall's UN General Assembly, international attention quickly turned to efforts to strengthen Palestinian governance and the economy in Gaza. The United States brokered a landmark Agreement on Movement and Access between the parties in November 2005 to facilitate further progress on Palestinian economic issues. However, the terrorist organization Hamas—building on popular support for its “resistance” to Israeli occupation and a commitment to clean up the notorious corruption of the Palestinian Authority (PA)—took a majority in the January 2006 Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, with Hamas leader Ismail Haniya as Prime Minister. The Israeli leadership pledged not to work with a Palestinian government in which Hamas had a role.

Shortly following Hamas’ PLC victory, the Quartet—comprised of the United States, European Union, United Nations. and Russia—outlined three basic principles the Hamas-led PA must meet in order for the U.S. and the international community to reengage with the PA: renounce violence and terror, recognize Israel, and respect previous agreements, including the roadmap. The Hamas-led PA government rejected these principles, resulting in a Quartet statement of “grave concern” on March 30, 2006 and the suspension of U.S. assistance to the PA, complete prohibition on U.S. Government contacts with the PA, and prohibition of unlicensed transactions with the PA government. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) under the leadership of PLO Chairman and PA President Mahmud Abbas (Abu Mazen), by contrast, remained consistently committed to the Quartet principles.

Despite several negotiated cease-fires between Hamas and Fatah, violent clashes in the Gaza Strip—and to a lesser extent in the West Bank—were commonplace between December 2006 and February 2007 and resulted in dozens of deaths and injuries. In an attempt to end the intra-Palestinian violence, the King of Saudi Arabia invited Palestinian rivals to Mecca, and on February 9, 2007, Abbas and Hamas leader Haniya agreed to the formation of a Palestinian national unity government and a cessation of violence. Hamas’ rejectionist policies and violent behavior continued despite the formation of the national unity government.

In June 2007, Hamas effectively orchestrated a violent coup in Gaza. Hamas also launched scores of Qas-sam rockets into southern Israel in an attempt to involve Israel in the Hamas-Fatah conflict. On June 14, Palestinian Authority President Mahoud Abbas exercised his lawful authority by declaring a state of emergency, dissolving the national unity government, and replacing it with a new government with Salam Fayyad as Prime Minister.

The new Palestinian Authority government under President Abbas and Prime Minister Fayyad has no elements controlled by Hamas or any other terrorist group. The new government is dedicated to peace and the Quartet principles and has been embraced politically and financially by the international community, including Israel.

GOVERNMENT

Israel is a parliamentary democracy. Its governmental system is based on several basic laws enacted by its unicameral parliament, the Knesset. The president (chief of state) is elected by the Knesset for a 5-year term.

The prime minister (head of government) exercises executive power and has in the past been selected by the president as the party leader most able to form a government. Between May 1996 and March 2001, Israelis voted for the prime minister directly. (The legislation, which required the direct election of the prime minister, was rescinded by the Knesset in March 2001.) The members of the cabinet must be collectively approved by the Knesset.

The Knesset's 120 members are elected by secret ballot to 4-year terms, although the prime minister may decide to call for new elections before the end of the 4-year term. Voting is for party lists rather than for individual candidates, and the total number of seats assigned each party reflects that party's percentage of the vote. Successful Knesset candidates are drawn from the lists in order of party-assigned rank. Under the present electoral system, all members of the Knesset are elected at large. The independent judicial system includes secular and religious courts. The courts’ right of judicial review of the Knesset's legislation is limited. Judicial interpretation is restricted to problems of execution of laws and validity of subsidiary legislation. The highest court in Israel is the Supreme Court, whose judges are approved by the President.

Israel is divided into six districts, administration of which is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Defense is responsible for the administration of the occupied territories.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

The Prime Minister automatically assumes any ministerial position vacated until the official appointment of another minister.

Pres.: Shimon PERES

Prime Min.: Ehud OLMERT

Dep. Prime Min.: Tzipora “Tzip” LIVNI

Vice Prime Min.: Haim RAMON

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Shalom SIMHON

Min. of Communications: Ariel ATIAS

Min. of Defense: Ehud BARAK

Min. for Development of the Negev & Galilee: Yaacov EDRI

Min. of Education: Yael “Yuli” TAMIR

Min. of Environment: Gideon EZRA

Min. of Finance: Roni BAR-ON

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Tzipora “Tzipi” LIVNI

Min. of Health: Yaacov BEN YIZRI

Min. of Housing & Construction: Zeev BOIM

Min. of Immigrant Absorption: Yaacov EDRI

Min. of Industry, Trade, & Labor: Eliyahu YISHAI

Min. of Interior: Meir SHEETRIT

Min. of Internal (Public) Security: Avraham DICHTER

Min. of Justice: Daniel FRIEDMANN

Min. of National Infrastructures: Binyamin BEN ELIEZER

Min. for Pensioner Affairs: Rafael “Rafi” EITAN

Min. in Charge of Religious Affairs in the Prime Min.'s Office: Yitzhak COHEN

Min. of Social Affairs: Yitzhak HERZOG

Min. of Science, Culture, & Sport: Ghalib MAJADILAH

Min. of Strategic Affairs: Avigdor LIEBERMAN

Min. of Tourism: Yitzhak AHARONOVITCH

Min. of Transportation & Road Safety: Shaul MOFAZ

Min. Without Portfolio: Ruhama AVRAHAM

Min. Without Portfolio: Amichai “Ami” AYALON

Min. Without Portfolio: Yitzhak COHEN

Min. Without Portfolio: Meshulam NAHARI

Attorney Gen.: Menachem MAZUZ

Governor, Bank of Israel: Stanley FISCHER

Ambassador to the US: Salai MERIDOR

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Danny GILLERMAN

Israel maintains an embassy in the United States at 3514 International Drive NW, Washington DC, 20008 (tel. 202-364-5500). There also are consulates general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, Israel was ruled by successive coalition governments led by the Labor alignment or its constituent parties. From 1967-70, the coalition government included all of Israel's parties except the communist party. After the 1977 election, the Likud bloc, then composed of Herut, the Liberals, and the smaller La’am Party, came to power forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, and others. As head of Likud, Menachem Begin became Prime Minister. The Likud retained power in the succeeding election in June 1981, and Begin remained Prime Minister. In the summer of 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by his Foreign Minister, Yitzhak Shamir.

After Prime Minister Shamir lost a Knesset vote of confidence early in 1984, new elections in July provided no clear winner, with both Labor and Likud considerably short of a Knesset majority and unable to form even narrow coalitions. After several weeks of difficult negotiations, they agreed on a government of national unity, including the rotation of the office of Prime Minister and the combined office of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister midway through the government's 50-month term. During the first 25 months of unity government rule, Labor's Shimon Peres served as Prime Minister, while Likud's Shamir held the posts of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, until they switched positions in October 1986. In November 1988 elections, Likud edged Labor out by one seat but was unable to form a coalition, producing another national unity government in January 1989. Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister, and Shimon Peres became Vice Prime Minister and Finance Minister. This government fell in March 1990, however, in a vote of no confidence precipitated by disagreement over the government's response to U.S. Secretary of State Baker's initiative in the peace process. Labor Party leader Peres was unable to attract sufficient support among the religious parties to form a government. Yitzhak Shamir then formed a Likud-led coalition government, including members from religious and right-wing parties.

Shamir's government took office in June 1990, and held power for 2 years. In the June 1992 national elections, the Labor Party reversed its electoral fortunes, taking 44 seats. Labor Party leader Yitzhak Rabin formed a coalition with Meretz (a group of three leftist parties) and Shas (an ultra-Orthodox religious party). The coalition included the support of two Arab-majority parties. Rabin became Prime Minister in July 1992, presiding over the signing of the Oslo accords with the Palestine Liberation Organization. However, Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4, 1995. Peres, then Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, once again became Prime Minister and immediately proceeded to carry forward the peace policies of the Rabin government and to implement Israel's Oslo commitments, including military redeployment in the West Bank and the holding of historic Palestinian elections on January 20, 1996.

Enjoying broad public support and anxious to secure his own mandate, Peres called for early elections after just 3 months in office. (They would have otherwise been held by the end of October 1996.) In late February and early March, a series of suicide bombing attacks by Palestinian terrorists took some 60 Israeli lives, seriously eroding public support for Peres and raising concerns about the peace process. Increased fighting in southern Lebanon, which also brought Katyusha rocket attacks against northern Israel, also raised tensions and weakened the government politically a month before the May 29 elections.

In those elections—the first direct election of a Prime Minister in Israeli history—Likud leader Binyamin Net-anyahu won by a narrow margin, having sharply criticized the government's peace policies for failing to protect Israeli security. Netanyahu subsequently formed a right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the peace process, but with an emphasis on security and reciprocity.

In 1999, with a shrunken coalition and facing increasing difficulty passing legislation and defeating no-confidence motions, Netanyahu dissolved parliament and called for new elections. This time, the Labor candidate—Ehud Barak—was victorious. Barak formed a mixed coalition government of secular and religious parties, with Likud in the opposition. In May 2000, Barak fulfilled one of his major campaign promises by with-drawing Israeli forces from Southern Lebanon. However, by mid-autumn, with the breakdown of the Camp David talks and the worsening security situation caused by the new inti-fada, Barak's coalition was in jeopardy. In December, he resigned as Prime Minister, precipitating a new prime ministerial election.

In a special election on February 6, 2001, after a campaign stressing security and the maintenance of Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem, Likud leader Ariel Sharon defeated Barak by over 20 percentage points. As he had promised in his campaign, Sharon formed a broad unity government that included the Labor and Likud parties, the far-right parties, some smaller secular parties, and several religious parties. The unity government collapsed in late 2002, and new elections were held in January 2003. Sharon again won, and formed a new government consisting of his own Likud party, the right-wing National Religious Party and National Union party, and centrist Shinui.

The summer of 2004 saw renewed instability in the government, as disagreement over the Gaza disengagement plan resulted in Sharon's firing two ministers of the National Union Party and accepting the resignation of a third from the National Religious Party in order to secure cabinet approval of the plan (it was endorsed on June 6, 2004). Continuing divisions within the Likud on next steps then prompted Ariel Sharon to leave the party in November 2005 to form the Kadima (“Forward”) party and call new elections for March 2006. However, Sharon was unexpectedly incapacitated in January 2006 due to a severe stroke and leadership of Kadima shifted to Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, who on March 28 led the party to 29 seats in the Knesset. Labor came in second with 19 seats, and Shas and Likud tied with 12. After intensive coalition negotiations, a new, Kadima-led government, with Labor as “senior partner”, was sworn in on May 4, 2006.

ECONOMY

Israel has a diversified, technologically advanced economy with substantial but decreasing government ownership and a strong high-tech sector. The major industrial sectors include high-technology electronic and biomedical equipment, metal products, processed foods, chemicals, and transport equipment. Israel possesses a substantial service sector and is one of the world's centers for diamond cutting and polishing. It also is a world leader in software development and, prior to the violence that began in September 2000, was a major tourist destination.

Israel's strong commitment to economic development and its talented work force led to economic growth rates during the nation's first two decades that frequently exceeded 10% annually. The years after the 1973 Yom Kippur War were a lost decade economically, as growth stalled and inflation reached triple-digit levels. The successful economic stabilization plan implemented in 1985 and the subsequent introduction of market-oriented structural reforms reinvigorated the economy and paved the way for rapid growth in the 1990s.

A wave of Jewish immigration beginning in 1989, predominantly from the countries of the former U.S.S.R., brought nearly a million new citizens to Israel. These new immigrants, many of them highly educated, now constitute some 13% of Israel's 6.7 million inhabitants. Their successful absorption into Israeli society and its labor force forms a remarkable chapter in Israeli history. The skills brought by the new immigrants and their added demand as consumers gave the Israeli economy a strong upward push and in the 1990s, they played a key role in the ongoing development of Israel's high-tech sector.

During the 1990s, progress in the Middle East peace process, beginning with the Madrid Conference of 1991, helped to reduce Israel's economic isolation from its neighbors and opened up new markets to Israeli exporters farther afield. The peace process stimulated an unprecedented inflow of foreign investment in Israel, and provided a substantial boost to economic growth in the region over the last decade. The onset of the inti-fada beginning at the end of September of 2000, the downturn in the high-tech sector and Nasdaq crisis, and the slowdown of the global economy have all significantly affected the Israeli economy. However, despite the recent conflicts in Gaza and Lebanon, the Israeli economy grew during 2006.

Israeli companies, particularly in the high-tech area, have in the past enjoyed considerable success raising money on Wall Street and other world financial markets; Israel ranks second to Canada among foreign countries in the number of its companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges. Israel's tech market is very developed, and in spite of the pause in the industry's growth, the high-tech sector is likely to be the major driver of the Israeli economy. Almost half of Israel's exports are high tech. Most leading players, including Intel, IBM, and Cisco have a presence in Israel.

Growth was an exceptional 6.2% in 2000, due in part to a number of one-time high tech acquisitions and investments. This exceptional year was followed by two years of negative growth of-0.9% and -1%, respectively, in 2001 and 2002. As a result of the security situation and the associated downturn in the economy, there was a significant rise in unemployment and wage erosion. This led to a decline in private consumption in 2002, the first time that there had been negative private consumption since the early 1980s. However, following growth rates of 1.7% in 2003 and 4.4% in 2004, the Israeli economy entered into a period of stabilization and recovery after the deep recession of 2001 and 2002. Since then, the Israeli economy seems to have returned to a trend of consistent growth. The Israeli economy grew by 5.2% in 2005 and GDP per capita (U.S. $17,800) increased by 3.3%. The Israeli economy grew by an estimated 4.8% in 2006.

Exports of goods and services in Israel grew by 7% in 2005. Service and agricultural exports each increased by more than 10% in 2005, whereas exports increased by 5.6% and imports rose to 4.4%. Tourism revenues increased by 22.7% as a result of the dramatic increase following the intifada's subsidence. Israel's private consumption increased by 4% in 2005. The largest growth in private consumption was in the purchase of clothing, footwear, and personal effects, which increased by 10.2%, following an increase of 5.4% in 2004. Consumption of consumer durables grew much more slowly than in 2004, with an increase of only 3.4%, compared with 14.3% the previous year. In the Israeli business sector, business GDP grew by 6.6% in 2005. According to CBS statistics, the transportation, storage, and communications industries grew by 9.2%, following growth of 6.6% in 2004. The GDP of the wholesale, retail, restaurant, and hotel sector increased by 8.1%, up from 6.1% in 2004. The GDP of the finance and business services sector in 2005 increased by 6.4%, up from the previous year's 6.1% growth rate.

The general consensus among economists is that Israel's economy is very strong and that its growth potential is in the 4% to 5% range.

The United States is Israel's largest trading partner. In 2005, two-way trade totaled some $26.6 billion, up 12% from 2004. The U.S. trade deficit with Israel was $7.1 billion in 2005, up 33% from 2004, due largely to rising Israeli exports to the U.S. U.S. exports to Israel rose 6.1% in 2005 to $9.7 billion, making Israel our 19th largest export market for goods. The principal goods exported from the U.S. include civilian aircraft parts, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, civilian aircraft, electrical apparatus, and computer accessories. Israe's chief exports to the U.S. include diamonds, pharmaceutical preparations, telecommunications equipment, medicinal equipment, electrical apparatus, and cotton apparel. The two countries signed a free trade agreement (FTA) in 1985 that progressively eliminated tariffs on most goods traded between the two countries over the following 10 years. An agricultural trade accord signed in November 1996 addressed the remaining goods not covered in the FTA but has not entirely erased barriers to trade in the agricultural sector. Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the European Union, Canada, Mexico, and other countries.

Best prospect industry sectors in Israel for U.S. exporters are electricity and gas equipment, defense equipment, medical instruments and disposable products, industrial chemicals, telecommunication equipment, electronic components, building materials/construction industries (DIY and infrastructure), safety and security equipment and services, non-prescription drugs, travel and tourism services, and computer software.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In addition to seeking an end to hostilities with Arab forces, against which it has fought five wars since 1948, Israel has given high priority to gaining wide acceptance as a sovereign state with an important international role.

Before 1967, Israel had established diplomatic relations with a majority of the world's nations, except for the Arab states and most other Muslim countries. UN Security Council resolutions provided the basis for cease-fire and disengagement agreements concerning the Sinai and the Golan Heights between Israel, Egypt, and Syria and for promoting the Camp David accords and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. The Soviet Union and the communist states of Eastern Europe (except Romania) broke diplomatic relations with Israel during the 1967 war, but those relations were restored by 1991.

The landmark October 1991 Madrid conference recognized the importance of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 in resolving regional disputes, and brought together for the first time Israel, the Palestinians, and the neighboring Arab countries, launching a series of direct bilateral and multilateral negotiations. These talks were designed to finally resolve outstanding security, border, and other issues between the parties while providing a basis for mutual cooperation on issues of general concern, including the status of refugees, arms control and regional security, water and environmental concerns, and economic development.

Today, Israel has diplomatic relations with 161 states. Following the signing of the Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, Israel established or renewed diplomatic relations with 36 countries. Israel has full diplomatic relations with Egypt, Jordan, and Mauritania. In addition, on October 1, 1994, the Gulf States publicly announced their support for a review of the Arab boycott, in effect abolishing the secondary and tertiary boycotts against Israel.

Israel has diplomatic relations with nine non-Arab Muslim states and with 32 of the 43 Sub-Saharan states that are not members of the Arab League. Israel established relations with China and India in 1992 and with the Holy See in 1993.

DEFENSE

Israel's ground, air, and naval forces, known as the Israel Defense Force (IDF), fall under the command of a single general staff. Conscription is universal for Jewish men and women over the age of 18, although exemptions may be made on religious grounds. Druze, members of a small Islamic offshoot living in Israel's mountains, also serve in the IDF. Israeli Arabs, with the exception of some Bedouins, do not serve.

During 1950-66, Israel spent an average of 9% of GDP on defense. Real defense expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. Military spending in 2005 totaled $9.45 billion, which is equivalent to 7.7% of GDP, and represents 16.3% of government expenditures. The United States provides approximately $2.4 billion per year in security assistance.

In 1983, the United States and Israel established the Joint Political Military Group, which meets twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises, and have collaborated on military research and weapons development.

U.S.-ISRAELI RELATIONS

Commitment to Israel's security and well being has been a cornerstone of U.S. policy in the Middle East since Israel's founding in 1948, in which the United States played a key supporting role. Israel and the United States are bound closely by historic and cultural ties as well as by mutual interests. Continuing U.S. economic and security assistance to Israel acknowledges these ties and signals U.S. commitment. The broad issues of Arab-Israeli peace have been a major focus in the U.S.-Israeli relationship. U.S. efforts to reach a Middle East peace settlement are based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 and have been based on the premise that as Israel takes calculated risks for peace the United States will help minimize those risks.

On a bilateral level, relations between the United States and Israel are continually strengthening in every field. In addition to the Joint Political-Military Group described above, there are: bilateral science and technology efforts (including the Binational Science Foundation and the Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation); the U.S.-Israeli Education Foundation, which sponsors educational and cultural programs; the Joint Economic Development Group, which maintains a high-level dialogue on economic issues; the Joint Counterterrorism Group, designed to enhance cooperation in fighting terrorism; and a high-level Strategic Dialogue that meets biannually.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

TEL AVIV (E) 71 Hayarkon, APO/ FPO APO/AE 09830, 972-3-519-7575, Fax 972-3-517-3227, INMAR-SAT Tel 873-683-142-035; 873-783-133-445, Workweek: M-F / 0800-1630, Website: http://telaviv.usembassy.gov.

JERUSALEM (CG) 18-20 AGRon Rd., Jerusalem 91002; 27 Nablus Rd., Jerusalem 97200 (Consular Section), APO/FPO PSC 98, Box 0039, APO/AE 09830, +972-2-622-7230, Fax +972-2-622-3551, Workweek: Mon-Fri 0800-1630, Website: http://jerusalem.usconsulate.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

May 9, 2007

Country Description: The State of Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a modern economy. Tourist facilities are widely available. Travelers may visit the website of the Israeli Ministry of Tourism for tourist information at http://www.goisrael.com. Israel occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem as a result of the 1967 War. Pursuant to negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, the Palestinian Authority (PA) exercises jurisdiction over the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank. Palestinian Authority police are responsible for keeping order in those areas, and the PA exercises a range of civil functions there. The division of responsibilities and jurisdiction in the West Bank between Israel and the PA is complex. Definitive information on entry, customs requirements, arrests, and other matters in the West Bank and Gaza is subject to change without prior notice or may not be available.

Entry Requirements: The general entry and exit requirements for Americans traveling to Israel, the West Bank and Gaza are listed below. American citizens may be subject to special restrictions. American citizens are advised to read all sections of this sheet very carefully for special regulations that may affect their travel. U.S. citizens are advised that all persons applying for entry to Israel, the West Bank, or Gaza are subject to security and criminal screening by the Government of Israel, and may be denied entry or exit without explanation.

