ERITREA

State of Eritrea

Hagere Ertra

CAPITAL: Asmara

FLAG: A red triangle divides the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue. A gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle.

ANTHEM: Eritrea National Anthem beginning "Eritrea, Eritrea, Eritrea."

MONETARY UNIT: After establishing independence from Ethiopia, Eritrea used Ethiopian currency until November 1997. At this time the nafka was issued to replace the Ethiopian birr at approximately the same rate. 1 nafka = $0.06897 (or $1 = 14.5 nafka) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 24 May; Martyrs' Day, 20 June; Anniversary of the Start of the Armed Struggle, 1 September. Movable holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-Adha, and 'Id Milad al-Nabi. Movable Orthodox Christian holidays include Fasika and Meskel.

TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Eritrea is located in eastern Africa. The area occupied by Eritrea is slightly larger than the state of Pennsylvania with a total area of 121,320 sq km (46,842 sq mi). Eritrea shares boundaries with the Red Sea on the ne, Djibouti on the se, Ethiopia on the s, and Sudan on the w, and has a total land boundary of 1,626 km (1,010 mi) and a coastline of 2,234 km (1,388 mi).

The capital city, Asmara, is located in the central portion of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of Eritrea is dominated by the extension of the Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain and on the northeast to hills and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains. Approximately 4% of the land is arable. Natural resources include gold, potash, zinc, copper, salt, and fish. Frequent droughts, soil erosion, deforestation, and overgrazing all present environmental challenges.

CLIMATE

Highs of 60°c (140°f) are not uncommon in the Danakil Depression in Eritrea's southernmost province, Denkalia. This is reportedly the hottest spot in the world. It is cooler and wetter in the central highlands. The western hills and lowlands are semiarid. Heavy rainfall occurs during June, July, and August, except in the coastal desert.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The giraffe and baboon are extinct in Eritrea. Populations of lion, leopard, zebra, species of monkey, gazelle, antelope, and elephant continue to thrive, however. The coastal areas are home to many species of turtle, lobster, and shrimp. Plant life includes acacia, cactus, aloe vera, prickly pear, and olive trees. As of 2002, there were at least 112 species of mammals and 138 species of birds throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

The most significant environmental problems in Eritrea are deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, overgrazing, famine, and damage to the infrastructure from warfare. In 2000, about 15.7% of the total land area was forested. In 2003, about 4.3% of the total land area was protected. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included nine types of mammals, seven species of birds, six types of reptiles, nine species of fish, and three species of plants. Threatened species include the spotted eagle, the cheetah, the black crowned crane, the great white shark, the African wild ass, and the green turtle.

POPULATION

The population of Eritrea in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 4,670,000, which placed it at number 113 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 45% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 96 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.6%, a rate the government viewed as too high. Although the fertility rate declined from 6.1 births per woman in 1995 to 4.8 in 2002, the government still considered the fertility rate too high, with only 5% of married women using contraception. The projected population for the year 2025 was 7,244,000. The population density was 40 per sq km (103 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 19% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 5.63%. The capital city, Asmara, had a population of 556,000 in that year.

MIGRATION

During Eritrea's fight for independence, more than 750,000 fled the country, 500,000 of whom went to Sudan. Following Eritrea's liberation in 1991, many of these refugees returned voluntarily, although there were still some 315,000 in Sudan at the end of 1997. An Eritrean plan for repatriation from Sudan was implemented between 1994 and June 1995, with 25,000 refugees successfully repatriated. Another 80,000 returned on their own. Results of a data collection exercise conducted in Sudan in April 1998 suggested that 90% of Eritrean refugees (some 130,000) were willing to be repatriated. The Eritrean/Ethiopian border conflict had also displaced more than 300,000 people within Eritrea as of 1999. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) began repatriating 150,000 Eritrean refugees from Sudan in 2001 due to renewed diplomatic relations between the two countries. In 2004 UNHCR assisted 9,893 voluntary returnees from Eritrea to Sudan.

In 2004, there were 131,119 refugees in Eritrea, mainly from Somalia and Sudan. Also in 2004, there were 58,953 internally displaced people. There were also 449 asylum seekers that year, mainly Ethiopians. However, over 6,000 Eritreans sought asylum in sixteen countries in 2004, mainly in Ethiopia, Sudan, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Sweden.