Israel: A passport valid for six months beyond duration of stay, an onward or return ticket, and proof of sufficient funds are required for entry. A no-charge, three-month visa may be issued upon arrival and may be renewed. Travelers carrying official or diplomatic U.S. passports must obtain visas from an Israeli embassy or consulate prior to arrival in Israel. Anyone who has been refused entry, experienced difficulties with his/her status during a previous visit, overstayed the authorized duration of a previous visit, or otherwise violated the terms of their admission to Israel should consult the Israeli Embassy or nearest Israeli Consulate before attempting to return to Israel. Anyone seeking returning resident status must obtain permission from Israeli authorities before traveling. The Government of Israel at times has declined to admit American citizens wishing to visit or travel to the West Bank. Persons denied entry into Israel who seek immigration court hearings to contest such denials may be detained for prolonged periods while awaiting a hearing.

The Gaza Strip: The Department of State urges U.S. citizens to avoid all travel to the Gaza Strip. Overall, conditions of lawlessness—including running gun battles and kidnappings—prevail in the Gaza Strip. Any persons wishing to enter Gaza from Israel via the Erez border crossing checkpoint must have prior written permission from the Government of Israel. U.S. citizens planning to travel to Gaza should submit a request for entry in person at Erez at least five working days in advance. It is not necessary to obtain a visitor's permit from the Palestinian Authority to travel to Gaza via the Erez crossing. Private vehicles may not cross from Israel into Gaza or from Gaza into Israel. The Gaza Airport remains closed.

The West Bank: On March 4, 2007, the Government of Israel published a new West Bank visitor visa policy for foreign nationals. The regulations are new, and the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem and the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv are still gathering information about their implementation. The new policy states that the following are permitted foreign visitor categories:

• Spouses of resident Palestinians registered in the West Bank population registry;
• Children (up to age 16) of resident Palestinians;
• Business people, investors, and bearers of West Bank work permits;
• Staff of foreign missions in the West Bank;
• Representatives of international organizations in the West Bank;
• Lecturers and consultants;
• Humanitarian cases and others.

According to the written policy, American citizens “may transit to the West Bank via Israel after showing documents at the Ben Gurion airport or Allenby Bridge [crossing between the West Bank and Jordan] that confirm their status/position and the purpose of their visit, subject to inspection and approval by a representative of the Coordinator for Government Activities in the Territories.”

For extensions of visas of American citizens in the West Bank, the Government of Israel's policy states:

The following categories may request to extend their visa after the initial period for an additional period of up to one year (and no longer than 27 months total):

• Spouses of resident Palestinians registered in the West Bank population registry;
• Children up to the age of 16 of resident Palestinians;
• Businesspersons/investors/bearers of a working permit for the West Bank;
• Humanitarian cases and others.

In order to extend the visa, they must apply to the Palestinian Population Registry in Ramallah. In special cases, they should turn to the Population Registry of the Israeli Ministry of Interior in Beit-El.

The following categories may request an extension of their visa after the initial period for an additional period of up to 6 months (and no longer than a total of 27 months:

• Staff of foreign missions in the West Bank;
• Representatives of international organizations in the West Bank.

In order to extend the visa, they must apply to the Head of the International Organization Department in the Israeli Civil Administrationat Beit El or to the Population Registry of the Israeli Ministry of Interior.”

Finally, the Government of Israel policy notes:

Foreign citizens whose passports were stamped recently with the words “Last Permit” in the recent months may nonetheless leave the West Bank and submit a new visa request. The arrangements set out in this document are subject to imperative considerations of policy and security as may be applicable in Entry of individuals into Israel and the West Bank remains subject to security/ criminal assessment by the relevant authorities.

U.S. citizens who have a Palestinian Authority ID number or who the Government of Israel considers to have residency status in the West Bank or Gaza are advised to read very carefully the next section, entitled Palestinian-Americans.

Palestinian Americans: Israeli authorities may consider American citizens to be residents of the West Bank or Gaza if they were born there, lived there, or have a Palestinian Authority ID number. It is possible that an American citizen born in the United States whose parents were born or lived in the West Bank or Gaza would be considered a resident by Israeli authorities.

The Government of Israel requires residents of the West Bank or Gaza to present a valid Palestinian Authority passport when entering or leaving Israel. This requirement applies to American citizens considered by the Government of Israel to be resident in the West Bank or Gaza. American citizens resident in the West Bank or Gaza who arrive at any Israeli border point without a Palestinian passport will usually be granted permission to travel to the West Bank or Gaza to obtain one.

Individuals with a Palestinian Authority identity number, including American citizens, who depart Israel via the Allenby Bridge (between the West bank and Jordan) or the Rafah border check point (between Gaza and Egypt) are required to re-enter through either Allenby or Rafah border check points. They are not permitted to enter Israel through Ben Gurion International Airport, unless they obtain in advance a transit permit for that purpose. Permit applications must be submitted at least three working days prior to departure, although Israeli authorities may take considerably longer to render a decision. Except in humanitarian or special interest cases, Israeli authorities are unlikely to grant this permit. In the event a permit is denied, individuals with a Palestinian Authority identity number, including American citizens, must exit the West Bank via the crossing at Allenby Bridge into Jordan and from Gaza via the Rafah crossing into Egypt. Specific questions may be addressed to the nearest Israeli Embassy or Consulate or, within Israel, the nearest office of the Ministry of the Interior. During periods of heightened security restrictions, American citizens with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza might not be allowed to enter or exit Gaza or the West Bank at all, even with an American passport. Israel-Jordan Crossings: International crossing points between Israel and Jordan are the Arava crossing (Wadi al-’Arabah) in the south, near Eilat, and the Jordan River crossing (Sheikh Hussein Bridge) in the north, near Beit Shean. American citizens using these two crossing points to enter either Israel or Jordan need not obtain prior visas, but will have to pay the following fees:

• Jordan River Crossing: Israeli exit fee of 68 NIS/US $15, Jordanian entry fee 5 Jordanian dinars
• Arava crossing: exit fee of 68 NIS/ US $15, entry fee of 5 Jordanian dinars

Visas should be obtained in advance for those wanting to cross the Allenby Bridge between Jordan and the West Bank. The Government of Israel requires that Palestinian Americans with residency status in the West Bank enter Jordan via the Allenby Bridge. Procedures for all three crossings into Jordan are subject to frequent changes. Persons with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza seeking to cross the Allenby Bridge from Jordan should contact the Jordanian authorities for information concerning special clearance procedures for Palestinian ID holders before traveling to the bridge. Visit the Embassy of Israel website at: http://www.israelemb.org/ for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: Israeli authorities strictly enforce security measures. American citizen visitors have been subjected to prolonged questioning and thorough searches upon entry or departure from Israel. Travelers (including American citizens) with Arabic surnames, those who ask that Israeli stamps not be entered into their passports, and unaccompanied female travelers have been delayed and subjected to close scrutiny by Israeli border authorities. American citizens have been arrested at the airport and at other border crossings on suspicion of security-related crimes and members of religious groups have been monitored, arrested, and deported for suspicion of intent to commit violent or disruptive acts in Israel. In some cases, Israeli authorities have denied American citizens access to U.S. consular officers, lawyers, and even family members during temporary detention.

Security-related delays are not unusual for travelers carrying cameras or electronic equipment, and some have had their laptop computers and other electronic equipment confiscated at Ben Gurion Airport. While most effects are returned prior to the traveler's departure, some equipment has been retained by the authorities for lengthy periods and has been damaged, destroyed or lost. Americans who have had personal property damaged due to security procedures at Ben Gurion can contact the Commissioner of Complaints at the airport for redress.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site, where the current Travel Warning for Israel, the West Bank and Gaza, Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert, and other Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada or, for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Terrorism: U.S. citizens, including tourists, students, residents, and U.S. mission personnel, have been injured or killed by terrorists while in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank and Gaza. Attacks have occurred in highly frequented shopping and pedestrian areas and on public buses. U.S. Embassy and Consulate General American employees and their families are prohibited from using public buses and trains. American citizens should use good judgment and exercise caution when visiting public areas and using transportation facilities to minimize exposure to possible terrorist attacks. Strategies to minimize risk include: avoiding demonstrations and large crowds, being aware of one's immediate surroundings, especially while visiting contentious religious sites, military areas, and establishments frequented by off-duty soldiers, and by avoiding suspicious objects.

Kidnapping: In recent months in Gaza and the West Bank, armed gunmen have kidnapped foreigners, including several Americans. Gunmen in negotiations with the Palestinian Authority have sometimes used such foreign hostages as bartering tools. The threat of hostage-taking remains a primary concern for Americans and foreigners within the Gaza Strip. Any Americans traveling to Gaza in spite of the Department of State's Travel Warning urging no travel to Gaza should register with the American Consulate General in Jerusalem prior to entry and maintain a very low profile while moving within Gaza. They should also have the telephone numbers of the U.S. Consulate General readily at hand for rapid contact in the event of an emergency.

Demonstrations and Civil Unrest: In the West Bank, Gaza and Jerusalem, demonstrations or altercations can occur spontaneously and have the potential to become violent without warning. If such disturbances occur, American visitors should leave the area immediately. In Jerusalem's Old City, where exits are limited, American visitors should seek safe haven inside a shop or restaurant until the incident is over. Demonstrations are particularly dangerous in areas such as checkpoints, settlements, military areas, and major thoroughfares where protesters are likely to encounter Israeli security forces.

Areas of Instability: U.S. Government personnel in Israel and Jerusalem, whether stationed there or on temporary duty, are under tight security controls, as noted below. In addition, they occasionally may be prohibited from traveling to sections of Jerusalem and parts of Israel depending on prevailing security conditions.

Jerusalem: In Jerusalem, travelers should exercise caution at religious sites on holy days, Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, and dress appropriately when visiting the Old City and ultra-orthodox Jewish neighborhoods. Most roads into ultra-orthodox Jewish neighborhoods are blocked off on Friday nights and Saturdays. Assaults on secular visitors, either for being in cars or for being “immodestly dressed,” have occurred in these neighborhoods. Isolated street protests and demonstrations can occur in the commercial districts of East Jerusalem (Salah Ed-Din Street and Damascus Gate areas) during periods of unrest. U.S. Government American employees are authorized to travel to the Old City and the Mount of Olives during daylight hours only. Although few security incidents have occurred recently within the Old City, visitors are urged to exercise caution and be aware of their surroundings at all times. This is especially true when entering or exiting the Old City at times when the volume of pedestrian traffic could create difficulties.

There have been reports of harassment of tourists by vendors in many tourist areas of Jerusalem including, in particular, the Mount of Olives.

West Bank and Gaza: For safety and security reason, U.S. Government American personnel and dependents are prohibited from traveling to any cities, towns or settlements in the West Bank, except for mission-essential business or other approved purposes. Jericho, as distinct from other areas in the West Bank, is under the full security responsibility of the Palestinian Authority. Violence in recent years has decreased markedly in Jericho and, since the PA's assumption of security responsibility for Jericho in February 2005, the level of violence there has remained low compared to other parts of the West Bank. For limited, personal travel, U.S. government personnel and family members are permitted to travel through the West Bank, using only Routes 1 and 90, to reach the Allenby/King Hussein Bridge or the Dead Sea coast near Ein Gedi and Masada. Each such transit requires prior notification to the Consulate General's security office and must occur during daylight hours. U.S. Government personnel and family members are permitted personal travel on Route 443 between Modi’in and Jerusalem during daylight hours only.

Travel to the Gaza Strip by U.S. Government personnel is prohibited. Under policy guidance issued by the Secretary of State, exceptions to the prohibition on Gaza travel are only for official, mission-critical travel. Private American citizens also should avoid travel to these areas.

During periods of unrest, the Israeli Government sometimes closes off access to the West Bank and Gaza, and those areas may be placed under curfew. All persons in areas under curfew should remain indoors or risk arrest or injury. Americans have been killed, seriously injured, detained and deported as a result of encounters with Israeli Defense Forces operations in Gaza and the West Bank. Travel restrictions may be imposed with little or no warning. Strict measures have frequently been imposed following terrorist actions, and the movement of Palestinian Americans, both those with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza as well as foreign passport holders, has been severely impeded. Due to current limitations on travel by U.S. Government employees to the West Bank and Gaza made necessary by uncertain security conditions, the ability of consular staff to offer timely assistance to American citizens in need in these areas is considerably reduced at present.

Golan Heights: There are live land mines in many areas and visitors should walk only on established roads or trails. Near the northern border of Israel, rocket attacks from Lebanese territory can occur without warning.

Crime: The crime rate is moderate in Israel, Jerusalem, and the West Bank. Incidents of organized, violent crime, residential break-ins and petty theft have increased in Gaza since Israel's disengagement in September 2005. In addition, break-ins of parked vehicles are common at beach areas, the Dead Sea, and national parks (especially Caesarea National Park). U.S. citizens should not leave their valuables in unattended cars in these areas. There has also been a significant upsurge in non-violent home invasions. U.S. citizens resident in Israel have had jewelry, cash, vehicles, and their personal documentation and belongings stolen at all hours.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products may be illegal under local law. In addition, bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/ or fines. More information on this serious problem is available at http://www.cybercrime.gov/18usc2320.htm.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

The Government of Israel provides assistance to victims of terrorist acts. Please use this link to the National Insurance Institute for more information: http://www.btl.gov.il.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Modern medical care and medicines are available in Israel. Some hospitals in Israel and most hospitals in the West Bank and Gaza, however, fall below U.S. standards. Travelers can find information in English about emergency medical facilities and after-hours pharmacies in the “Jerusalem Post” and the English language edition of “Ha’aretz” newspapers. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Also, please see the Department of State's Avian Flu Fact Sheet. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Israel, the West Bank and Gaza is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Israeli roads and highways tend to be crowded, especially in urban areas. Aggressive driving is a serious problem and few drivers maintain safe following distances. Drivers should use caution, as Israel has an extremely high rate of fatality from automobile accidents.

U.S. Embassy Tel Aviv and Consulate General Jerusalem American employees and their families have been prohibited from using public buses.

The Government of Israel requires that all passenger car occupants use their seat belts at all times and that headlights be used during all intercity travel, both day and night, during winter. Since January 1, 2006, all drivers are required to carry fluorescent vests in the car with them at all times, and they are required to wear these vests whenever they get out of their cars to make repairs, change tires, etc. If a vehicle is stopped for a traffic violation and it does not contain a fluorescent vest, the driver will be fined. These vests can be purchased for a nominal price in all local gas stations. Cellular phone use is prohibited while driving.

West Bank and Gaza: Crowded roads and aggressive driving are common in the West Bank and Gaza. During periods of heightened tensions, cars with Israeli license plates have been stoned and fired upon. Emergency services may be delayed by the need for Palestinian authorities to coordinate with Israeli officials. Seat belt use is required outside of cities and drivers may not drink alcohol. Individuals involved in accidents resulting in death or injury may be detained by police pending an investigation.

Visit the website of the Israeli Ministry of Tourism and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.goisrael.com.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Israel's Civil Aviation Authority as being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for oversight of Israel's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Video cameras and other electronic items must be declared upon entry to Israel and are sometimes seized by Israeli customs and security officials and returned either damaged and/or after a lengthy delay. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Israel in Washington, D.C. or one of Israel's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements. Definitive information on customs requirements for the Palestinian Authority is not available.

Arrests and Detentions: U.S. citizens arrested by the Israeli National Police (INP) in Israel and charged with crimes are entitled to legal representation and consular notification and visitation. In many cases, there are significant delays between the time of arrest and the time when the INP notifies the Embassy or Consulate General and grants consular access. This procedure may be expedited if the arrested American shows a U.S. passport to the police, or asks the police to contact the U.S. Embassy or Consulate General.

U.S. citizens arrested by the Israeli Security Police for security offenses, and U.S. citizens arrested in the West Bank or Gaza for criminal or security offenses may be prevented from communicating with lawyers, family members, or consular officers for lengthy periods. The U.S. Consulate General and the Embassy are often not notified of such arrests, or are not notified in a timely manner. Consular access to the arrested individual is frequently delayed. U.S. citizens have been subject to mistreatment during interrogation and pressured to sign statements in Hebrew that have not been translated. Under local law they may be detained for up to six months at a time without charges. Youths over the age of 14 have been detained and tried as adults. When access to a detained American citizen is denied or delayed, the U.S. Government formally protests the lack of consular access to the Israeli Government. The U.S. Government also will protest any mistreatment to the relevant authorities.

U.S. citizens arrested by the Palestinian Authority (PA) Security Forces in the West Bank or Gaza for crimes are entitled to legal representation and consular notification and access. The PA Security Forces normally notify the Consulate General of non-security related arrests for criminal offenses within two days of arrest, and consular access is normally granted within four days. This procedure may be expedited if the arrested American shows a U.S. passport to the police, or asks the police to contact the U.S. Consulate General.

U.S. citizens arrested by the PA Security Forces in the West Bank or Gaza for security offenses may be prevented from communicating with lawyers, family members, or consular officers for lengthy periods. In addition, they may be held in custody for protracted periods without formal charges or before being taken in front of a judge for an arrest extension. The PA often does not notify the U.S. Consulate General of arrests in a timely manner, and consular access to arrestees is occasionally delayed.

Dual Nationality: Israeli citizens naturalized in the United States retain their Israeli citizenship, and children born in the United States to Israeli parents usually acquire both U.S. and Israeli nationality at birth. Israeli citizens, including dual nationals, are subject to Israeli laws requiring service in Israel's armed forces, as well as other laws pertaining to passports and nationality. American-Israeli dual nationals of military age who do not wish to serve in the Israeli armed forces should contact the Israeli Embassy in Washington, D.C. to learn more about an exemption or deferment from Israeli military service before going to Israel. Without this exemption or deferment document, they may not be able to leave Israel without completing military service or may be subject to criminal penalties for failure to serve. Israeli citizens, including dual nationals, must enter and depart Israel on their Israeli passports, and Israeli authorities may require persons whom they consider to have acquired Israeli nationality at birth to obtain an Israeli passport prior to departing Israel.

Bearers of Palestinian passports or identity numbers who have become naturalized United States citizens are considered by the Israeli government to retain their Palestinian nationality, and Israeli authorities will view them as Palestinians first, and as American citizens second. Palestinian Americans whom the Government of Israel considers residents of the West Bank or Gaza may face certain travel restrictions. These individuals are subject to restrictions on movement between Israel, the West Bank and Gaza and within the West Bank and Gaza that are imposed by the Israeli Government on all Palestinians for security reasons. During periods of heightened security concerns these restrictions can be onerous. Palestinian-American residents of Jerusalem are normally required to use laissez-passers (travel documents issued by the Israeli Government) that contain re-entry permits approved by the Israeli Ministry of Interior for any out-of-country travel. All U.S. citizens with dual nationality must enter the U.S. on their U.S. passports.

Court Jurisdiction: Civil courts in Israel actively exercise their authority to bar certain individuals, including nonresidents, from leaving the country until monetary and other legal claims against them can be resolved. Israel's rabbinical courts exercise jurisdiction over all Jewish citizens and residents of Israel in cases of marriage, divorce, child custody and child support. In some cases, Jewish-Americans who entered Israel as tourists have become defendants in divorce cases filed by their spouses in Israeli rabbinical courts. These Americans have been detained in Israel for prolonged periods while the Israeli courts consider whether the individuals have sufficient ties to Israel to establish rabbinical court jurisdiction. Jewish-American visitors should be aware that they might be subject to involuntary and prolonged stays in Israel if a case is filed against them in a rabbinical court, even if their marriage took place in the U.S. and regardless of whether their spouse is present in Israel.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than those in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Israel's or the Palestinian Authority's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Israel and Palestinian Authority administered areas are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy and Consulate Locations: Americans living or traveling in Israel, the West Bank or Gaza are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv or the Consulate General in Jerusalem through the State Department's travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Israel, the West Bank or Gaza. Americans with-out Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy or Consulate General. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate General to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy is located at 71 Hayarkon Street in Tel Aviv. The U.S. mailing address is Unit 7228, Box 0001, APO AE 09830. The telephone number is (972)(3) 519-7575. The number after 4:30 p.m. and before 8:00 a.m. local time is (972)(3) 519-7551. The fax number is (972)(3) 516-4390. The Embassy's e-mail address is [email protected] and its Internet web page is http://telaviv.usembassy.gov.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy should be contacted for information and help in the following areas: Israel, the Golan Heights and ports of entry at Ben Gurion Airport, Haifa Port, the northern (Jordan River) and southern (Arava) border crossings connecting Israel and Jordan, and the border crossings between Israel and Egypt.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem is located at 27 Nablus Road in Jerusalem. The U.S. mailing address is Unit 7228, Box 0039, APO AE 09830. The telephone number is (972)(2) 622-7200. The Consular Section's public telephone number for information and assistance is (972)(2) 628-7137, Monday through Friday from 8:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. Messages may be left at that number at other times. The emergencies only number after 4:30 p.m. and before 8:00 a.m. local time is (972)(2) 622-7250. The Consular Section's fax number is (972)(2) 627-2233. The Consulate's e-mail address is [email protected] and its Internet web page is http://jerusalem.usconsulate.gov.

The U.S. Consulate General should be contacted for information and help in the following areas: West and East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, the Allenby Bridge border crossing connecting Jordan with the West Bank, and the Rafah border crossing between Gaza and Egypt.

A U.S. Consular Agent who reports to the Embassy in Tel Aviv maintains an office in Haifa at 26 Ben Gurion Boulevard, telephone (972)(4) 853-1470. The Consular Agent can provide both routine and emergency services in the northern part of Israel.

Travel Warning

July 13, 2007

This Travel Warning is being issued to update information on the general security environment in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, and to reiterate threats to American citizens and U.S. interests in those locations. The Department of State urges U.S. citizens to remain mindful of security factors when considering travel to Israel and Jerusalem at this time. In addition, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to defer travel to the West Bank and to avoid all travel to the Gaza Strip. This warning supersedes the Travel Warning issued January 17, 2007.

American citizens in the Gaza Strip should depart immediately, a recommendation that the State Department has maintained and renewed since the deadly roadside bombing of a U.S. Embassy convoy in Gaza on October 15, 2003. This recommendation applies to all Americans, including journalists and aid workers.

The Gaza Strip has witnessed considerable violence in recent months, both between Palestinian factions and between Israeli security forces and armed Palestinian groups. Similar incidents have also occurred in the West Bank. Violent demonstrations, kidnappings and shootings have also occurred in both the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Areas of violent conflict shift rapidly and unpredictably. Militants have continued to abduct Western citizens, and terrorist organizations have threatened attacks against U.S. interests. Hamas, a designated foreign terrorist organization, violently assumed control over Gaza in June 2007, making the already dangerous security situation there even more precarious. The American International School in northern Gaza was the target of an attack on April 21, 2007.

Militant groups in Gaza persist in launching rocket attacks against nearby Israeli towns. The IDF (Israeli Defense Forces) often responds to such attacks. It also continues to carry out security operations in the West Bank, including targeted attacks and ground incursions, which have led to deaths and injuries to bystanders. Rocket fire from Lebanon, except for one recent incident, has ceased since the passage of UN Security Council Resolution 1701 in August 2006.

Some Americans and Europeans involved in demonstrations and other such activities in the West Bank have become involved in confrontations with Israeli settlers and the IDF. The State Department recommends that Americans, for their own safety, avoid demonstrations.

For safety and security reasons, U.S. Government American personnel and dependents are prohibited from traveling to any cities, towns, or settlements in the West Bank, except for mission-essential business or other approved purposes. For limited, personal travel, U.S. government personnel and family members are permitted to travel through the West Bank using only Routes 1 and 90, to reach the Allenby/King Hussein Bridge or the Dead Sea coast near Ein Gedi and Masada. They are also permitted to travel north on Route 90 from Allenby/King Hussein Bridge to the Sea of Galilee. All of these routes are for transit only, with stops permitted only at Qumran National Park off Route 90 by the Dead Sea. Each such transit requires prior notification to the Consulate General's security office and must occur during daylight hours. U.S. Government personnel and family members are permitted both official and personal travel on Route 443 between Modi’in and Jerusalem without prior notification, during daylight hours only. Travel to the Gaza Strip by U.S. Government personnel is prohibited. The Department of State strongly recommends that private American citizens not travel to the Gaza Strip. Those in Gaza should depart immediately.

All travelers who enter or travel in the West Bank should exercise particular care when approaching and traveling through Israeli checkpoints and should expect delays and difficulties. Travelers should also be aware they might not be allowed passage through checkpoints.

Israeli authorities are concerned about the continuing threat of suicide bombings. The January 2007 bombing in Eilat, the April 2006 and January 2006 suicide bombings in Tel Aviv, the December 2005 suicide bombing in Netanya and a similar incident in Hadera in October 2005 are reminders of the precarious security environment. The threat of such attacks is ongoing. The U.S. Government has received information indicating that American interests could be the focus of terrorist attacks. For that reason, American citizens are cautioned that a greater danger may exist in the vicinity of restaurants, businesses, and other places associated with U.S. interests and/or located near U.S. official buildings, such as the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv and the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem.

American citizens are urged to exercise a high degree of caution and common sense when patronizing restaurants, cafes, malls, places of worship, and theaters, especially during peak hours. Large crowds and public gatherings should be avoided to the extent possible, and personnel should be alert to street vendors who sometimes aggressively harass tourists. American citizens should take into consideration that discos and nightclubs, as well as public buses, trains and their respective terminals are “off-limits” to U.S. Government personnel.

Violence between organized criminal elements sometimes occurs in areas frequented by foreigners and has occasionally resulted in death or injuries to bystanders. While American citizens have not been the target of such violence, they should be aware of their surroundings and follow common sense precautions to avoid it.

The State Department urges American citizens to remain vigilant while traveling throughout Jerusalem, especially within the commercial and downtown areas of West Jerusalem and the city center. Israeli security services report that they continue to receive information of planned terrorist attacks in and around Jerusalem. The last terrorist bombing in Jerusalem was on September 22, 2004. Spontaneous or planned protests within the Old City are possible, especially after Friday prayers. Some of these protests have led to violent clashes. The Old City of Jerusalem is off-limits to U.S. Government personnel and their family members after dark during the entire week and between the hours of 11 am and 2 pm on Fridays.

Americans in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip are strongly encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv or the Consular Section of U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov. U.S. citizens who require emergency services may telephone the Consulate General in Jerusalem at (972) (2) 622-7250 or the Embassy in Tel Aviv at (972) (3) 519-7355.

As a consequence of the current limitations on official travel to the West Bank, and the prohibition on travel by U.S. Government employees to the Gaza Strip, the ability of consular staff to offer timely assistance to U.S. citizens is extremely limited, particularly in the Gaza Strip.

Current information on travel and security in Israel, Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States and Canada, or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444. For additional and more in-depth information about specific aspects of travel to these areas, U.S. citizens should consult: the Country Specific Information for Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza; the Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert; and the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert. These are available on the Department's Internet website at http://travel.state.gov. Up-to-date information on security conditions can also be accessed at http://usembassy-israel.org.il or http://jerusalem.usconsulate.gov.

Israel

Compiled from the May 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
State of Israel

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

DEFENSE

U.S.-ISRAELI RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 20,330 sq. km.1 (7,850 sq. mi.); about the size of New Jersey.

Cities: Capital—Jerusalem. Other cities—Tel Aviv, Haifa.

Terrain: Plains, mountains, desert, and coast.

Climate: Temperate, except in desert areas.

People

Population: (2005 est.) 6.35 million.

Annual population growth rate: (2005 est.) 1.2%.

Ethnic groups: Jews, 76.2%; Arabs, 19.5%; other, 4.3%.

Religions: Judaism, Islam, Christianity, Druze.

Languages: Hebrew (official), Arabic (official), English, Russian.

Education: Years compulsory—11. Literacy—96.9% (female 95.6%; male 98.3%).

Health: Infant mortality rate (2005 est.)—7.03/1,000 births. Life expectancy at birth—79.32 years; female, 81.55 years, male 77.21 years.

Work force: (2.68 million; Central Bureau for Statistics, 2004) Agriculture—2.1%; manufacturing—16.2%; electricity and water supply—0.8%; construction—5.4%; trade and repair of motor vehicles—3.6%; accommodation services and restaurants—4.3%; transport, storage, and communication—6.5%; banking, insurance, and finance—3.3%; business activities—13.4%; public administration—4.7%; education—12.7%; health, welfare, and social services—10.7%; community, social, and personal services—4.6%; services for households by domestic personnel—1.6%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary democracy.

Independence: May 14, 1948.

Constitution: None; however, the Declaration of Establishment (1948), the Basic Laws of the parliament (the Knesset), and the Israeli citizenship law fill many of the functions of a constitution.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state); prime minister (head of government). Legislative—unicameral Knesset. Judicial—Supreme Court.

Political parties: Labor, Likud, Kadima, and various other secular and religious parties, including some wholly or predominantly supported by Israel’s Arab citizens. A total of 12 parties are represented in the 17th Knesset, elected March 2006.

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Economy

GDP: (2005 est.) $140.1 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 5.2%.

Per capita GDP: (2005) $17,800.

Currency: Shekel, (4.58 shekels = 1 U.S. dollar; 2005 est.).

Natural resources: Copper, phosphate, bromide, potash, clay, sand, sulfur, bitumen, manganese.

Agriculture: Products—citrus and other fruits, vegetables, beef, dairy, and poultry products.

Industry: Types—high-technology projects (including aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufactures, medical electronics, fiber optics), wood and paper products, potash and phosphates, food, beverages, tobacco, caustic soda, cement, construction, plastics, chemical products, diamond cutting and polishing, metal products, textiles, and footwear.

Trade: Exports (2005 est.)—$40.14 billion. Exports include polished diamonds, electronic communication, medical and scientific equipment, chemicals and chemical products, electronic components and computers, machinery and equipment, transport equipment, rubber, plastics, and textiles. Imports (excluding defense imports, 2005 est.)—$43.19 billion: raw materials, diamonds, energy ships and airplanes, machinery, equipment, land transportation equipment for investment, and consumer goods. Major partners—U.S., U.K., Germany; exports—U.S., Belgium, Hong Kong; imports—U.S., Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, U.K.

PEOPLE

Of the approximately 6.35 million Israelis in 2005, about 4.86 million were counted as Jewish, though some of those are not considered Jewish under Orthodox Jewish law. Since 1989, nearly a million immigrants from the former Soviet Union have arrived in Israel, making this the largest wave of immigration since independence. In addition, almost 50,000 members of the Ethiopian Jewish community have immigrated to Israel, 14,000 of them during the dramatic May 1991 Operation Solomon airlift. 35.3% of Israelis were born outside of Israel.

The three broad Jewish groupings are the Ashkenazim, or Jews who trace their ancestry to western, central, and eastern Europe; the Sephardim, who trace their origin to Spain, Portugal, southern Europe, and North Africa; and Eastern or Oriental Jews, who descend from ancient communities in Islamic lands. Of the non-Jewish population, about 68% are Muslims, about 9% are Christian, and about 7% are Druze.

Education is compulsory from age 6 to 16 and is free up to age 18. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, 3-year junior secondary schools, and 3-year senior secondary schools, after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. There are seven university-level institutions in Israel, a number of regional colleges, and an Open University program.

With a population drawn from more than 100 countries on 5 continents, Israeli society is rich in cultural diversity and artistic creativity. The arts are actively encouraged and supported by the government. The Israeli Philharmonic Orchestra performs throughout the country and frequently tours abroad. The Jerusalem Symphony and the New Israel Opera also tour frequently, as do other musical ensembles. Almost every municipality has a chamber orchestra or ensemble, many boasting the talents of gifted performers from the countries of the former Soviet Union. Israel has several professional ballet and modern dance companies, and folk dancing, which draws upon the cultural heritage of many immigrant groups, continues to be very popular. There is great public interest in the theater; the repertoire covers the entire range of classical and contemporary drama in translation as well as plays by Israeli authors. Of the three major repertory companies, the most famous, Habimah, was founded in 1917.

Active artist colonies thrive in Safed, Jaffa, and Ein Hod, and Israeli painters and sculptors exhibit works worldwide. Israel boasts more than 120 museums, including the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, which houses the Dead Sea Scrolls along with an extensive collection of regional archaeological artifacts, art, and Jewish religious and folk exhibits. Israelis are avid newspaper readers, with more than 90% of Israeli adults reading a newspaper at least once a week. Major daily papers are in Hebrew; others are in Arabic, English, French, Polish, Yiddish, Russian, Hungarian, and German.

HISTORY

The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 was preceded by more than 50 years of efforts to establish a sovereign nation as a homeland for Jews. These efforts were initiated by Theodore Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, and were given added impetus by the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which asserted the British Government’s support for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

In the years following World War I, Palestine became a British Mandate and Jewish immigration steadily increased, as did violence between Palestine’s Jewish and Arab communities. Mounting British efforts to restrict this immigration were countered by international support for Jewish national aspirations following the near-extermination of European Jewry by the Nazis during World War II. This support led to the 1947 UN partition plan, which would have divided Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under UN administration.

On May 14, 1948, soon after the British quit Palestine, the State of Israel was proclaimed and was immediately invaded by armies from neighboring Arab states, which rejected the UN partition plan. This conflict, Israel’s War of Independence, was concluded by armistice agreements between Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria in 1949 and resulted in a 50% increase in Israeli territory.

In 1956, French, British, and Israeli forces engaged Egypt in response to its nationalization of the Suez Canal and blockade of the Straits of Tiran. Israeli forces withdrew in March 1957, after the United Nations established the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) in the Gaza Strip and Sinai. This war resulted in no territorial shifts and was followed by several years of terrorist incidents and retaliatory acts across Israel’s borders.

In June 1967, Israeli forces struck targets in Egypt, Jordan, and Syria in response to Egyptian President Nasser’s ordered withdrawal of UN peacekeepers from the Sinai Peninsula and the buildup of Arab armies along Israel’s borders. After 6 days, all parties agreed to a ceasefire, under which Israel retained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, the Gaza Strip, the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the Jordan River, and East Jerusalem. On November 22, 1967, the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the “land for peace” formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries.

The following years were marked by continuing violence across the Suez Canal, punctuated by the 1969-70 war of attrition. On October 6, 1973—Yom Kippur (the Jewish Day of Atonement), the armies of Syria and

Egypt launched an attack against Israel. Although the Egyptians and Syrians initially made significant advances, Israel was able to push the invading armies back beyond the 1967 ceasefire lines by the time the United States and the Soviet Union helped bring an end to the fighting. In the UN Security Council, the United States supported Resolution 338, which reaffirmed Resolution 242 as the framework for peace and called for peace negotiations between the parties.

In the years that followed, sporadic clashes continued along the ceasefire lines but guided by the U.S., Egypt, and Israel continued negotiations. In November 1977, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made a historic visit to Jerusalem, which opened the door for the 1978 Israeli-Egyptian peace summit convened at Camp David by President Carter. These negotiations led to a 1979 peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, pursuant to which Israel withdrew from the Sinai in 1982, signed by President Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menahem Begin of Israel.

In the years following the 1948 war, Israel’s border with Lebanon was quiet relative to its borders with other neighbors. After the expulsion of Palestinian fighters from Jordan in 1970 and their influx into southern Lebanon, however, hostilities along Israel’s northern border increased and Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon. After passage of Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon peacekeeping force (UNIFIL), Israel withdrew its troops.

In June 1982, following a series of cross-border terrorist attacks and the attempted assassination of the Israeli Ambassador to the U.K., Israel invaded Lebanon to fight the forces of Yasser Arafat’s Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon in August 1982. Israel, having failed to finalize an agreement with Lebanon, withdrew most of its troops in June 1985 save for a residual force which remained in southern Lebanon to act as a buffer against attacks on northern Israel. These remaining forces were completely withdrawn in May 2000 behind a UN-brokered delineation of the Israel-Lebanon border (the Blue Line). Hizballah forces in Southern Lebanon continued to attack Israeli positions south of the Blue Line in the Sheba Farms/Har Dov area of the Golan Heights.

The victory of the U.S.-led coalition in the Persian Gulf War of 1991 opened new possibilities for regional peace. In October 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union convened the Madrid Conference, in which Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders laid the foundations for ongoing negotiations designed to bring peace and economic development to the region. Within this framework, Israel and the PLO signed a Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, which established an ambitious set of objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority. Israel and the PLO subsequently signed the Gaza-Jericho Agreement on May 4, 1994, and the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities on August 29, 1994, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.

On October 26, 1994, Israel and Jordan signed a historic peace treaty, witnessed by President Clinton. This was followed by Israeli Prime Minister Rabin and PLO Chairman Arafat’s signing of the historic Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on September 28, 1995. This accord, which incorporated and superseded previous agreements, broadened Palestinian self-government and provided for cooperation between Israel and the Palestinians in several areas.

Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by a right-wing Jewish radical, bringing the increasingly bitter national debate over the peace process to a climax. Subsequent Israeli governments continued to negotiate with the PLO resulting in additional agreements, including the Wye River and the Sharm el-Sheikh memoranda. However, a summit hosted by President Clinton at Camp David in July 2000 to address permanent status issues—including the status of Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, final security arrangements, borders, and relations and cooperation with neighboring states—failed to produce an agreement. Following the failed talks, widespread violence broke out in Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza in September 2000. In April 2001 the Sharm el-Sheikh Fact Finding Committee, commissioned by the October 2000 Middle East Peace Summit and chaired by former U.S. Senator George Mitchell, submitted its report, which recommended an immediate end to the violence followed by confidence-building measures and a resumption of security cooperation and peace negotiations. Building on the Mitchell report, In April 2003, the Quartet (the U.S., UN, European Union (EU), and the Russian Federation) announced the “roadmap,” a performance-based plan to bring about two states, Israel and a democratic, viable Palestine, living side by side in peace and security.

Despite the promising developments of spring 2003, violence continued and in September 2003 the first Palestinian Prime Minister, Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen), resigned after failing to win true authority to restore law and order, fight terror, and reform Palestinian institutions. In response to the deadlock, in the winter of 2003–2004 Prime Minister Sharon put forward his Gaza disengagement initiative, proposing the withdrawal of Israeli settlements from Gaza as well as parts of the northern West Bank. President Bush endorsed this initiative in an exchange of letters with Prime Minister Sharon on April 14, 2004, viewing Gaza disengagement as an opportunity to move towards implementation of the two-state vision and begin the development of Palestinian institutions. In a meeting in May 2004 the Quartet endorsed the initiative, which was approved by the Knesset in October 2004.

The run-up to disengagement saw a flurry of diplomatic activity, including the February 2005 announcement of Lieutenant William Ward as U.S. Security Coordinator; the March 2005 Sharon-Abbas summit in Sharm el-Sheikh; the return of Egyptian and Jordanian ambassadors to Israel; and the May 2005 appointment of former World Bank president James D. Wolfensohn as Special Envoy for Gaza Disengagement to work for a revitalization of the Palestinian economy after disengagement. Wolfensohn’s direct involvement spurred Israeli-Palestinian agreement on the Gaza ‘crossings” at Karni and Erez, on the demolition of settler homes, water, electricity, and communications infrastructure issues, as well as other issues related to the Palestinian economy.

On August 15, 2005, Israel began implementing its disengagement from the Gaza Strip, and the Israeli Defense Forces completed their withdrawal, including the dismantling of 17 settlements, on September 12. After broad recognition for Prime Minister Sharon’s accomplishment at that fall’s UN General Assembly, international attention quickly turned to efforts to strengthen Palestinian governance and the economy in Gaza. The United States brokered a landmark Agreement on Movement and Access between the parties in November 2005 to facilitate further progress on Palestinian economic issues. However, the terrorist organization Hamas—building on popular support for its “resistance” to Israeli occupation and a commitment to clean up the notorious corruption of the Palestinian Authority—took a majority in the January 2006 Palestinian legislative elections. The Israeli leadership pledged not to work with a Palestinian government in which Hamas had a role, while the Quartet made clear that, to receive international support, a new Palestinian government would have to renounce terror and violence, recognize Israel, and accept previous obligations and agreements, including the roadmap. The new government, however, rejected these principles when it was seated on April 1, 2006.

GOVERNMENT

Israel is a parliamentary democracy. Its governmental system is based on several basic laws enacted by its unicameral parliament, the Knesset. The president (chief of state) is elected by the Knesset for a 5-year term.

The prime minister (head of government) exercises executive power and has in the past been selected by the president as the party leader most able to form a government. Between May 1996 and March 2001, Israelis voted for the prime minister directly. (The legislation, which required the direct election of the prime minister, was rescinded by the Knesset in March 2001.) The members of the cabinet must be collectively approved by the Knesset.

The Knesset’s 120 members are elected by secret ballot to 4-year terms, although the prime minister may decide to call for new elections before the end of the 4-year term. Voting is for party lists rather than for individual candidates, and the total number of seats assigned each party reflects that party’s percentage of the vote. Successful Knesset candidates are drawn from the lists in order of party-assigned rank. Under the present electoral system, all members of the Knesset are elected at large.

The independent judicial system includes secular and religious courts. The courts’ right of judicial review of the Knesset’s legislation is limited. Judicial interpretation is restricted to problems of execution of laws and validity of subsidiary legislation. The highest court in Israel is the Supreme Court, whose judges are approved by the President.