In 2005, the net migration rate for Eritrea was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population, a significant change from -22.5 per thousand in 1990.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnologists classify Eritreans by nine prominent language groups. The Afar live in the southeast, the Tigrinya in south central Eritrea, and the Tigre in the north. The Saho live in the south central/southeast. The Bilen live in central Eritrea, the Hadareb in the northwest, and the Kunama and Nara in the southwest. The ninth group, the Rashaida, inhabit the northwest. The Tigrinya (50% of the population), Tigre and Kunama (40%), Afar (4%), and Saho (3%) are believed to be the largest ethnic groups.

LANGUAGES

No official language has been proclaimed. However, Arabic and Tigrinya are the working languages of the Eritrean government. Tigre is widely spoken in the western lowlands, on the northern coast, and in parts of the Sahel. Afar, Amharic, Kunama, and other minor ethnic group languages are also spoken.

RELIGIONS

The largest religions in Eritrea are Sunni Muslim (approximately 50%), Orthodox Christian (approximately 40%), Eastern Rite and Roman Catholic (approximately 5%), and the Evangelical Church of Eritrea (approximately 2%). Other minority groups include Seventh-Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baha'is, Buddhists, and Hindus. Geographically, Islam predominates in the eastern and western lowlands while Christianity is dominant in the highlands. Along ethnic lines, members of the Tigrinya group are primarily Orthodox Christian. Most of the Tigre, Nara, Afar, Saho, Beja, Rashaida, and Blen are Muslim. Over 50% of the Kunama are Roman Catholic.

Though the constitution provides for freedom of religion, the government has placed a number of restrictions on "Pente" groups, or all religious organizations other than the four government-sanctioned religions of Orthodox Christians, Muslims, Catholics, and the Evangelical Church of Eritrea. In 2001, the government began closing all Pente facilities and by 2002 had issued a degree that all religious groups must be officially registered in order to continue practices. This has effectively allowed for the closing of all facilities not belonging to the four principal groups. There is a standing law prohibiting political or other gatherings in private homes of more than five individuals, but it is unclear as to whether or not this law has been enforced against the members of the Pente groups.

Jehovah's Witnesses are particularly subject to discrimination both socially and from the government since their refusal to participate in national service is considered unpatriotic. Besides receiving prison sentences for evading national service (up to three years), a number of Jehovah's Witnesses have been denied or have had trouble obtaining passports, exit visas, identification cards, and trading licenses. Some have been forced from government-subsidized housing.

TRANSPORTATION

The infrastructure suffered some damage during the war for independence with Ethiopia. Massawa, the principal port, serves Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. The port, which has a 7-m (24-ft) channel and pier facilities capable of accommodating five or six large vessels, was damaged by bombing raids from February 1990 to May 1991. In early 1992, agreements were concluded between the Eritrean and Ethiopian governments to make Assab a free port for Ethiopia, making Ethiopia dependent on Eritrean ports for its foreign trade. Assab has an oil refinery and facilities capable of handling more than one million tons of goods annually. As of 2005, Eritrea had six ships (1,000 GRT or over), totaling 16,069 GRT.

Eritrea had 3,859 km (2,392 mi) of roads, of which 810 km (503 mi) were paved in 2002. A railway, which was almost completely destroyed during the war, once extended 317 km (197 mi) from Massawa on the Red Sea to Asmara, terminating near the Sudanese border. Reconstruction work on this railway, starting from Massawa, began in summer 1994. As of 2004, Eritrea had 306 km (190 mi) of rail line, all of it narrow gauge.

There were 17 airports and airfields in the country as of 2004, only 4 of which had paved runways as of 2005. The airport at Asmara (Yohannes IV) handles international jet transportation. In 1997, (the latest year for which data is available) an estimated 174,000 passengers were carried on scheduled international and domestic flights. Repair of the railroad and highway network is necessary for the revival of agriculture and industry. The government of Eritrea has established a budget for transport rehabilitation, two-thirds of which is allocated for road repair to ensure that all parts of the country have access to modern roads.