Israel is divided into six districts, administration of which is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry of Defense is responsible for the administration of the occupied territories.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/8/2006

President: Moshe KATZAV

Prime Minister: Ehud OLMERT

Dep. Prime Min.: Tzipora “Tzipi” LIVNI

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Shalom SIMHON

Min. of Communications: Ariel ATIAS

Min. of Defense: Amir PERETZ

Min. for Development of the Negev & Galilee: Shimon PERES

Min. of Education: Yael “Yuli” TAMIR

Min. of Environment: Gideon EZRA

Min. of Finance: Avraham HERSCHSON

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Tzipora “Tzipi” LIVNI

Min. of Health: Yaacov BEN YIZRI

Min. of Housing & Construction: Meir SHEETRIT

Min. of Immigrant Absorption: Zeev BOIM

Min. of Industry, Trade, & Labor: Eliyahu YISHAI

Min. of Interior: Roni BAR-ON

Min. of Internal (Public) Security: Avraham DICHTER

Min. of Justice: Tzipora “Tzipi” LIVNI

Min. of National Infrastructures: Binyamin BEN ELIEZER

Min. for Pensioner Affairs: Rafael “Rafi” EITAN

Min. in Charge of Religious Affairs in the Prime Min.’s Office: Yitzhak COHEN

Min. of Social Affairs: Ehud OLMERT

Min. of Science, Culture & Sport (Acting): Yael “Yuli” TAMIR

Min. of Strategic Affairs: Avigdor LIEBERMAN

Min. of Tourism: Yitzhak HERZOG

Min. of Transportation & Road Safety: Shaul MOFAZ

Min. Without Portfolio: Eitan CABEL

Min. Without Portfolio: Yitzhak COHEN

Min. Without Portfolio: Yaacov EDRI

Min. Without Portfolio: Meshulam NAHARI

Attorney General: Menachem MAZUZ

Governor, Bank of Israel: Stanley FISCHER

Ambassador to the US: Salai MERIDOR

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Danny GILLERMAN

Israel maintains an embassy in the United States at 3514 International Drive NW, Washington DC, 20008 (tel. 202-364-5500). There also are consulates general in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

From the founding of Israel in 1948 until the election of May 1977, Israel was ruled by successive coalition governments led by the Labor alignment or its constituent parties. From 1967-70, the coalition government included all of Israel’s parties except the communist party. After the 1977 election, the Likud bloc, then composed of Herut, the Liberals, and the smaller La’am Party, came to power forming a coalition with the National Religious Party, Agudat Israel, and others. As head of Likud, Menachem Begin became Prime Minister. The Likud retained power in the succeeding election in June 1981, and Begin remained Prime Minister. In the summer of 1983, Begin resigned and was succeeded by his Foreign Minister, Yitzhak Shamir.

After Prime Minister Shamir lost a Knesset vote of confidence early in 1984, new elections in July provided no clear winner, with both Labor and Likud considerably short of a Knesset majority and unable to form even narrow coalitions. After several weeks of difficult negotiations, they agreed on a government of national unity, including the rotation of the office of Prime Minister and the combined office of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister midway through the government’s 50-month term.

During the first 25 months of unity government rule, Labor’s Shimon Peres served as Prime Minister, while Likud’s Shamir held the posts of Vice Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, until they switched positions in October 1986. In November 1988 elections, Likud edged Labor out by one seat but was unable to form a coalition, producing another national unity government in January 1989. Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister, and Shimon Peres became Vice Prime Minister and Finance Minister. This government fell in March 1990, however, in a vote of no confidence precipitated by disagreement over the government’s response to U.S. Secretary of State Baker’s initiative in the peace process. Labor Party leader Peres was unable to attract sufficient support among the religious parties to form a government. Yitzhak Shamir then formed a Likudled coalition government, including members from religious and right-wing parties.

Shamir’s government took office in June 1990, and held power for 2 years. In the June 1992 national elections, the Labor Party reversed its electoral fortunes, taking 44 seats. Labor Party leader Yitzhak Rabin formed a coalition with Meretz (a group of three leftist parties) and Shas (an ultra-Orthodox religious party). The coalition included the support of two Arab-majority parties. Rabin became Prime Minister in July 1992, presiding over the signing of the Oslo accords with the Palestine Liberation Organization. However, Rabin was assassinated by a right-wing Jewish radical on November 4, 1995. Peres, then Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, once again became Prime Minister and immediately proceeded to carry forward the peace policies of the Rabin government and to implement Israel’s Oslo commitments, including military redeployment in the West Bank and the holding of historic Palestinian elections on January 20, 1996. Enjoying broad public support and anxious to secure his own mandate, Peres called for early elections after just 3 months in office. (They would have otherwise been held by the end of October 1996.) In late February and early March, a series of suicide bombing attacks by Palestinian terrorists took some 60 Israeli lives, seriously eroding public support for Peres and raising concerns about the peace process. Increased fighting in southern Lebanon, which also brought Katyusha rocket attacks against northern Israel, also raised tensions and weakened the government politically a month before the May 29 elections.

In those elections—the first and only direct election of a Prime Minister in Israeli history—Likud leader Binyamin Netanyahu won by a narrow margin, having sharply criticized the government’s peace policies for failing to protect Israeli security. Netanyahu subsequently formed a right-wing coalition government publicly committed to pursuing the peace process, but with an emphasis on security and reciprocity. In 1999, with a shrunken coalition and facing increasing difficulty passing legislation and defeating no-confidence motions, Netanyahu dissolved parliament and called for new elections. This time, the Labor candidate—Ehud Barak—was victorious. Barak formed a mixed coalition government of secular and religious parties, with Likud in the opposition. In May 2000, Barak fulfilled one of his major campaign promises by withdrawing Israeli forces from Southern Lebanon. However, by mid-autumn, with the breakdown of the Camp David talks and the worsening security situation caused by the new intifada, Barak’s coalition was in jeopardy. In December, he resigned as Prime Minister, precipitating a new prime ministerial election.

In a special election on February 6, 2001, after a campaign stressing security and the maintenance of Israeli sovereignty over Jerusalem, Likud leader Ariel Sharon defeated Barak by over 20 percentage points. As he had promised in his campaign, Sharon formed a broad unity government that included the Labor and Likud parties, the far-right parties, some smaller secular parties, and several religious parties. The unity government collapsed in late 2002, and new elections were held in January 2003. Sharon again won, and formed a new government consisting of his own Likud party, the right-wing National Religious Party and National Union party, and centrist Shinui.

The summer of 2004 saw renewed instability in the government, as disagreement over the Gaza disengagement plan resulted in Sharon’s firing two ministers of the National Union Party and accepting the resignation of a third from the National Religious Party in order to secure cabinet approval of the plan (it was endorsed on June 6, 2004). Continuing divisions within the Likud on next steps then prompted Ariel Sharon to leave the party in November 2005 to form the Kadima (“Forward”) party and call new elections for March 2006. However, Sharon was unexpectedly incapacitated in January 2006 due to a severe stroke and leadership of Kadima shifted to Acting Prime Minister Ehud Olmert, who on March 28 led the party to 29 seats in the Knesset. Labor came in second with 19 seats, and Shas and Likud tied with 12. After intensive coalition negotiations, a new, Kadima-led government, with Labor as “senior partner”, was sworn in on May 4, 2006.

ECONOMY

Israel has a diversified, technologically advanced economy with substantial but decreasing government ownership and a strong high-tech sector. The major industrial sectors include high-technology electronic and biomedical equipment, metal products, processed foods, chemicals, and transport equipment. Israel possesses a substantial service sector and is one of the world’s centers for diamond cutting and polishing. It also is a world leader in software development and, prior to the violence that began in September 2000, was a major tourist destination.

Israel’s strong commitment to economic development and its talented work force led to economic growth rates during the nation’s first two decades that frequently exceeded 10% annually. The years after the 1973 Yom Kippur War were a lost decade economically, as growth stalled and inflation reached triple-digit levels. The successful economic stabilization plan implemented in 1985 and the subsequent introduction of market-oriented structural reforms reinvigorated the economy and paved the way for rapid growth in the 1990s.

A wave of Jewish immigration beginning in 1989, predominantly from the countries of the former U.S.S.R., brought nearly a million new citizens to Israel. These new immigrants, many of them highly educated, now constitute some 13% of Israel’s 6.7 million inhabitants. Their successful absorption into Israeli society and its labor force forms a remarkable chapter in Israeli history. The skills brought by the new immigrants and their added demand as consumers gave the Israeli economy a strong upward push and in the 1990s, they played a key role in the ongoing development of Israel’s high-tech sector.

During the 1990s, progress in the Middle East peace process, beginning with the Madrid Conference of 1991, helped to reduce Israel’s economic isolation from its neighbors and opened up new markets to Israeli exporters farther afield. The peace process stimulated an unprecedented inflow of foreign investment in Israel, and provided a substantial boost to economic growth in the region over the last decade. The onset of the intifada beginning at the end of September of 2000, the downturn in the high-tech sector and Nasdaq crisis, and the slowdown of the global economy—particularly the U.S. economy—have all significantly affected the Israeli economy during the past three years.

Israeli companies, particularly in the high-tech area, have in the past enjoyed considerable success raising money on Wall Street and other world financial markets; Israel ranks second to Canada among foreign countries in the number of its companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges. Israel’s tech market is very developed, and in spite of the pause in the industry’s growth, the high-tech sector is likely to be the major driver of the Israeli economy. Almost half of Israel’s exports are high tech. Most leading players, including Intel, IBM, and Cisco have a presence in Israel, and it is worth noting that even during the downturn in the macroeconomic situation in Israel these large players as well as others did not withdraw from the Israeli market.

Growth was an exceptional 6.2% in 2000, due in part to a number of onetime high tech acquisitions and investments. This exceptional year was followed by two years of negative growth of -0.9% and -1%, respectively, in 2001 and 2002. As a result of the security situation and the associated downturn in the economy, there was a significant rise in unemployment and wage erosion. This led to a decline in private consumption in 2002, the first time that there had been negative private consumption since the early 1980s. However, following growth rates of 1.7% in 2003 and 4.4% in 2004, the Israeli economy entered into a period of stabilization and recovery after the deep recession of 2001 and 2002. Since then, the Israeli economy seems to have returned to a trend of consistent growth. According to preliminary Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) data released on January 1, 2006, the Israeli economy grew by 5.2% in 2005 and GDP per capita (U.S. $17,800) increased by 3.3%.

Exports of goods and services in Israel grew by 7% in 2005. Service and agricultural exports each increased by more than 10% in 2005, whereas exports increased by 5.6% and imports rose to 4.4%. Tourism revenues increased by 22.7% as a result of the dramatic increase following the intifada’s subsidence.

Israel’s private consumption increased by 4% in 2005. The largest growth in private consumption was in the purchase of clothing, footwear, and personal effects, which increased by 10.2%, following an increase of 5.4% in 2004. Consumption of consumer durables grew much more slowly than in 2004, with an increase of only 3.4%, compared with 14.3% the previous year.

In the Israeli business sector, business GDP grew by 6.6% in 2005. According to CBS statistics, the transportation, storage, and communications industries grew by 9.2%, following growth of 6.6% in 2004. The GDP of the wholesale, retail, restaurant, and hotel sector increased by 8.1%, up from 6.1% in 2004. The GDP of the finance and business services sector in 2005 increased by 6.4%, up from the previous year’s 6.1% growth rate. The general consensus among economists is that Israel’s economy is very strong and that its growth potential is in the 4% to 5% range.

The United States is Israel’s largest trading partner. In 2005, two-way trade totaled some $26.6 billion, up 12% from 2004. The U.S. trade deficit with Israel was $7.1 billion in 2005, up 33% from 2004, due largely to rising Israeli exports to the U.S. U.S. exports to Israel rose 6.1% in 2005 to $9.7 billion, making Israel our 19th largest export market for goods. The principal goods exported from the U.S. include civilian aircraft parts, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, civilian aircraft, electrical apparatus, and computer accessories. Israel’s chief exports to the U.S. include diamonds, pharmaceutical preparations, telecommunications equipment, medicinal equipment, electrical apparatus, and cotton apparel. The two countries signed a free trade agreement (FTA) in 1985 that progressively eliminated tariffs on most goods traded between the two countries over the following 10 years. An agricultural trade accord signed in November 1996 addressed the remaining goods not covered in the FTA but has not entirely erased barriers to trade in the agricultural sector. Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the European Union, Canada, Mexico, and other countries.

Best prospect industry sectors in Israel for U.S. exporters are electricity and gas equipment, defense equipment, medical instruments and disposable products, industrial chemicals, telecommunication equipment, electronic components, building materials/construction industries (DIY and infrastructure), safety and security equipment and services, non-prescription drugs, travel and tourism services, and computer software.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In addition to seeking an end to hostilities with Arab forces, against which it has fought five wars since 1948, Israel has given high priority to gaining wide acceptance as a sovereign state with an important international role.

Before 1967, Israel had established diplomatic relations with a majority of the world’s nations, except for the Arab states and most other Muslim countries. UN Security Council resolutions provided the basis for ceasefire and disengagement agreements concerning the Sinai and the Golan Heights between Israel, Egypt, and Syria and for promoting the Camp David accords and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. The Soviet Union and the communist states of eastern Europe (except Romania) broke diplomatic relations with Israel during the 1967 war, but those relations were restored by 1991.

The landmark October 1991 Madrid conference recognized the importance of Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 in resolving regional disputes, and brought together for the first time Israel, the Palestinians, and the neighboring Arab countries, launching a series of direct bilateral and multilateral negotiations. These talks were designed to finally resolve outstanding security, border, and other issues between the parties while providing a basis for mutual cooperation on issues of general concern, including the status of refugees, arms control and regional security, water and environmental concerns, and economic development.

Today, Israel has diplomatic relations with 161 states. Following the signing of the Israel-PLO Declaration of Principles on September 13, 1993, Israel established or renewed diplomatic relations with 35 countries. Most important are its ties with Arab states. Israel has full diplomatic relations with Egypt, Jordan, and Mauritania. In addition, on October 1, 1994, the Gulf States publicly announced their support for a review of the Arab boycott, in effect abolishing the secondary and tertiary boycotts against Israel.

Israel has diplomatic relations with nine non-Arab Muslim states and with 32 of the 43 Sub-Saharan states that are not members of the Arab League. Israel established relations with China and India in 1992 and with the Holy See in 1993.

DEFENSE

Israel’s ground, air, and naval forces, known as the Israel Defense Force (IDF), fall under the command of a single general staff. Conscription is universal for Jewish men and women over the age of 18, although exemptions may be made on religious grounds. Druze, members of a small Islamic sect living in Israel’s mountains, also serve in the IDF. Israeli Arabs, with few exceptions, do not serve. During 1950-66, Israel spent an average of 9% of GDP on defense. Real defense expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. Military spending in 2005 totaled $9.45 billion, which is equivalent to 7.7% of GDP, and represents 16.3% of government expenditures. The United States provides approximately $2.4 billion per year in security assistance.

In 1983, the United States and Israel established the Joint Political Military Group, which meets twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises, and have collaborated on military research and weapons development.

U.S.-ISRAELI RELATIONS

Commitment to Israel’s security and well being has been a cornerstone of U.S. policy in the Middle East since Israel’s creation in 1948, in which the United States played a key supporting role. Israel and the United States are bound closely by historic and cultural ties as well as by mutual interests. Continuing U.S. economic and security assistance to Israel acknowledges these ties and signals U.S. commitment. The broad issues of Arab-Israeli peace have been a major focus in the U.S.-Israeli relationship. U.S. efforts to reach a Middle East peace settlement are based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 and have been based on the premise that as Israel takes calculated risks for peace the United States will help minimize those risks.

On a bilateral level, relations between the United States and Israel are continually strengthening in every field. In addition to the Joint Political-Military Group described above, there are: bilateral science and technology efforts (including the Binational Science Foundation and the Binational Agricultural Research and Development Foundation); the U.S.-Israeli Education Foundation, which sponsors educational and cultural programs; the Joint Economic Development Group, which maintains a high-level dialogue on economic issues; the Joint Counterterrorism Group, designed to enhance cooperation in fighting terrorism; and a high-level Strategic Dialogue that meets biannually.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

TEL AVIV (E) Address: 71 Hayarkon; APO/FPO: APO AE 09830; Phone: 972-3-519-7575; Fax: 972-3-517-3227; INMARSAT Tel: 873-683-142-035; 873-783-133-445; Workweek: M-F/0800–1630.

Last Updated: 10/13/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : February 8, 2006

Country Description: The State of Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a modern economy. Tourist facilities are widely available. Travelers may visit the website of the Israeli Ministry of Tourism for tourist information at http://www.goisrael.com/. Israel occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem as a result of the 1967 War. Pursuant to negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians, the Palestinian Authority exercises jurisdiction over the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank. Palestinian Authority police are responsible for keeping order in those areas, and the Palestinian Authority exercises a range of civil functions there. The division of responsibilities and jurisdiction in the West Bank between Israel and the Palestinian Authority is complex. Definitive information on entry, customs requirements, arrests, and other matters in the West Bank and Gaza is subject to change without prior notice or may not be available.

Entry/Exit Requirements: The general entry and exit requirements for Americans traveling to Israel, the West Bank and Gaza are listed below. Palestinian Americans may be subject to special restrictions. Palestinian Americans are advised to read all sections of this sheet very carefully for special regulations that may affect their travel.

Israel: A passport valid for six months beyond duration of stay, an onward or return ticket, and proof of sufficient funds are required for entry. A no-charge, three-month visa may be issued upon arrival and may be renewed. Travelers carrying official or diplomatic U.S. passports must obtain visas from an Israeli embassy or consulate prior to arrival in Israel. Anyone who has been refused entry or experienced difficulties with his/her status during a previous visit, or who has overstayed the authorized duration of a previous visit or otherwise violated the terms of their admission to Israel should consult the Israeli Embassy or nearest Israeli Consulate before attempting to return to Israel. Anyone seeking returning resident status must obtain permission from Israeli authorities before traveling. Occasionally, the Government of Israel has declined to admit individual American citizens or groups who have expressed sympathy with the Palestinian cause, sought to meet with Palestinian officials, or intended to travel to the West Bank or the Gaza Strip. Persons who, upon arrival, seek immigration court hearings to contest decisions that they not be permitted to enter Israel may be detained for prolonged periods while waiting for such hearings to be convened.

West Bank and Gaza: Except during periods of heightened security restrictions, most U.S. citizens may enter and exit the West Bank on a U.S. passport, but only with an Israeli entry stamp placed in the passport at the port of entry. U.S. citizens who hold a Palestinian ID number or whom Israel considers to have residency status in the West Bank or Gaza are advised to please read the next section entitled “Palestinian Americans” very carefully.

The Government of Israel requires persons wishing to enter Gaza via the Erez checkpoint to have prior written permission from the Government of Israel. U.S. citizens planning on traveling to Gaza should submit a request for entry in person at the Erez Border Crossing at least five working days in advance of their visit. With the exception of the Rafah crossing, it is not necessary to obtain a visitor’s permit from the Palestinian Authority to travel to Gaza. From November 2005 until November 2006, the Rafah crossing between Gaza and Egypt will be open only for Palestinian ID cardholders and for persons in the specific excepted categories of diplomats, foreign investors, foreign representatives of recognized international organizations and humanitarian cases. Travelers planning to use one of these exceptions need to apply to the Palestinian Authority at least two days in advance of their planned entry through Rafah. Private vehicles may not cross from Israel into Gaza, or from Gaza into Israel, and may be stopped at checkpoints entering or leaving the West Bank. The Gaza Airport remains closed as a result of serious damage sustained in fighting during the past five years.

Palestinian Americans: American citizens of Palestinian origin may be considered by Israeli authorities to be residents of the West Bank or Gaza, especially if they were issued a Palestinian ID number or if, as minors, they were registered in either of their parents’ Palestinian IDs. Any American citizen whom Israel considers to be a resident of the West Bank or Gaza is required by Israel to hold a valid Palestinian passport to enter or leave the West Bank or Gaza via Israel or the Allenby Bridge border crossing. American citizens in this category who arrive without a Palestinian passport will generally be granted permission to travel to the West Bank or Gaza to obtain one, but may only be allowed to depart via Israel on a Palestinian passport rather than on their U.S. passport.

Persons carrying a Palestinian Authority identity number will not be permitted to enter Israel through Ben Gurion International Airport if their last departure was through the Allenby Bridge or Rafah border crossings. Such persons who arrive at Ben Gurion will be turned back by Israeli officials and required to re-enter through Allenby or Rafah. Anyone who last departed Israel through Ben Gurion Airport may return via the airport or any border crossing.

During periods of heightened security restrictions, Palestinian Americans with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza may not be allowed to enter or exit Gaza or the West Bank, even if using their American passports. Persons with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza must apply to the Government of Israel for a transit permit in order to depart via Ben Gurion Airport. Applications for such permits must be submitted at least three Israeli working days prior to departure, although Israeli authorities may take considerably longer to render a decision. Except in humanitarian or special interest cases, Israeli authorities are unlikely to grant this permit. In this event, Palestinian Americans must exit the We st Ban k vi a the crossing at Allenby Bridge and from Gaza via the Rafah crossing. Specific questions may be addressed to the nearest Israeli Embassy or Consulate or, within Israel, the nearest office of the Ministry of the Interior.

Israel-Jordan Crossings: International crossing points between Israel and Jordan are the Arava crossing (Wadi al-’Arabah) in the south, near Eilat, and the Jordan River crossing (Sheikh Hussein Bridge) in the north, near Beit Shean. American citizens using these two crossing points to enter either Israel or Jordan need not obtain prior visas, but will have to pay the following fees:

Jordan River Crossing: Israeli exit fee of 68 NIS/U.S. $15, Jordanian entry fee 5 Jordanian dinars

Arava crossing: exit fee of 68 NIS/U.S. $15, entry fee of 5 Jordanian dinars

Visas should be obtained in advance for those wanting to cross the Allenby Bridge between Jordan and the West Bank. (Note: The Government of Israel requires that Palestinian Americans with residency status in the West Bank enter Jordan via the Allenby Bridge). Procedures for all three crossings into Jordan are subject to frequent changes. Persons with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza seeking to cross the Allenby Bridge from Jordan should contact the Jordanian authorities for information concerning special clearance procedures for Palestinian ID holders before traveling to the bridge. Palestinian Americans who depart Israel, the West Bank or Gaza via the Allenby Bridge may encounter lengthy processing times at the bridge. Visit the Embassy of Israel website at: http://www.israelemb.org/ for the most current visa information.

Re-Entry to the West Bank: The Government of Israel is increasingly denying re-entry to the West Bank by American citizens who work and/or reside there with temporary visas. American citizens, including aid workers, religious workers, and property owners who left the West Bank so they could renew entry visas by return from Jordan or other countries are increasingly being denied re-entry by Israeli authorities, who consider them “repeat visitors.” American citizens who also hold Palestinian IDs are permitted to enter, because they are considered by Israeli authorities to be legal residents of the Palestinian Territories; but they are subject to other restrictions, described elsewhere in this Consular Information Sheet.

Safety and Security: Israel has strict security measures that may affect visitors. Prolonged questioning and detailed searches may take place at the time of entry and/or departure at all points of entry to Israel, including entry from the West Bank and Gaza. Travelers with Arabic surnames, those who ask that Israeli stamps not be entered into their passports, and unaccompanied female travelers have been delayed and subjected to close scrutiny at points of entry. Security-related delays or obstacles in bringing in or departing with cameras or electronic equipment are not unusual. Laptop computers and other electronic equipment have been confiscated from travelers leaving Israel from Ben Gurion Airport during security checks. While most are returned prior to departure, some equipment has been retained by the authorities for lengthy periods, damaged, destroyed or lost as a result. Americans who have had personal property damaged due to security procedures at Ben Gurion can contact the Commissioner of Complaints at the airport for redress. During searches and questioning, Israeli authorities have denied American citizens access to U.S. consular officers, lawyers, or family members. Palestinian Americans have been arrested on suspicion of security crimes when attempting to enter or leave Israel, the West Bank and Gaza. The Israeli National Police have monitored, arrested and deported members of religious groups who they believe intended to commit violent or disruptive acts in Israel.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Travel Warning for Israel, the West Bank and Gaza, Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement, and other Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Terrorism: U.S. citizens, including tourists, students, residents, and U.S. mission personnel, have been injured or killed in terrorist actions in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank and Gaza. Attacks have occurred in highly frequented shopping and pedestrian areas and on public buses. U.S. Embassy and Consulate General American employees and their families are prohibited from using public buses and trains. American citizens should exercise extreme caution and avoid, to the extent possible, shopping and market areas, pedestrian walkways, malls, public buses and bus stops, trains and train stations, as well as crowded areas and demonstrations.

American citizens should use caution in the vicinity of military sites, areas frequented by off-duty soldiers, contentious religious sites, and large crowds. Travelers should remain aware of their immediate surroundings, and should not touch any suspicious objects.

Kidnappings: In recent months, in Gaza, armed gunmen have kidnapped foreigners, including one American. Gunmen in negotiations with the Palestinian Authority have sometimes used such foreign hostages as bartering tools. The threat of hostage-taking remains a primary concern for Americans and foreigners within the Gaza Strip. Any Americans traveling to Gaza in spite of the Department of State’s Travel Warning urging no travel to Gaza should register with the American Consulate General in Jerusalem prior to entry and maintain a very low profile while moving within Gaza. They should also have the telephone numbers of the U.S. Consulate General readily at hand for rapid contact in the event of an emergency.

Demonstrations and Civil Unrest: In the West Bank, Gaza and Jerusalem, demonstrations or altercations can occur spontaneously and have the potential to become violent without warning. If such disturbances occur, American visitors should leave the area immediately. In Jerusalem’s Old City, where exits are limited, American visitors should seek safe haven inside a shop or restaurant until the incident is over. Demonstrations are particularly dangerous in areas such as checkpoints, settlements, military areas, and major thoroughfares where protesters are likely to encounter Israeli security forces.

Demonstrations by Arab Israelis in northern Israel have occurred on Land Day (March 30) and on Israeli Independence Day (date varies). These demonstrations have generally been peaceful, but, on occasion, circumstances have prompted Embassy officials to instruct staff to avoid certain areas on those dates.

Areas of Instability: U.S. Government personnel in Israel and Jerusalem, whether stationed there or on temporary duty, are under tight security controls, as noted below. In addition, they occasionally may be prohibited from traveling to sections of Jerusalem and parts of Israel depending on prevailing security conditions.

Jerusalem: In Jerusalem, travelers should exercise caution at religious sites on holy days, Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays, and dress appropriately when visiting the Old City and ultra-orthodox Jewish neighborhoods. Most roads into ultra-orthodox Jewish neighborhoods are blocked off on Friday nights and Saturdays. Assaults on secular visitors, either for being in cars or for being “immodestly dressed,” have occurred in these neighborhoods. Isolated street protests and demonstrations can occur in the commercial districts of East Jerusalem (Salah Ed-Din Street and Damascus Gate areas) during periods of unrest. U.S. Government American employees are authorized to travel to the Old City and the Mount of Olives during daylight hours only. Although few security incidents have occurred recently within the Old City, visitors are urged to exercise caution and be aware of their surroundings at all times. This is especially true when entering or exiting the Old City at times when the volume of pedestrian traffic could create difficulties.

There have been reports of harassment of tourists by vendors in many tourist areas of Jerusalem including, in particular, the Mount of Olives.

West Bank and Gaza: For safety and security reason, U.S. Government American personnel and dependents are prohibited from traveling to any cities, towns or settlements in the West Bank, except for mission-essential business or other approved purposes. Jericho, as distinct from other areas in the West Bank, is under the full security responsibility of the Palestinian Authority. Violence in recent years has decreased markedly in Jericho and, since the PA’s assumption of security responsibility for Jericho in February 2005, the level of violence there has remained low compared to other parts of the West Bank. For limited, personal travel, U.S. government personnel and family members are permitted to travel through the West Bank, using only Routes 1 and 90, to reach the Allenby/King Hussein Bridge or the Dead Sea coast near Ein Gedi and Masada. Each such transit requires prior notification to the Consulate General’s security office and must occur during daylight hours. U.S. Government personnel and family members are permitted personal travel on Route 443 between Modi’in and Jerusalem during daylight hours only.

Travel to the Gaza Strip by U.S. Government personnel is prohibited. Under policy guidance issued by the Secretary of State, exceptions to the prohibition on Gaza travel are only for official, mission-critical travel. Private American citizens also should avoid travel to these areas.

During periods of unrest, the Israeli Government sometimes closes off access to the West Bank and Gaza, and those areas may be placed under curfew. All persons in areas under curfew should remain indoors or risk arrest or injury. Americans have been killed, seriously injured, detained and deported as a result of encounters with Israeli Defense Forces operations in Gaza and the West Bank. Travel restrictions may be imposed with little or no warning. Strict measures have frequently been imposed following terrorist actions, and the movement of Palestinian Americans, both those with residency status in the West Bank or Gaza as well as foreign passport holders, has been severely impeded. Due to current limitations on travel by U.S. Government employees to the West Bank and Gaza made necessary by uncertain security conditions, the ability of consular staff to offer timely assistance to American citizens in need in these areas is considerably reduced at present.

Golan Heights: There are live land mines in many areas and visitors should walk only on established roads or trails. Near the northern border of Israel, rocket attacks from Lebanese territory can occur without warning.

Crime: The crime rate is moderate in Israel, Jerusalem, and the West Bank. Incidents of organized, violent crime, residential break-ins and petty theft have increased in Gaza since Israel’s disengagement in September.

Information for Victims of Crime:
The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

The Government of Israel provides assistance to victims of terrorist acts. Please use this website to the National Insurance Institute for more information: http://www.btl.gov.il/English/btl_indx.asp?name=newbenefits/hostilities.htm.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Modern medical care and medicines are available in Israel. Some hospitals in Israel and most hospitals in the West Bank and Gaza, however, fall below U.S. standards. Travelers can find information in English about emergency medical facilities and after-hours pharmacies in the “Jerusalem Post” and the English language edition of “Ha’aretz” newspapers.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Also, please see the Department of State’s Avian Flu Fact Sheet. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Israel, the West Bank and Gaza is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Israeli roads and highways tend to be crowded, especially in urban areas. Aggressive driving is a serious problem and few drivers maintain safe following distances. Drivers should use caution, as Israel has an extremely high rate of fatality from automobile accidents.

U.S. Embassy Tel Aviv and Consulate General Jerusalem American employees and their families have been prohibited from using public buses (please review the earlier section entitled “Terrorism.”)

The Government of Israel requires that all passenger car occupants use their seat belts at all times and that headlights be used during all intercity travel, both day and night, during winter. Beginning January 1, 2006, all drivers will be required to carry florescent vests in the car with them at all times, and they will be required to wear these vests whenever they get out of their cars to make repairs, change tires, etc. If a vehicle is stopped for a traffic violation and it does not have a florescent vest, the driver will be fined. These vests can be purchased for a nominal price in all local gas stations.

West Bank and Gaza: Crowded roads and aggressive driving are common in the West Bank and Gaza. During periods of heightened tensions, cars with Israeli license plates have been stoned and fired upon. Emergency services may be delayed by the need for Palestinian authorities to coordinate with Israeli officials. Seat belt use is required outside of cities and drivers may not drink alcohol. Individuals involved in accidents resulting in death or injury, may be detained by police pending an investigation.

Visit the website of the Israeli Ministry of Tourism office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.goisrael.com.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Israel’s Civil Aviation Authority as being in compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards for oversight of Israel’s air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Video cameras and other electronic items must be declared upon entry to Israel and are sometimes seized by Israeli customs and security officials and returned either damaged and/or after a lengthy delay. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Israel in Washington or one of Israel’s consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements. Definitive information on customs requirements for the Palestinian Authority is not available.

Arrests and Detentions: U.S. citizens arrested by the Israeli National Police (INP) in Israel and charged with crimes are entitled to legal representation and consular notification and visitation. In many cases, there are significant delays between the time of arrest and the time when the INP notifies the Embassy or Consulate General and grants consular access. This procedure may be expedited if the arrested American shows a U.S. passport to the police, or asks the police to contact the U.S. Embassy or Consulate General.

U.S. citizens arrested by the Israeli Security Police for security offenses, and U.S. citizens arrested in the West Bank or Gaza for criminal or security offenses may be prevented from communicating with lawyers, family members, or consular officers for lengthy periods. The U.S. Consulate General and the Embassy are often not notified of such arrests, or are not notified in a timely manner. Consular access to the arrested individual is frequently delayed. U.S. citizens have been subject to mistreatment during interrogation and pressured to sign statements in Hebrew that have not been translated. Under local law they may be detained for up to six months at a time without charges. Youths over the age of 14 have been detained and tried as adults. When access to a detained American citizen is denied or delayed, the U.S. Government formally protests the lack of consular access to the Israeli Government. The U.S. Government also will protest any mistreatment to the relevant authorities.

U.S. citizens arrested by the Palestinian Authority (PA) Security Forces in the West Bank or Gaza for crimes are entitled to legal representation and consular notification and access. The PA Security Forces normally notify the Consulate General of non-security related arrests for criminal offenses within two days of arrest, and consular access is normally granted within four days. This procedure may be expedited if the arrested American shows a U.S. passport to the police, or asks the police to contact the U.S. Consulate General.

U.S. citizens arrested by the PA Security Forces in the West Bank or Gaza for security offenses may be prevented from communicating with lawyers, family members, or consular officers for lengthy periods. In addition, they may be held in custody for protracted periods without formal charges or before being taken in front of a judge for an arrest extension. The PA often does not notify the U.S. Consulate General of arrests in a timely manner, and consular access to arrestees is occasionally delayed.

Dual Nationality: Israeli citizens naturalized in the United States retain their Israeli citizenship, and children born in the United States to Israeli parents usually acquire both U.S. and Israeli nationality at birth. Israeli citizens, including dual nationals, are subject to Israeli laws requiring service in Israel’s armed forces, as well as other laws pertaining to passports and nationality. U.S.-Israeli dual nationals of military age who do not wish to serve in the Israeli armed forces should contact the Israeli Embassy in Washington, D.C. to learn more about an exemption or deferment from Israeli military service before going to Israel. Without this exemption or deferment document, they may not be able to leave Israel without completing military service or may be subject to criminal penalties for failure to serve. Israeli citizens, including dual nationals, must enter and depart Israel on their Israeli passports, and Israeli authorities may require persons whom they consider to have acquired Israeli nationality at birth to obtain an Israeli passport prior to departing Israel, even if said persons are neither aware of their Israeli nationality nor have any desire to maintain it.

Bearers of Palestinian passports or identity numbers who have become naturalized United States citizens are considered by the Israeli government to retain their Palestinian nationality, and Israeli authorities will view them as Palestinians first, and as American citizens second. Palestinian Americans whom the Government of Israel considers residents of the West Bank or Gaza may face certain travel restrictions. These individuals are subject to restrictions on movement between Israel, the West Bank and Gaza and within the West Bank and Gaza that are imposed by the Israeli Government on all Palestinians for security reasons. During periods of heightened security concerns these restrictions can be onerous. Palestinian-American residents of Jerusalem are normally required to use laissez-passers (travel documents issued by the Israeli Government) that contain re-entry permits approved by the Israeli Ministry of Interior for any out-of-country travel. All U.S. citizens with dual nationality must enter the U.S. on their U.S. passports.

Court Jurisdiction: Civil courts in Israel actively exercise their authority to bar certain individuals, including nonresidents, from leaving the country until monetary and other legal claims against them can be resolved. Israel’s rabbinical courts exercise jurisdiction over all Jewish citizens and residents of Israel in cases of marriage, divorce, child custody and child support. In some cases, Jewish-Americans who entered Israel as tourists have become defendants in divorce cases filed by their spouses in Israeli rabbinical courts. These Americans have been detained in Israel for prolonged periods while the Israeli courts consider whether the individuals have sufficient ties to Israel to establish rabbinical court jurisdiction. Jewish-American visitors should be aware that they might be subject to involuntary and prolonged stays in Israel if a case is filed against them in a rabbinical court, even if their marriage took place in the U.S. and regardless of whether their spouse is present in Israel.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than those in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Israel’s and the Palestinian Authority’s laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Israel and the Palestinian Authority are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration/Embassy and Consulate Locations: Americans living or traveling in Israel, the West Bank or Gaza are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv or the Consulate General in Jerusalem through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Israel, the West Bank or Gaza. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy or Consulate General. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate General to contact them in case of emergency.

The U.S. Embassy is located at 71 Hayarkon Street in Tel Aviv. The U.S. mailing address is Unit 7228, Box 0001, APO AE 09830. The telephone number is (972)(3) 519-7575. The number after 4:30 p.m. and before 8:00 a.m. local time is (972)(3) 519-7551. The fax number is (972)(3) 516-4390. The Embassy’s email address is [email protected] and its Internet web page is http://telaviv.usembassy.gov.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy should be contacted for information and help in the following areas: Israel, the Golan Heights and ports of entry at Ben Gurion Airport, Haifa Port, and the northern (Jordan River) and southern (Arava) border crossings connecting Israel and Jordan.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem is located at 27 Nablus Road in Jerusalem. The U.S. mailing address is Unit 7228, Box 0039, APO AE 09830. The telephone number is (972)(2) 622-7200. The Consular Section’s public telephone number for information and assistance is (972)(2) 628-7137, Monday through Friday from 8:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. Messages may be left at that number at other times. The emergencies only number after 4:30 p.m. and before 8:00 a.m. local time is (972)(2) 622-7250. The Consular Section’s fax number is (972)(2) 627-2233. The Consulate’s email address is [email protected] and its Internet web page is http://jerusalem.usconsulate.gov.

The U.S. Consulate General should be contacted for information and help in the following areas: West and East Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, the Allenby Bridge border crossing connecting Jordan with the West Bank, and the Rafah border crossing between Gaza and Egypt.

A U.S. Consular Agent who reports to the Embassy in Tel Aviv maintains an office in Haifa at 26 Ben Gurion Boulevard, telephone (972)(4) 853-1470. The Consular Agent can provide both routine and emergency services in the northern part of Israel.

Travel Warning : January 17, 2007

This Travel Warning is being issued to update information on the general security environment in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip, and to reiterate threats to American citizens and U.S. interests in those locations. The Department of State urges U.S. citizens to remain mindful of security factors when considering travel to Israel and Jerusalem at this time. In addition, the Department of State urges U.S. citizens to defer travel to the West Bank and to avoid all travel to the Gaza Strip. This warning supersedes the Travel Warning issued August 29, 2006.

Overall, conditions of lawlessness—including running gun battles and kidnappings—prevail in the Gaza Strip; daily incidents of intra-Palestinian violence also occur in the West Bank. Violent demonstrations and armed conflicts between supporters of Palestinian factions have increased in both areas. Security forces and militiamen have engaged in running gun battles in the streets of Gaza, and individual members of factions and the security forces have been targeted for assassination, some successfully. Areas of violent conflict shift rapidly and unpredictably. Foreigners have been subject to threats and kidnappings.

American citizens in the Gaza Strip should depart immediately, a recommendation that the State Department has maintained and renewed since the deadly roadside bombing of a U.S. Embassy convoy in Gaza on October 15, 2003. This recommendation applies to all Americans, including journalists and aid workers. Militants have continued to abduct Western citizens, and terrorist organizations have threatened attacks against U.S. interests.

Militant groups in Gaza persist in launching rocket attacks against nearby Israeli towns despite a nominal ceasefire there. The IDF (Israeli Defense Forces) has been authorized to respond to such attacks with counterstrikes against launch areas while launch crews are present. It also continues to carry out security operations in the West Bank, including infrequent, airborne targeted attacks and ground incursions, which have led to the deaths and injuries to bystanders. Rocket fire from Lebanon has ceased since the passage of UN Security Council Resolution 1701 in August 2006.

In recent months, some Americans and Europeans involved in demonstrations and other such activities in the West Bank have become involved in confrontations with Israeli settlers and the IDF. The State Department recommends that Americans, for their own safety, avoid demonstrations.

For safety and security reasons, U.S. Government American personnel and dependents are prohibited from traveling to any cities, towns or settlements in the West Bank, except for mission-essential business or other approved purposes. For limited, personal travel, U.S. government personnel and family members are permitted to travel through the West Bank, using only Routes 1 and 90, to reach the Allenby/King Hussein Bridge or the Dead Sea coast near Ein Gedi and Masada. Each such transit requires prior notification to the Consulate General’s security office and must occur during daylight hours. U.S. Government personnel and family members are permitted both official and personal travel on Route 443 between Modi’in and Jerusalem without prior notification, during daylight hours only. Travel to the Gaza Strip by U.S. Government personnel is prohibited. The Department of State strongly recommends that private American citizens not travel to the Gaza Strip. Those in Gaza should depart immediately.

All travelers who enter or travel in the West Bank should exercise particular care when approaching and traveling through Israeli checkpoints and should expect delays and difficulties. Travelers should also be aware they might not be allowed passage through checkpoints.

Israeli authorities are concerned about the continuing threat of suicide bombings. The January 2006 and April 2006, suicide bombings in Tel Aviv, the December 2005 suicide bombing in Netanya and a similar incident in Hadera in October 2005 are reminders of the precarious security environment. Despite the success of Israeli security forces in preventing suicide attacks since April 2006, the threat of such attacks is ongoing. The U.S. Government has received information indicating that American interests could be the focus of terrorist attacks. For that reason, American citizens are cautioned that a greater danger may exist in the vicinity of restaurants, businesses, and other places associated with U.S. interests and/or located near U.S. official buildings, such as the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv and the U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem.

American citizens are urged to exercise a high degree of caution and common sense when patronizing restaurants, cafes, malls, places of worship, and theaters, especially during peak hours. Large crowds and public gatherings should be avoided to the extent possible, and personnel should be alert to street vendors who sometimes aggressively harass tourists. American citizens should take into consideration that discos and nightclubs, as well as public buses, trains and their respective terminals are “off-limits” to U.S. Government personnel.

Violence between organized criminal elements sometimes occurs in areas frequented by foreigners and has occasionally resulted in death or injuries to bystanders. While American citizens have not been the targets of such violence, they should be aware of their surroundings and follow common sense security precautions.

The State Department urges American citizens to remain vigilant while traveling throughout Jerusalem, especially within the commercial and downtown areas of West Jerusalem and the city center. Israeli security services report that they continue to receive information of planned terrorist attacks in and around Jerusalem. The last terrorist bombing in Jerusalem was on September 22, 2004. Spontaneous or planned protests within the Old City are possible, especially after Friday prayers. Some of these protests have led to violent clashes. The Old City of Jerusalem is off-limits to U.S. Government personnel and their family members after dark during the entire week and between the hours of 11 am and 2 pm on Fridays.

Americans in Israel, Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip are strongly encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Tel Aviv or the Consular Section of U.S. Consulate General in Jerusalem through the State Department’s travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov. U.S. citizens who require emergency services may telephone the Consulate General in Jerusalem at (972) (2) 622-7250 or the Embassy in Tel Aviv at (972) (3) 519-7355.

As a consequence of the current limitations on official travel to the West Bank, and the prohibition on travel by U.S. Government employees to the Gaza Strip, the ability of consular staff to offer timely assistance to U.S. citizens in these areas is extremely limited.

Current information on travel and security in Israel, Jerusalem, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States and Canada, or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444. For additional and more in-depth information about specific aspects of travel to these areas, U.S. citizens should consult: the Consular Information Sheet for Israel, the West Bank, and Gaza; the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement; and the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement. These are available on the Department’s Internet website at http://travel.state.gov. Up-to-date information on security conditions can also be accessed at http://usembassyisrael.org.il or http://jerusalem.usconsulate.gov.

ISRAEL

State of Israel

Major Cities:
Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, Haifa

Other Cities:
Acre, Beersheba, Bethlehem, Elat, Hadera, Holon, Nablus, Nazareth, Netanya

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report dated April 1993. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

The modern State of ISRAEL was created in 1948 after more than a half-century of Zionist efforts to provide a homeland for dispersed Jews. The official design for this new nation was formed in 1917 with the Balfour Declaration, which avowed the British Government's support of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Other countries, including the United States, upheld the declaration and, after World War I, the United Kingdom assumed the Palestine Mandate.

Nazi persecution of Jews during the 1930s and 1940s increased the incentive for immigration to Palestine, and international support grew for the establishment of a Jewish nation. In November 1947, the United Nations adopted a plan to divide the area into Arab and Jewish states but, as the end of the mandate approached, discord between the two segments of the population of Palestine degenerated into civil war.

The State of Israel was proclaimed on May 14, 1948. The years since then have been marked with tension, border disputes, and open warfare—interspersed with cease-fire agreements and internationally sponsored peace talks. Anxieties remain about immediate possibilities for a negotiated solution.

MAJOR CITIES

Tel Aviv

Tel Aviv is Israel's second largest city (after Jerusalem), with a population of 349,000 in a metropolitan area of well over one million. Located approximately midway on Israel's Mediterranean coast, the city is bounded on the north by the small Yarkon River and on the south by the ancient city of Yafo (Jaffa). Between Tel Aviv and the city of Haifa to the north, numerous small communities give the appearance of a megalopolis interspersed with farms and sand dunes.

Tel Aviv was founded in 1909 as a Jewish suburb of the Arab town of Yafo. The city grew rapidly, and quickly became the financial and commercial center of Israel. Banks, insurance companies, and business firms have their main offices in Tel Aviv/Yafo. Manufacturing firms, a new university, research activities, and the international airport give the feeling of living in a bustling metropolis. The pace of the city is Mediterranean with its hectic traffic, sidewalk cafés, and crowded, noisy streets; but the newness and lack of greenery and open space set it apart from most Mediterranean locations.

Tel Aviv began as a garden suburb and, without apparent thought or planning, it expanded. As a result, streets are narrow and buildings are crowded together. Among these are some modern glass and concrete office towers, including the tallest building in the Middle East. In the newer parts of the city, improved construction and planning can be seen. Renovations have been made on the main beach-front, and a mosaic promenade installed. People stroll here on weekend evenings, or sit at the cafés.

The Jewish Sabbath, Shabbat, begins late Friday afternoon and ends after sundown on Saturday. All banks and business firms are closed during that time, as is public transportation. Some restaurants remain open. Radio and television stations operate on Saturdays and on Jewish holidays, with the exception of Yom Kippur, when all commercial (and vehicular) traffic ceases. Sunday is a regular working day for Israelis.

The American Embassy is in Tel Aviv. Although Israel claims all of Jerusalem as its capital, the United States and most countries which maintain diplomatic relations with Israel accept only West Jerusalem in a de facto sense as the working capital. They regard the international status of Jerusalem as still undecided, pending final peace treaties between Israel and its Arab neighbors. Therefore, most countries maintain their embassies and legations in Tel Aviv, although they transact much of their business with Israeli Government offices in Jerusalem.

Schools for Foreigners

Walworth Barbour American International School in Israel (WBAIS), a U.S. Government-sponsored institution, provides instruction from kindergarten through high school. Enrollment represents the international community; only a small minority are Israeli, many of these recent immigrants are from South Africa, the U.S., and other English-speaking countries.

Hebrew instruction is mandatory in third grade, after which it is optional. Instruction in French can begin in the seventh grade. During the four years of high school, emphasis is placed on college preparation; French and Hebrew are also offered. Science laboratories are well equipped and the teaching staff, chiefly U.S. immigrants, is strong in all departments. Supplementary language instruction and other subjects are available if there is adequate demand. The library, directed by a professional librarian, is adequate, and constantly adds new books and audio/visual materials.

Extracurricular activities at WBAIS include gymnastics, basketball, soccer, softball, and field hockey. There are a modern playing field, an excellent gym/auditorium, outdoor basketball courts, and an art center.

The school is directed by a board consisting of U.S. Government officials, Israelis, and other American and foreign members.

Several other educational facilities are available to foreign residents of Tel Aviv, including British and French schools. The British school, Tabeetha, sponsored by the Church of Scotland, prepares students for entrance to British universities. The school can offer the equivalent of a U.S. high school curriculum, but the grades available each year vary. French, German, and Hebrew are taught, and classes are conducted in preparation for the British A-level examinations in both the sciences and humanities, depending on demand.

In Israeli society, all children attend compulsory preschool, starting at five years of age. Private preschools, or gans, may accept children as young as 18 months. The gans are adequate to excellent, and are staffed by well-trained teachers. They operate six mornings a week within a flexible attendance schedule.

Special Opportunities

Tel Aviv offers special education facilities for handicapped children and those with learning disabilities. Walworth Barbour School has provided special teachers and instruction for several students, including blind and moderately learning-disabled children. English-speaking physical and speech therapists are listed with the medical advisor at the American Embassy. Severely handicapped children, however, may have difficulty finding schooling.

Most university courses in Israel are in Hebrew, but the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University, and Bar-Ilan University offer some courses in English.

The French and German embassies regularly sponsor both intensive daytime and weekly evening language classes. Teachers are available for many Eastern and Western European languages.

Many opportunities are available for those who wish to learn Hebrew. In addition to embassy language programs, there is a six-month course in Hebrew for the diplomatic community, sponsored by the Tel Aviv municipality. Those with more time or greater dedication can use the ulpanim, language-instruction centers run privately or by the Israeli Government; classes average four hours a day, five or six days a week; day sessions last up to six months. Evening courses are also available. The ulpanim and the Tel Aviv municipality course teach not only the spoken language, but also reading and writing.

Recreation

Swimming is possible here about eight months of the year and even year round for the hardy. Tel Aviv and nearby coastal suburban areas have beaches, but these are generally crowded and sometimes have tar. Some very attractive beaches are about an hour's drive north or south of the city. Bathing is prohibited at unguarded beaches because of a dangerous undertow, but this does not hinder popular seaside picnics from April to November.

The large, public saltwater pool in Tel Aviv and several freshwater pools in nearby Ramat Gan are usually crowded. Hotels in Tel Aviv and Herzliyya, as well as the Kfar Shmaryahu Community Club, have large pools. The Tel Aviv Country Club, five minutes north of the city, has excellent sports facilities, a double, Olympic-size freshwater pool (heated in winter), 11 tennis courts, and a large gym.

Skin diving, fishing, snorkeling, water-skiing, and scuba diving are also popular in Israel. Diving classes, with instruction in English, are given in Tel Aviv and at Red Sea resorts.

Small boats can be rented for the day in Haifa and on the Sea of Galilee at Tiberias. Skin divers can explore interesting underwater ruins off the coast of Caesarea. The Gulf of Aqaba, off Elat, has an incredible variety of tropical fish and coral reefs; an excursion by glass-bottom boat to see these is enjoyable. Elat also offers excellent skin diving, water-skiing, scuba diving, and snorkeling.

Israel has a golf course, located at Caesarea, 45 minutes north of Herzliyya. Near Tel Aviv, there are riding stables; a ranch north of Tiberias in the hills of Galilee offers trail riding. One ranch in the hills of Galilee runs guided horseback tours with camping and Western-style dining. Horse shows are frequent.

Hunters find a variety of game, including partridge and wild boar, but duck and geese are scarce. It is illegal to shoot gazelle. Hunters are permitted to shoot up to 10 game birds a day during the September-February hunting season. Guns of any caliber can be licensed in Israel, but hunting with guns of "military caliber" (larger than .22) is prohibited. Twelve-gauge shotguns and .22-caliber rifles are recommended, since ammunition for these sizes is more available in Israel. Ammunition costs more than in the U.S.

The most popular recreational activity here is touring. Israel is rich in history and archaeology. An advantage of a small country is that excursions can be made to almost any location in one or two days. Tour buses throughout Israel take in ruins, Crusader castles, old Roman and Phoenician cities, and biblical sites, as well as modern towns.

Occasionally, arrangements have been made for volunteers to join archaeological digs. Some search for old coins and artifacts on weekends. An archaeology class in English, including excursions, is offered at Tel Aviv University.

For hiking enthusiasts, a four-day, cross-country march to Jerusalem is held each spring, yielding stories enough to last the rest of the year. Hiking in the mountains of Galilee is excellent; it is especially beautiful in spring, when the view from every mountaintop compensates for the climb. One of the most popular outings is to Mount Tabor, where a monastery at the summit serves meals and runs a guest house (by reservation). One can either drive up the mountain by winding roads or climb straight up; the climb takes about an hour.

Without detracting from the splendor of Jerusalem or the lovely setting of Haifa, the beauty of Israel lies not only in its cities, but in the land. From rich northern greenery to rugged southern deserts, the land is for exploring, strolling, picnicking, and mere enjoyment. For added pleasure, in harmony with the natural beauty are sites with histories dating from the Crusades and biblical times. Some spots connect with Israel's modern history and striking development. Among the places recommended are:

About an hour north of Tel Aviv, on a main highway, is Caesarea. This ancient, partially excavated city was founded by King Herod and was the Roman capital in Palestine. A long aqueduct from Roman times parallels the beach. The Roman theater hosts visiting artists during the summer music festival. Between these two remnants of ancient times is a Crusader city. The wall and moat are almost intact; inside the wall, much original pavement and several buildings have been preserved.

About one-and-a-half hours from Tel Aviv, is Megiddo. Archaeologists have uncovered 20 superimposed cities here. The lowest stratum dates back to the fourth millennium B.C.; the most recent one from the fourth century B.C. Megiddo was an ancient fortress and played a role in defending the country against Thutmose III. Later, it was one of Solomon's "cities for chariots." The Hill of Megiddo in Hebrew is Har Megeddon —the biblical Armageddon.

Tiberias, some two-and-a-half hours from Tel Aviv, is a winter resort on the Sea of Galilee. The drive to Tiberias through the hills of Galilee is probably one of the most beautiful in the world. The whole area around Tiberias is famous from the New Testament; Capernaum, Jesus' city, is nearby, as is the Mount of Beatitudes, where Jesus preached the Sermon on the Mount.

Acre ('Akko) is about two hours from Tel Aviv. It is an Arab town and, like Nazareth, is a reminder that Israel is indeed part of the Middle East. On the Lebanese border, a half-hour north, are the grottoes of Rosh Hanikra. The road heading east along the border is particularly beautiful.

The Galilee is within three hours of Tel Aviv. The area has some of the best scenery year round, and has such interesting sights as the Crusader castle at Montfort, the ancient synagogue at Bar'am, the nature preserve at Tel Dan, and numerous kibbutzim which, until 1967, were frequently under Syrian artillery fire. To the east, within the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, are the Banyas Waterfalls, the crater at Birkat Ram, and Mt. Hermon, where skiing is possible several months of the year.

The Dead Sea is the lowest spot on earth. On its southern shore is the infamous Sdom (the biblical Sodom), which is now the site of Israel's Dead Sea Works where salt and chemicals are extracted from the sea. A few miles north of Sdom is the well-preserved and-excavated mountain fortress of Masada, where Jewish defenders held off the Roman siege in the first century A.D. The climb to the top is a must for the hardy, but a cable car is also available. Farther north is the oasis of Ein Gedi—lush greenery amid the desert. A waterfall at Ein Gedi creates a pool which is excellent for swimming.

The Negev. Beersheba, 66 miles from Tel Aviv, is the gateway to the Negev. The city has historical interest as the home of Abraham. To the south are the ruins of Shivta and Avdat. At Avdat, a Byzantine church and Roman acropolis were superimposed on an ancient Nabatean foundation.

In touring and traveling, visitors should not drive through strictly religious towns or sections of cities on Friday night or Saturday, nor drive anywhere on the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur.

Entertainment

In addition to its major theaters, orchestras, and museums, Israel has several repertory theaters as well as amateur and professional groups. Plays are performed in Hebrew, but many are familiar works translated from other languages, and some programs provide an English synopsis. Theater in English is sometimes possible to find from time to time. Internationally known entertainers in all fields appear frequently. Some plays are performed with simultaneous translation in English, available through earphones.

Tel Aviv has several movie theaters, including a drive-in. Recent American and European films are shown in the original language, with subtitles in Hebrew and English or French. To avoid waiting in line to buy tickets, one can buy them in advance from a booking agency located near the U.S. Embassy.

Yafo (Jaffa), directly south of Tel Aviv, abounds in nightclubs, cafés, and other evening diversions. The renovated artists' quarter glows by night; most little shops and galleries in the Old City remain open late into the evening.

The celebrations for Purim, the Feast of Esther, each spring include folk dancing and popular street entertainment, costume parties, and a beaux arts ball in the artists' colony of Ein Hod (near Haifa). A week-long Passover music festival is held at Kibbutz Ein Gev on the Sea of Galilee, and a festival of Christian liturgical music is given at Abu Gosh (near Jerusalem) in May. Each summer, the Israel Festival of Music and Drama brings outstanding groups and individual artists from many countries, especially from the U.S.

The Israelis are friendly and hospitable. They often entertain late in the evening by American standards, and enjoy having guests in for drinks (most Israelis prefer juice or soft drinks to alcohol), conversation, and coffee. There are many opportunities for resident foreigners to attend seders, bar mitzvahs, and weddings.

Most Israelis are not particularly observant of religious customs, but they may have special sensitivities nonetheless. Consideration should be taken in entertaining them, such as providing alternatives to pork and shellfish, and refraining from issuing invitations on Jewish holidays. If Israelis decline food or drink at any time, it is not an insult, but merely a matter of conscience. It is entirely acceptable to inquire in advance whether one's guests, either Jewish or Muslim, observe dietary restrictions.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem, Israel's capital and largest city, is situated in the Judean Hills about 40 miles from the Mediterranean, at an altitude of 2,710 feet. The physical setting is dazzling. On a clear day it is possible to look to the east and see the Dead Sea (1,300 feet below sea level), the Jordan Valley, and the Mountains of Moab.

Jerusalem's population is about 622,000 (including East Jerusalem, annexed in 1967). It includes a variety of cultural, ethnic, and religious backgrounds—Palestinian Arabs, Israelis, Armenians, Druze, Samaritans, and Bedouins. The languages are as varied as the population. Hebrew and Arabic serve as the official languages, and English is the most commonly spoken foreign tongue. Most street signs are printed in these three languages.

Present-day Jerusalem is divided into three areas: The Walled City (with its Christian, Muslim, Jewish and Armenian quarter) and West (Israeli) and East (Arab) Jerusalem.

The Walled City, a relatively small area covering less than a square mile, is the religious, emotional, and touristic heart of Jerusalem. Contained within the enclosure are the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, David's Tower, Via Dolorosa, Dome of the Rock, Al Aqsa Mosque, and other religious, historic, and archaeological sites.

The narrow streets and bazaars of the Walled City are often thronged with pilgrims, tourists, and residents going about their daily business. Immediately to the east, across the Kidron Valley, is the Mount of Olives, the lower reaches of which contain the Garden of Gethsemane.

West Jerusalem is that part of the city controlled by the Israeli Government prior to June 1967, and has a population that is almost entirely Jewish Israeli. It is a mixture of older stone houses, vast modern housing developments, government ministries, and educational and cultural institutions. Most shops, theaters, restaurants, and commercial institutions are located here.

Jerusalem was proclaimed the nation's capital in a 1950 resolution, but is not considered as such by the United Nations. The American Foreign Service maintains its embassy in Tel Aviv and, in addition, has one of its two independent consular posts in Jerusalem—the only other is in Hong Kong. The U.S. consular district in Jerusalem also includes the West Bank of the Jordan River. Most of the Arab population in East Jerusalem and the West Bank is Muslim, but substantial concentrations of Christians live in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Ramallah and environs.

Jerusalem has vast emotional and symbolic significance for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It is a short walk from the Dome of the Rock (the third holiest site in Islam) to the Western Wall (the western wall of the Second Temple platform—once known as the Wailing Wall), and to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (the site of Christ's tomb). Religion is an important element in city life, and religious holidays of the three major faiths are felt and observed as in no other city on earth. The Palestinian population is about 93 percent Muslim (mostly Sunni) and approximately seven percent Christian (of various sects, but mainly Greek Orthodox). Judaism, in varying degrees of orthodoxy, is practiced by the Jewish population.

Jerusalem contains many of the most important Jewish, Muslim, and Christian shrines in the world. The Walled City is a showplace of outstanding examples of Islamic, Byzantine, Crusader, and Ottoman architecture. A wealth of museums exists, ranging from the general interest Israel Museum (which includes an extensive archaeological display, sculpture garden, and children's wing) to special interest collections (archaeological, Islamic, and Palestinian) and Yad Vashem, a museum commemorating Holocaust victims. Windows painted by Marc Chagall, depicting the 12 tribes of Israel, are displayed at Hadassah Medical Center in Ein Kerem, on the outskirts of Jerusalem. The Rockefeller Museum offers a lecture series, and the Israel Museum hosts programs, films, and classes for children and adults.

Archaeological sites, excavated and unexcavated, are abundant throughout the area. The Albright School of Oriental Research, the British School of Archaeology, and the Institute of Archaeology at Hebrew University are but a few of the many centers located in Jerusalem.

Theological centers and schools, such as the Tantur Ecumenical Institute and the American Institute for Holy Land Studies, defy enumeration. École Biblique (famous for the Jerusalem Bible) has specialists in a number of fields, including archaeology and the Bible. Most of these institutions offer formal and informal courses and lecture series on a variety of topics.

The main campuses of Hebrew University, Hebrew Union College, and the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts are located in Jerusalem. Most courses are taught in Hebrew. On the West Bank, Bethlehem and Bir Zeit Universities offer many courses in English; Najah University in Nablus and the Hebron University offer courses in Arabic.

Recreation

About a million tourists visit Israel annually, and most find their way to Jerusalem. There are scores of hotels, hospices, hostels, shops, travel agencies, and restaurants catering primarily to the tourist trade.

The climate is mild, with a long summer (May to October) of warm days and cool nights and a chilly, often rainy winter (November to March). Summer temperatures seldom rise above 85°F. Humidity is low and mildew is rare. In winter, temperatures average 55°F, with occasional drops to freezing. Sometimes Jerusalem gets a ham'seen, or sandstorm. These occur infrequently and are not as strong as in other parts of the Middle East.

The drive from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem through the Judean hills is beautiful, with several interesting places to stop along the way. The countryside changes with every season: barren in winter, bright with green fields and blossoming flowers in spring, and parched in summer. In the city itself is the Israel Museum with its collection of Dead Sea Scrolls, the Billy Rose Sculpture Garden, and fascinating exhibits within the main buildings. The Israeli Government buildings, Hadassah Hospital, the Kennedy Memorial, Mt. Herzl, and the scale model of the old city are all worthwhile. Mt. Zion, with King David's tomb and the room of the Last Supper, are outside the confines of The Walled City.

Plane connections from Ben Gurion Airport (about an hour's drive from Jerusalem at Lod, near Tel Aviv) are available to principal European cities, Cyprus, and the U.S. Travel by ship is also possible from Israel to Cyprus and to various other Mediterranean ports.

Sight-seeing, picnicking, and amateur archaeology are by far the most popular pastimes in and around Jerusalem, where short, half-day trips can be planned. Many organized tours are available for a modest fee; these tours go to almost every part of the country, and guides are usually competent.

Numerous places of archaeological and religious interest are within a few hours' drive of Jerusalem. Bethlehem is a 15-minute ride from the city. Nablus, home of the Samaritans and the site of the Roman city, Sebastia, is an hour's drive. Jericho, one of the world's oldest inhabited cities and a winter resort for Jerusalem's Arabs, is located near the Dead Sea, less than an hour away.

The religious sites at Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee are less than three hours from Jerusalem by bus or car. The ancient port of Caesarea, with extensive ruins, a bathing beach within its Old City, and an excellent golf course, is two hours away; Elat (or Eilat), five hours by car or bus or 40 minutes by plane, is a popular Red Sea resort, particularly in the fall or spring when the weather is not so warm.

Both Israel and the West Bank abound in historical sites ranging from the biblical to the Crusader period. Jericho, Masada, Lachish, Hazor, Megiddo, Gezer, Sebastia, Caesarea, Ashkelon, Hebron, and Acre ('Akko) are a few of the many places of significance for those interested in the area's history. Most can be seen in a day; reasonable and adequate hotel facilities can be found for longer trips.

Traditional Palestinian handicraft activity (embroidery, olive wood carving, mother-of-pearl, and gold work) are centered around the Jerusalem and Bethlehem areas.

Except for soccer, which is quite popular, organized team sports are not common in Jerusalem. The YMCA and YWCA (and YMJA and JMWA) do, however, offer excellent facilities for swimming, tennis, squash, volleyball, basketball, and gymnastics. Membership fees are modest. These organizations have summer day camps for children seven to 14 years of age with swimming, gym, outdoor games, handi-crafts, and outings.

Several attractive, clean swimming pools are in and around Jerusalem. Hotel pools offer seasonal or daily memberships. Ocean bathing at Mediterranean resorts (about an hour or two from the city) is popular. Resorts on the Dead Sea are open all year.

Horseback riding is available in Jerusalem. Hunting for birds and wild boar is permitted in Galilee and Golan, but not on the West Bank. Snorkeling and scuba diving are available at Elat, where the coral reefs and fish are magnificent.

Entertainment

Jerusalem's first-class concert hall features performances by internationally renowned artists and by the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. There are also several art galleries, theaters, and dance studios in the city.

Movies are a popular form of evening entertainment. The city's movie theaters are somewhat spartan, but feature many American and English films. There is also a Cinematheque, and the Israel Museum and the Jerusalem Theatre run art films.

Israel's Philharmonic Orchestra plays regularly in the Jerusalem Concert Hall during winter and spring, and features many world-famous conductors and renowned guest artists throughout the season. The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra and excellent chamber music groups also perform.

Although the city is not generally considered a gourmet's paradise, several hotels and restaurants are satisfactory. Some of the larger hotels offer unique atmosphere and good cuisine; a few have piano bars, or dancing on designated evenings.

Photography is popular in Israel. Local processing of black-and-white film is satisfactory, but color film should be developed in the U.S. Photographers should be wary of taking pictures of Orthodox Jews or traditionally dressed Arabs, especially if they are at worship.

A number of holidays in both Israel and the West Bank offer interesting festivities. In the Arab sector of Jerusalem, the pilgrimages and ceremonies of the Eastern and Western churches during the Christmas and Easter seasons are impressive, and the Samaritan Passover at Nablus is an unusual event. In Israel, Purim (or Carnival) is celebrated by young and old in costume. Passover is commemorated by seder, or ritual family dinner.

A substantial American community lives in Jerusalem and on the West Bank. It includes American Jews immigrating to Israel, U.S. citizens of Palestinian-Arab ancestry who have come here to retire, and Americans who are in Jerusalem temporarily on work-related assignments or for religious or cultural reasons. Because of the variety in backgrounds and interests, this community is loosely knit.

Haifa

Haifa is in northwest Israel, about one-and-a-half hours from Tel Aviv. The nation's principal port, with a current population of 264,000, it spreads inland from the Bay of Haifa up the western slope of Mount Carmel. The view of the city and the bay from above is unforgettable.

Most of Israel's heavy industry is concentrated in Haifa—steel mills, an oil refinery, chemical plants, and cement and glass works. It is also the site of a naval base. Haifa was called Sycaminum in ancient times, but its most interesting history dates from just after World War II, when it was the center of illegal Jewish immigration into Palestine.

Among the places of interest here are the Museum of Antiquities, the Museum of Modern Art, and the Ethnological and Folklore Museum. The Technion, a technical institute and Israel's premier engineering school was established in 1924 and Haifa University was founded in 1963. The world headquarters of the Baha'i faith are located above Haifa, within extensive gardens.

OTHER CITIES

ACRE (in Hebrew, 'Akko) lies on the Mediterranean, nine miles northeast of Haifa. This seaport's economy is comprised of light industry, steel rolling mills, and fishing. The last stronghold of the Crusaders, Acre was the capital of the Latin Kingdom from 1191 to 1291. The Hospitaller Quarter here contains one of the world's oldest buildings, the Crypt of St. John, dating to at least the mid-13th century. Today called Crusader City, the subterranean structures were unearthed in the 1950s and 1960s. The Bedouin sheikh, Daher el-Omar, built a virtually impregnable fortress over its remains, and restored Acre's walls, some of which still stand. Napoleon was forced to abandon his eastern campaign when he met with stiff resistance in the city after piercing its walls in 1799. The old prison of the British Mandate era now houses a Museum of Heroism; the Municipal Museum has ancient archaeology and folklore collections. On the edge of town is the burial ground of the prophet of the Baha'i faith, Baha'u'llah (1817-1892), who spent the last years of his life in exile here. Acre has been described as dilapidated, with an unsanitary appearance. Its population is approximately 46,000.

BEERSHEBA (in Hebrew, Be'er Sheva'; in Arabic, Bir es Saba), "the City of Abraham," is the capital of the Southern Region, situated 45 miles southwest of Jerusalem. With approximately 160,000 residents, it is a busy, modern industrial and educational center, and the largest city in the Negev, a desert region. Chemicals and glass are its main products. Ben Gurion University opened here in 1965, and has been the site of important negotiations with Egypt. Israel targeted the area for settlement in the late 1940s; today Beersheba has a futuristic look. History and tradition are preserved in Tel Sheva, or biblical Beersheba, where tourists visit excavations and the Museum of the Desert. The Hebrew patriarch Abraham is said to have pitched his tent on the tel (a mound formation marking an ancient city), eight miles outside of town. Abraham's Well is a tourist stop, as is the Bedouin camel market, held Thursday mornings.

BETHLEHEM , the birthplace of Jesus Christ, is located a little over 6 miles south of Jerusalem. Once a stopping place on an ancient caravan route, the town hosted a variety of cultures, such as Canaanite, Byzantine, Arab, Islamic, Persian, Turkish, and later, British. The artistic and religious traditions of these various groups can be seen in the varied architectural styles around town.

The Church of the Nativity, located in Manger Square at town center and believed by many to be built on the actual site of Jesus' birth, is the one of world's oldest operating churches. Other sites of note include the Milk Grotto Chapel, a shrine to the Virgin Mary, and Rachel's Tomb, one of Judaism's most sacred shrines. Visitors can also walk through the Shepherds' Field in Beit-Sahour, believed to be the site of the angel's announcement to the shepherds of the birth of Jesus. Solomon's Pools, which have provided Bethlehem and Jerusalem with water throughout the past 2000 years, are nearby as are several desert monasteries begun by early Christians.

Today, Bethlehem is primarily a farm market town which is also well-known for industries in olive wood carvings and mother-of-pearl jewelry.

Several bus tours are offered through the city, many originating for Jerusalem, which is only about 40 minutes away. Both guided and self-guided walking tours are very popular in town. The population of Bethlehem is about 137,286 (1997 est.).

ELAT (Eilat), 212 miles from Tel Aviv, is the southernmost point in Israel and its only port on the Red Sea. The harbor is bordered on both sides by mountains: the Sinai range on one side and the Jordanian mountains of Edom on the other. The city, with a population of more than 43,000, is a major tourist attraction and winter resort with swimming, boating, water-skiing, fishing, skin diving, and a world-famous aquarium and underwater observatory. Just south of Elat in the occupied Sinai desert, is a Scandinavian-type fjord and the beautiful Coral Island. Farther along the coast of the peninsula, down to Sharm-el-Sheikh, are fine beaches with tropical fish and coral, for swimming and outstanding snorkeling and skin diving.

HADERA , located 26 miles south of Haifa, is a principal service center for nearby villages, and a processing hub for local agricultural products. Jewish settlement groups founded the community in 1890. Malaria killed many of the settlers, but a few survived to drain the marshlands. These were breeding grounds for the mosquitoes and source of the Arabic name, Hadra, meaning "the green one." The ancient Turkish khan, or rest house, near the central synagogue, has an exhibit of pioneer-era history. The current population is 76,000.

HOLON , in central Israel, has been a city since 1941. It is part of the Tel Aviv metropolitan area, and in recent years has grown considerably; it now has a population of 163,000. Holon is noted particularly for its silverware, and for the textile factories which contribute to its expanding economy.

NABLUS (also spelled Nābulus; in Hebrew, Schechem) is the largest city in the Israeli-occupied West Bank, with an estimated population over 80,000. Situated 30 miles north of Jerusalem, this is the religious center of the Samaritans, as well as the focal point of Arab nationalism in the region. Nearby, on the eastern slope of Mount Gerizim, is Jacob's Well, where Jesus met the woman of Samaria. In the same area, German archaeologists discovered remains of the biblical Sichem on Tel Balata. Other prominent sites include the mosques of Jāmi'al-Kabir and Jāmi' an Nasr.

NAZARETH (in Hebrew, Nazerat; in Arabic, An-Nāsira), is roughly 45 minutes from Tiberias, not far from the Sea of Galilee. It is the largest Arab and Christian town in the country and, with dozens of New Testament related places, the most visited city by Christians. However, the town's history was far from romantic.

The town was first settled during the period 600-900 BC, but was too small to be included in the list of settlements of the tribe of Zebulon (Joshua 19:10-16), which mentions twelve towns and six villages. The name is also missing from the 63 towns in Galilee mentioned in the Talmud. Archeological excavations show that Nazareth was merely a small agricultural village settled by a few dozen families. Today, hundreds of thousands of pilgrims come each year to this town of only about 56,000 residents.

The Basilica of the Annunciation is one of the grandest and most popular sites in Nazareth. It contains the Grotto of the Virgin, believed by the Roman Catholics to mark the site of the Virgin Mary's maiden home and, possibly, where the angel announced to her that she was to be the mother of Jesus. Nearby is the Church of St. Joseph, which is believed to be the site of the Joseph's carpentry workshop and the home of the Holy Family. The Church of St. Gabriel is built above a spring that connects to St. Mary's Well, just across the street. In the Greek Orthodox tradition, this is the site of the annunciation. Mensa Christi (Jesus' Table) is believed to have been where Jesus' celebrated his last supper with his disciples. Also of note is the Synagogue Church, which is not actually a synagogue but is believed to be the site where Jesus preached as a young man.

Several Muslim sites are within the city as well. The El Abyad Mosque was the first to be built in the city (1812). The tomb of Abdullah et-Fahoum, the governor of Ottoman Nazareth and builder of the mosque, is located in the courtyard. The Maqam Shihab El-Din is a shrine to the nephew of Saladin. The Maqam Nabi Sa'in marks the highest point of Nazareth, where both Moslems and Christians used to come to make religious vows and oaths.

Walking tours, either guided or self-guided, offer a chance to enjoy some of the natural beauty of the city and its surrounding area as well as its historic sites.

The suburban Jewish municipality of Nazerat 'Illit (Upper Nazareth) was built in 1957 on hills overlooking Nazareth. It has a panoramic view of the city below and houses the Northern Region's administrative buildings. Residents are employed in auto assembly, food-processing, and textile plants. East of Nazareth on the Tiberias road is Cana, where Christians believe Jesus performed his first miracle. First-time visitors to the Nazareth area often leave dismayed by the crowds, noise, traffic, and commercialism.

NETANYA (also spelled Natanya), with a population of approximately 170,000, is a fast-growing resort and industrial center. Known as "the Pearl of the Sharon," it lies on the Mediterranean, 19 miles north of Tel Aviv. Netanya was founded in 1929 by citrus growers and named after Nathan Straus (1848-1931), the American philanthropist and one-time owner of Macy's department store. The city became urbanized in the 1930s, when European diamond-cutters fled persecution. Now this is the diamond-cutting capital of Israel, housing many workshops and showrooms. An industrial district here has textile mills and factories. Tourism also plays a large role in the local economy; the city's seven miles of bathing beaches, lined with a landscaped promenade, are a source of great civic pride. A "Meet the Israeli at His Home" program offers visitors a chance to get to know residents in their homes over a cup of coffee. Regular bus service and sheruts (taxi shuttle service) provide transportation to other parts of the country.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Israel is a narrow strip of land at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, wedged between the sea and the Jordan Valley. About the size of New Jersey, the country is 280 miles long and varies from 10 to 41 miles wide, with a total area of 8,000 square miles.

Since June 1967, Israel has administered the West Bank of the Jordan River, the Golan Heights, and Gaza. The highest point within the pre-1967 boundaries is Mt. Hermon, 3,963 feet; the lowest point is also the lowest point on earth—the Dead Sea, 1,300 feet below sea level.

The climate varies considerably. The coastal plain has wet, moderately cold winters with temperatures of 38°F to 55°F; a beautiful spring; a long, hot summer (80°F to 95°F); and a cool, rainless fall. Humidity in Tel Aviv is high, adding discomfort to the hot summers. Jerusalem, which is inland and approximately 2,500 feet above sea level, is drier. Thus, while Jerusalem is just as hot as Tel Aviv, it tends to be more comfortable. The inland hills are cooler than the plains and may have snow in winter. The southern section, the Negev, is a hot, barren desert. The only rain in Israel falls during winter and spring, usually in heavy downpours and thunderstorms. After the rainy season, drought becomes serious. As much winter rain as possible is held for irrigation; water from springs and rivers is also diverted for this purpose.

Sandstorms, the sharav, or ham'seen, are quite common during spring and summer. This hot, parching wind from the inland desert carries with it fine sand. The sun becomes brassy, and the temperature may climb as high as 100°F in Tel Aviv, and higher in the Negev. July and August are generally the most uncomfortable months. Pleasant, warm weather usually extends into early November. Insects are abundant; scorpions are found in the Tiberias area, and there are poisonous snakes in the Negev. None presents a major problem.

Population

Israel's population, excluding the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, is about 2.1 million. 80.1 percent are Jews, 14.6 percent Muslim, and 2.1 percent Christian. Jews are 20.8 percent native born; 32.1 percent are from Europe, America, and Oceania; 14.6 percent from Africa; and 12.6 percent from Asia. The literacy rate is 95 percent.

Since 1989 there has been a huge influx of Jews from the former Soviet Union. Israel faces the problem of providing the newcomers with housing, jobs and education.

Most of the Arab population lives in the Galilee and in villages along the border between Israel and the occupied territories. Nazareth is the largest primarily Arab town within pre-1967 borders. An additional one million Arabs reside in the cities and villages of the territories. Bedouins still live in the Negev near Beersheba and in other southern areas.

In some Arab and Druze villages of the north and among the Bedouin in the south, many old, traditional Palestinian ways survive, little changed either by the British Mandate or by the State of Israel.

The people who live in Israel come from many parts of the world. Although the majority learn Hebrew and are quickly absorbed into the life of the country, their diverse origins are apparent. The most striking evidence is the variety of languages spoken: English, German, French, Yiddish, Rumanian, Bulgarian, Russian, Polish, Spanish, and Latino. Hebrew and Arabic are the official languages of the country, but many Israelis speak excellent English.

The government welcomes Jews from all over the world. Immigrants are taught Hebrew in ulpanim, intensive courses operated by the government. The ulpanim are only one arm of a phenomenally successful revival of the Hebrew language; it is also taught in schools and during compulsory military service. Virtually everyone speaks Hebrew but, for some 50 percent of the population, it is the second or third language.

Government

Israel is a parliamentary democracy with supreme authority vested in the Knesset, a unicameral legislature of 120 members. Knesset elections are held every four years, or more frequently in the event of a cabinet crisis, which leads to a Knesset vote for new elections. For electoral purposes, the country is treated as a single national constituency. Each party provides a slate of 120 candidates, and Knesset seats are apportioned according to each party's percentage of the total vote, starting at the top of the lists.

The president of Israel, currently Moshe Katzav, is chosen for a five-year term by the Knesset ; his duties are largely ceremonial and nonpartisan. The Prime Minister, Arial Sharon, is elected by the people.

The Cabinet is responsible to the Knesset. Ministers are usually members of the Knesset, although nonmembers may be appointed. As no political party has commanded a majority in the elections, all cabinets have been coalitions.

Civil and religious courts serve the three major Jewish, Muslim, and Christian communities. Religious courts have exclusive jurisdiction concerning marriage and divorce, which they decide according to their own religious laws.

Since the Israeli Government considers Jerusalem the country's capital, most Israeli Government ministries are located in that city. The Knesset (parliament) is also in Jerusalem, as are the official residences of the president and prime minister.

Jerusalem's Role

Before the June 1967 hostilities, the eastern sector of Jerusalem and all of the West Bank of the Jordan River were governed by the Kingdom of Jordan. When Israeli Defense Forces overran this territory in 1967, the West Bank was placed under military government and is still considered "occupied territory." The Arab sector of Jerusalem was, however, incorporated into the State of Israel and is now considered by Israel to be an integral part of the state. Arab Jerusalemites retain their Jordanian citizenship and passports, but are considered by Israel to be "residents" of Israel. The administration of the enlarged city is entrusted to the Jerusalem municipality.

While the U.S. has had consular representation in Jerusalem for over 100 years, the post's present status in the city is based on the 1947 U.N. "Partition of Palestine" resolution. This resolution divided Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. Jerusalem, because of its unique religious and historical significance, was not included in either state. The city was set aside as a corpus separatum, an international area under the aegis of the United Nations.

The "Partition of Palestine" resolution was never implemented. Immediately after the termination in 1948 of the British Mandate in Palestine, war broke out between Arabs and Israelis. At the conclusion of the hostilities, Jerusalem was divided, with Arab forces in control of The Walled City and the suburbs to the north and east, and Israeli forces in control of West Jerusalem.

This division of Jerusalem was recognized de facto, but never de jure by the U.S. Government and most of the international community, the rationale being that the resolution of the status of Jerusalem should be determined through peaceful negotiation between Israel and Jordan. Determined to avoid any step that might prejudice the outcome of such negotiations, the United States maintained its embassy in Tel Aviv (where Israel initially established its government), and left the consulate general in charge of representing American interests in the divided city of Jerusalem.

The de facto division of the city continued until the Six-Day War in June 1967, when the Israeli Defense Forces conquered the entire city of Jerusalem and the West Bank of the Jordan River. Shortly after the war, the Knesset passed legislation which, by administrative decree, enlarged the Jerusalem municipal boundaries to include what was formerly Arab Jerusalem, as well as areas of the West Bank.

Fourteen years later, in 1981, Israel formally annexed the expanded city. The U.S. recognizes neither the expansion nor the annexation as legitimate; it has made clear its belief that Jerusalem should be a united city within which would be available free access to the holy sites by people of all faiths and nationalities.

Israel's flag is white, with two horizontal stripes of blue. In its center is the Shield of David.

Arts, Science, Education

Israel's cultural, scientific, and educational institutions have played a significant role in blending a population of mixed geographic and cultural backgrounds into one nation.

Free, primary education is compulsory until age 15. Secondary education, which is not compulsory, is also free. Most schools are state-operated, but many primary and secondary schools are run by Jewish and Christian groups. The major universities are the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University, Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, and the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion) in Haifa. Other important schools are Bar-Ilan University in Ramat Gan, the University of Haifa, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beer-sheba, the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts in Jerusalem, and the Rubin Academy of Music in Jerusalem.

Israel, enjoying a worldwide reputation in the sciences, can boast of one of the highest levels of scientific manpower and competence in the world. Israel's principal private research institutions are the Weiz-mann Institute, which offers graduate degrees in basic and applied sciences and in science education; Hebrew University; and the Technion.

Tel Aviv provides Israel's liveliest cultural life, with publicly supported theaters and many small off-Broadway type theaters. Most productions are in Hebrew.

The Israel Philharmonic, under the direction of Zubin Mehta, is one of the world's top orchestras. Its home is the Frederic R. Mann Auditorium in Tel Aviv, but regular concerts are also given in Haifa and Jerusalem. Season tickets usually are sold out each year, with some 24,000 subscribers in Tel Aviv alone. Occasionally tickets are available for individual concerts, as well as for special performances not covered by season tickets.

Other symphonic orchestras are the Jerusalem, Haifa, and Galilee Symphonies. Chamber ensembles include Tel Aviv's Israel Chamber Orchestra, the Beersheba Orchestra, and the Holon Chamber Orchestra. Tel Aviv has several internationally known chamber groups, including the Yuval Piano Trio, the Tel Aviv String Quartet, and the Israel String Quartet.

The Israel Museum in Jerusalem and the Tel Aviv Museum are the principal public art museums in the country. Also, innumerable works are found in other sites—from the Chagall stained-glass windows at Hadassah Hospital in Jerusalem to modernistic sculpture dotting the countryside. Private art galleries abound in main cities and smaller towns. Some excellent small art and archaeological museums can be found in about 10 kibbutzim. Safed, Ein Hod, and old Yafo (Jaffa) are considered special art colonies.

The Israel Museum also houses the outstanding collection of Dead Sea Scrolls, plus Jewish ceremonial objects, and archaeological finds.

Tel Aviv's Museum Haaretz includes glass, ceramics, numismatic, ethnological, science, and technology museums, as well as the Archaeology Pavilion, a prehistory museum, and a planetarium. The Archaeology Museum, in a former Turkish bath in old Yafo, contains many local unearthed findings.

Beth Hatefutsoth, the Diaspora Museum, on the campus of Tel Aviv University offers visitors a look at 2,500 years of Jewish history in excellently arranged contemporary exhibits.

Commerce and Industry

From the founding of the State of Israel in 1948 until the 1973 Israel-Arab war, the nation enjoyed one of the world's highest growth rates. The economy was characterized by rapid development, with Gross National Product (GNP) surging upward, sometimes at rates in excess of 10 percent a year in real terms. The pattern of rapid growth was necessary for the absorption of large numbers of immigrants and the building of a modern industrialized society. Large inflows of capital, mostly from the world Jewish community, permitted Israel to develop while consuming more than it produced. Israel has only limited natural resources and, until recently, no normal economic relations with its neighbors. Therefore, the nation wisely emphasized the development of a well-trained work force. The production base was built with emphasis on exports to Europe and the U.S. Substantial progress was made, and continues to be made, in developing these markets.

A major problem of successive Israeli administrations has been the government budget. It is divided roughly into three parts—defense, domestic and foreign debt repayment, and the remainder of government outlays (including welfare spending). Considering Israel's security situation, the government has found it difficult to cut defense spending over the years. Debt repayment must be made on time if Israel is to maintain its access to capital markets. In bargaining over the remaining one-third of the budget, the Israeli Government has run into the same domestic political roadblocks that have plagued most other Western democratic governments. It should be noted that U.S. assistance (in particular, massive military aid) is included in the government budget. Since the military aid is spent in the U.S. and the funds do not enter the domestic economy, the absolute size of the budget is not an accurate indication of the effect of central government spending on the economy.

Soaring inflation rates have characterized the Israeli economy in recent years; however, the degree of inflation has always been somewhat higher than that of other Western nations. Since 1977, the rapid rate of price increases has brought Israel to triple-digit inflation; but, by and large, Israelis have not suffered excessively from these high rates. Wages, welfare payments, pensions, and other incomes, as well as most financial assets and liabilities, and even the exchange rate of the shekel, are all adjusted periodically to take account of inflation. This "indexation" has allowed Israelis to cope with the situation but, at the same time, has made it difficult to lower the inflation rate. Even though Israelis individually are not impoverished by increasing prices, the economy suffers because of the distortions and uncertainties which inflation engenders. Analysts do not agree on the causes and ultimate solutions to the problem. It is clear, though, that large government budget deficits and resulting monetary expansion, imported food and fuel price rises, and expectations of further inflation all play major roles.

The U.S. is an important trading partner with Israel. Israel's other major trading relationship is with the European Community (EC). On July 1, 1977, Israel became an associate member of the EC, and all exports of manufactured goods now enter the EC duty free. Israel also benefits from the U.S. Generalized System of Preferences (GSP); over 2,700 of its products enter the U.S. duty free. Israel enjoys a free trade agreement with the U.S. as well as with the EC.

The U.S. has extended to Israel over $30 billion in economic and military assistance since 1949, and over $840 million in 2000 alone. Nearly half of this is in the form of grants. The United States also provided $3.2 billion in assistance over the 1979-1982 period to help finance the Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai. As part of that support, the U.S. built two new air bases in the Negev to replace those Israel left in the Sinai.

Israel maintains Chambers of Commerce in Jerusalem, at Hillel Street 10, P.O. Box 183; in Tel Aviv, at Hahashmonaim Street 84, P.O. Box 20027; and in Haifa, at Ha'astsmaout Road 53, P.O. Box 33176.

Transportation

Traveling to other countries from Israel is often inconvenient. Air links exist with many points in Europe, but fares may be considered high for the short distances involved. It is possible to arrange ground and air travel to Egypt, and to travel to other Arab countries via connecting flights from Cairo and Cyprus or by crossing the Allenby Bridge into Jordan.

Arkia (Israel's inland airlines) operates daily flights between Rosh Pina, near the Sea of Galilee, and Tel Aviv and Elat. Arkia also flies a Tel Aviv-Jerusalem route and conducts air/land tours for those with less time than money.

Steamship service is frequent, particularly in summer, between Haifa and Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, and western Mediterranean ports. During summer, weekly auto ferries run between Haifa and Piraeus, touching at Cyprus and Rhodes en route; frequent sailings are available to Corfu and Italy.

Trains run from Nahariya, near the Lebanese border, to Beersheba and Dimona in the Negev, and between Tel Aviv and Gaza. Frequent and inexpensive service operates among Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, and Haifa.

Hitchhiking, or "tramping," is a way of life in Israel. Drivers are quite willing to stop for needy travelers. However, sudden pickups pose a traffic hazard.

City taxis are quick, easy to hail, and usually metered. Group taxis, or sherut (Hebrew for service) operate within and between cities along predetermined routes. These run frequently, but only from central sherut stands for interurban runs.

Tel Aviv has an extensive bus system which is uncomfortable and crowded in rush hours. Service on interurban buses is good, although time consuming. Reasonably priced tour buses are both comfortable and enjoyable.

Municipal buses, trains, and Israeli airlines do not operate between sundown on Friday and sundown on Saturday (Shabbat ). Taxis, sheruts, and a tour bus line are available for the determined tourist on this day.

A car is essential for most people who work in Tel Aviv—certainly for those who live outside the city proper. Almost any American car, even a compact, will be large by Israeli standards and may be difficult to maneuver through narrow, congested streets in some older parts of Tel Aviv (and other cities). Parking in town increases in difficulty proportionally. Apartment parking facilities in Tel Aviv are cramped, and much maneuvering is often required to get into and out of the space provided. Families who live in the suburbs, where parking is not a problem, often consider the safety aspects of a large, heavy car versus the convenience of smaller models. Road accidents, many of them serious, are frequent in Israel.

Compulsory third-party liability insurance rates are fixed by the Israeli Government. A vehicle may not be moved until this coverage has been paid for in advance. Many people also carry a U.S. comprehensive policy which includes collision and theft insurance; it should be noted, however, that a claim is likely to be more easily settled with a local insurer.

Although the annual inspection required for registration is gratis, several features are mandatory on all vehicles, and their installation can be costly. The most important of these features is asymmetric headlights; others are engraved engine numbers, side lights, and reflector strips. It is advisable to have asymmetric lights factory installed.

The damp, salty air and heavy dew at night make it difficult to start newer cars in the morning. Car covers will help protect against salt corrosion and rust. Air conditioning is useful during the hot summers.

Auto repair in general, and even the smallest replacement parts, can be quite expensive. One should be prepared with a supply of spare replacement parts. Windshield wipers, antennas, and side mirrors have disappeared from cars parked in Tel Aviv.

With few exceptions, the roads in Israel are good. Driving is on the right, and traffic signs follow international, rather than American, practice. Most street signs are printed in Hebrew, English, and Arabic.

Communications

Israel has a countrywide, government-owned dial telephone network. Although it is a modern and growing system, a shortage of long-distance lines, especially to Jerusalem, can make dialing outside Tel Aviv frustrating. International calls are easily made through an operator and are usually clearer than calls placed locally. Satellite-telephone relay equipment connects with most parts of the world, except the Arab countries.

Mail facilities are good. Reliable cable service exists to all but the Arab countries.

Israel Broadcasting Authority, the government radio network, broadcasts on several standard AM and FM frequencies. Newscasts in English and French can be heard in the early morning, early afternoon, and mid-evening, and in Spanish early morning and evening. In addition, Radio Cyprus, Voice of America (VOA), and British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) are received on AM. Shortwave reception is spotty. Local broadcasting includes American and European popular and classical music, as well as Hebrew and Arabic programs. Classical music is also aired on a special FM stereo station.

The national television network airs a number of English-language programs originating from the U.S., England, and Canada. At a moderate expense, an antenna can be rigged to receive TV broadcasts from the Amman (Jordan) station, which also has several English-language programs. In addition, a special antenna can be purchased which will receive broadcasts of Middle East Television (MET), which telecasts Monday Night Football and other U.S. sports programs one week late, and a number of American reruns. MET, transmitting from southern Lebanon, has an evening news program in English.

Reception of one Israeli and two Jordanian stations is good in Tel Aviv and its suburbs. American comedy shows are frequently shown, as are both old and fairly recent films in English. One of the Jordanian stations presents nightly news in English and French. Both Israeli and Jordanian TV operate on the European PAL system—625 lines, 50 cycles. Most programs are in color.

Receivers purchased in the U.S. work on the American system and, if color, on NTSC. They will not operate in Israel without adaptation. This can be done locally, but it is expensive and not always satisfactory.

The Jerusalem Post, a small independent daily newspaper, is an English-language paper in Israel. It covers most significant events concerning Israel, but is lacking in world news. Through an arrangement with the New York Times, the Post prints in its Monday edition the previous day's "News of the Week in Review" section of The Times. Local dailies are also available in Arabic, Yiddish, Hungarian, Polish, Bulgarian, Rumanian, German, and French. Several Hebrew-language papers (Ha'aretz is the leading daily) are sold, including two in easy Hebrew for new immigrants. No papers are published on Saturdays or Jewish holidays. The International Herald Tribune, Wall Street Journal, and USA Today arrive one day late. Major European newspapers are also available with short delays.

Many major American periodicals are available at local newsstands; prices are double those in the U.S. Subscriptions by surface mail arrive irregularly in four to eight weeks. International editions of Time and Newsweek reach Tel Aviv within a day or two of publication, but subscription-copy delivery of air editions is slower. Bookstores are surprisingly few and carry limited stocks of English-language books other than current best-sellers.

Health

Israel has one of the world's highest ratios of medical doctors per patient. Physicians are extremely competent and well trained. English-speaking medical specialists in every field, dentists, oculists, and opticians are available. Most hospitals have laboratories, diagnostic clinics, obstetrical services, and other modern facilities.

The majority of hospitals in Israel are good, but crowded, with a somewhat lower standard of housekeeping and auxiliary services than found in the U.S. Medical fees differ slightly from those in the U.S. American women who have given birth in Tel Aviv believe hospital maternity facilities rank favorably with American facilities.

The numerous reliable and well-stocked city pharmacies are usually closed between 1 p.m. and 4 p.m., but a rotating duty pharmacy is open weekends and holidays.

Community health conditions in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem are generally much better than in other Middle Eastern cities. Jerusalem, including the bazaar or suq area, is one of the cleanest cities in the Middle East.

Municipal health controls are satisfactory. The water is safe to drink; public cleanliness, sewage, and garbage disposal are good. As in most tropical climates, insects in homes are not uncommon, especially in kitchens and pantry areas. The problem is most acute during summer, but insect-repellent shelving paper and other defensive weapons are available. During the summer months, flour and cake mixes, etc., should be stored in a cool area or refrigerator to prevent weevil infestation.

Tel Aviv has the usual contagious and communicable diseases, but none present a major problem. Amoebic dysentery and infectious hepatitis exist, but to a lesser degree than in other countries in the area. Fungus infections are frequent. Those allergic to dust, molds, and pollens may have trouble at times, and some people find the long, humid summers debilitating.

Israel requires no immunization for entry into the country; however, typhoid, tetanus, and gamma globulin shots are recommended.

Clothing and Services

Clothing worn in the Middle Atlantic States of the U.S. during spring, summer, and fall is suitable for Israel. The climate is hot and humid six to eight months of the year, making a large wardrobe of washable summer clothes advisable. Sportswear, shorts, sleeveless shirts and blouses, beachwear, and sneakers are appropriate.

In winter, houses are chilly and tile floors are cold. A good raincoat, an ample supply of sweaters and shawls, an umbrella, and boots are important. Occasionally, woolen hats and gloves are needed in winter.

While most types of clothing are available, they are expensive; many visitors purchase clothes (especially for children) through catalogues. Israeli shoes, made with European lasts, will not fit narrow feet, but shoes imported from Europe, especially Italy, are easily purchased, although at high prices. Sandals are a local specialty.

American men find that life in Israel is quite informal, and the open-neck shirt is predominant among Israelis in daily business. Formal wear is occasionally needed, but a dark business suit can be readily substituted. Topcoats and medium-weight suits are sufficient for winter.

Israel is famous for its women's leather coats and jackets, and for colorful hand-embroidered dresses and blouses. Street-length dresses are the most popular for evening wear, but long dresses, skirts, and caftans are also useful. Gloves and hats are unnecessary. A medium-weight coat is needed for winter; a fur stole may be useful for special winter events, but a fur coat is not.

Clothing for children of all ages is costly. Children's shoes come in only two widths. Families assigned to Israel are advised to provide a sufficiently large wardrobe for each member initially, and to rely heavily on mail orders from the U.S. for future purchases. Tel Aviv's salt air and humidity are hard on clothes and shoes.

Most basic services are available in the cities. There are reasonably priced beauty salons, some of them excellent, in the neighborhoods, but salons in the larger hotels charge high rates. Dressmakers and tailors are fairly expensive; workmanship ranges from very good to only fair. Many good laundries and dry cleaners are available—again, with high prices.

Some American cosmetics are manufactured by Israeli subsidiaries of U.S. firms, but local pharmacies, although well-stocked, do not carry American brands.

In The Walled City of Jerusalem, many interesting items can be purchased. Among them are copper and brass pitchers, pots, and trays; olive-wood products; and various knickknacks.

Domestic Help

Experienced domestic help is available, especially in Tel Aviv, and wages compare to those in the U.S. Most foreign residents rely on part-time help, although a few families (those with official or business responsibilities) have one or two full-time domestics. Baby-sitting is done by teenagers, but it is possible to find au pair girls or mothers' helpers full time. Bartenders and waiters can be hired for evening functions.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Due to ongoing military activity in the west Bank and Gaza, the Department of State warns against travel to Israel. The situation in Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is very volatile, with potential for terrorist attacks, confrontations, and clashes. Travelers should exercise extreme caution and remain in close contact with the American Embassy in Tel Aviv.

The normal travel routes from the U.S. to Israel are by air, direct from New York to Tel Aviv, or via a stopover in Paris or Rome. Travelers arriving in Tel Aviv may proceed to Jerusalem by bus or sherut (group taxi).

No visas are required in tourist passports, but are issued at time of entry. Bearers of diplomatic and official passports must have Israeli visas before entering the country. No immunization is required, although typhoid, tetanus, and gamma globulin shots are recommended.

Cats and dogs must have certificates of rabies inoculation. Other animals are admitted at the discretion of the veterinary officer, usually after a two-week quarantine (no quarantine in Jerusalem).

Only the following nonautomatic firearms can be brought to Israel: . 22 rifles (1); and 12 or 20 gauge shotguns (1). One hundred rounds of ammunition (600 for shotguns) are allowed. Updated information is available from the Office of Export Control, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

The time in Israel is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus two.

The Israeli shekel (IS) is the unit of currency. The shekel continues to fluctuate against an international "basket" of currencies, making it inadvisable to maintain large shekel accounts. Certain shops accept foreign currency but, in general, business transactions are made in Israeli currency.

The metric system of weights and measures is normally used. An exception is the dunam (one-quarter acre or one-tenth hectare), a land measure which dates back to Ottoman times.

SPECIAL NOTE

Synagogues abound throughout Israel. Several churches are found in Yafo (Jaffa): St. Anthony's and St. Peter's (Roman Catholic); the Greek Orthodox; the Anglican (Episcopal); the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian); and Immanuel Church (Lutheran). Christian worship services in English (ecumenical, Anglican, Episcopal, and Roman Catholic) are conducted every Sunday in Herzlia Pituach in private homes; a Mormon congregation meets Saturdays in Herzlia Pituach. A Baptist mission near Petach Tikva is about a 20-minute drive from Tel Aviv. A Christian Science group meets Sundays in Tel Aviv's Hilton Hotel.

Jerusalem probably has the world's highest per capita number of churches, synagogues, and mosques. Many buildings have historical, religious, and architectural significance. The Old City has Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Coptic patriarchates, and an Anglican church presided over by an archbishop. There are also bishoprics of the Syrian Orthodox and various Uniate churches and a large Lutheran church. Other denominations represented include Scottish Presbyterian, Baptist, and smaller fundamentalist Christian groups. Jewish congregations cover the full range from Reform to ultra-Orthodox. Most of the city's Muslims are Sunni.

Opportunities to share in religious services of all faiths are frequent and include quiet, weekly observances as well as feast and holy days. Christian, Jewish, and Muslim observances attract wide participation by the faithful, and many services are open to the general public.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1…New Year's Day

Jan/Feb.…Tu B'Shevat^*

Feb/Mar.…Purim^*

Mar/Apr.…Passover^*

Apr/May…Israeli Independence Day^*

Apr/May…Yom HaShoah (Holocaust Memorial Day)^*

Apr/May…Yom Hazikaron (Soldier's Memorial Day)^*

Apr/May…Yom Ha Atzmaut (Independence Day)

^* Apr/May…Lag B'Omer^*

May/June…Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day)^*

May/June…Shavuot^*

July/Aug…Tisha B'Av^*

Sept/Oct.…Rosh Hashana (New Year) ^*

Sept/Oct.…Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)^*

Sept/Oct…Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles)^*

Sept/Oct.…Simhat Torah (Rejoicing the Law)^*

Nov/Dec…Hannukah^*

^*variable, based on the Hebrew lunar calendar

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country.

Ben-Tor, Ammon, ed. The Archaeology of Ancient Israel. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.

Benvenisti, Meron. Conflicts and Contradictions: Israel, the Arabs, and the West Bank. New York: Shapolsky Pubs., 1990.

Bickerton, Ian J., and Carla Klaus-ner. A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1990.

Canaan, Garson. Rebuilding the Land of Israel. Stamford, CT: Architectural Book Publishing Co., 1991.

Canby, Courtlandt. Guide to the Archaeological Sites of Israel, Egypt, and North Africa. New York: Facts on File, 1990.

Fodor's Israel. New York: McKay, latest edition.

Kamel, Mohammed I. The Camp David Accords: A Testimony. New York: Routledge, Chapman & Hall, 1986.

Keren, Michael. The Pen and the Sword: Israeli Intellectuals and the Building of the Nation-State. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989.

Leonard, Carol S., et al. Israel, Egypt, and the Palestinians: From Camp David to Intifada. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989.

Rivlin, Paul. The Israeli Economy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992.

Tilbury, Neil. Israel: A Travel Survival Kit. Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet, 1989.

Uris, Leon. Exodus. New York: Doubleday, 1957 (available in paperback, Bantam).