HISTORY

Eritrea's strategic location on the Red Sea has made the history of this country one dominated by colonial rule. Turks, Egyptians, Italians, British, and Ethiopians have all colonized Eritrea over the years. During the modern European scramble for Africa, Eritrea fell under the colonial rule of Italy in 1890. Sustained resistance to Italian rule developed into a unified sense of Eritrean nationalism among the various ethnic groups in the country. For the first time, Eritrea was welded into a single political entity with unified political and social structures, which cut across the traditional divisions. It broadly followed the pattern of political development experienced in all other European colonies in Africa and which, in the vast majority of cases, formed the basis for eventual independence. Between 1936 and 1941 Eritrea, along with Italian Somalil- and as part of the Italian East African Empire, was ruled together with Ethiopia for the first time. In 1941, after the Italians were defeated by Allied forces, Eritrea and Somaliland were placed under the British Military Administration while Ethiopia regained its independence under Emperor Haile Selassie. As a loser in the World War II, Italy relinquished its legal right to its colonies in a 1947 treaty. A Four Power Commission (Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States) was set up to decide on how to dispose of the former Italian colonies through negotiations. The agreement was to submit the matter to the UN General Assembly if negotiations were unsuccessful. The four countries could not agree on Eritrea's future. Britain proposed partition of Eritrea, with the western parts to go to the Sudan and the highlands and coastal strip to go to Ethiopia, while the United States suggested complete union with Ethiopia. France proposed Trust Territory with Italian administration while the Soviet Union argued for Trust Territory under international administration. The problem was referred to the United Nations (UN), which set up a commission of five countries (Burma, Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan, and South Africa) to study and propose a solution. The idea of partition was rejected outright. Guatemala and Pakistan proposed the standard formula of the UN Trusteeship leading to independence, but others favored close association with Ethiopia. For example, Norway wanted full union while Burma and South Africa favored federation with some autonomy. Meanwhile, Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie was working hard on the diplomatic front to acquire Eritrea. The United States backed Eritrea's federation with Ethiopia and UN Resolution 390A was passed to that effect. This decision was made without giving due attention to the overwhelming presence of groups who were mobilizing the population for independence. From September 1951 Eritrea became an autonomous territory federated with Ethiopia. US strategic interests in the Red Sea and its close ties with the emperor played a major role in influencing the final decision. The United States put forth enormous pressure to have Ethiopia administer Eritrea, under "the Sovereignty of the Ethiopian Crown."

The federation lasted from September 1951 to 1962, but did not bring about harmonious integration of the entities. Ethiopia soon started to impose more direct rule at its will. The UN ignored Eritrea's protests against Ethiopia's intervention in their autonomous rule, and Ethiopia formally annexed Eritrea in 1962.

A year earlier, in September 1961, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched an armed struggle for independence. By 1970, when the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) was created from within the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), Eritrea had become the emperor's main preoccupation. EPLF is the organization that led Eritrea to independence in 1991. After the emperor was overthrown in 1974, the self-styled Marxist military dictatorship, called Dergue, stepped up its campaign against Eritreans. With the help of Soviet Union, Korea, Cuba, and other countries in the Eastern Bloc, the Dergue sustained a very bitter war over Eritrea between 1978 and 1991. The war left Eritrea in complete ruins and created enormous land-mine and population-displacement problems. In terms of infrastructure, all basic services were virtually disrupted. Most towns were without services—such as electricity, water, and transportation—for much of the war years. Industrial sectors were wiped out and the ports were destroyed. Ethiopian forces bombed Massawa extensively during the last days of the war, killing many civilians, destroying most of the buildings, and depopulating the area. Towards the end of the war, Ethiopia had 500,000 troops under arms, half of them in Eritrea. At no time did the Eritrean forces number more than 100,000. It is estimated that the Dergue had spent $12 billion on military supplies for its war against Eritrea. In the 30 years of war, Eritrea lost more than 60,000 fighters and about 40,000 civilians. Hundreds of thousands were also forced into exile.

In May 1991, the EPLF captured the last Ethiopian outposts in Eritrea. Asmara, Eritrea's capital, was occupied on 24 May 1991. President Mengistu Haile Mariam fled Addis Ababa and the Tigrean People's Liberation Front (TPLF), which had also been fighting against the Dergue since 1975, took over the Ethiopian government. The EPLF created a provisional government for Eritrea, until a referendum was carried out to determine the choice of the Eritrean people. The referendum was scheduled to take place in 1993. Although Eritrea had been absorbed into Ethiopia in 1962, Eritreans—unlike many Ethiopians—did not regard their struggle as one of secession. They never recognized Ethiopian legitimacy over their territory; rather, they viewed their struggle as anticolonial, seeking to gain the independence they were denied by the UN in 1952. The referendum on 23–25 April 1993 proved that this was indeed the case. The great majority—98.5% of the 1,173,000 registered voters—voted for independence. The UN certified the results and on 24 May 1993, Eritrea became Africa's 52nd independent state. Four days later it was admitted to the United Nations and the OAU.

The colonial boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia, defined in a treaty between Italy and Ethiopia in July 1900, became the international boundary between the two sovereign states without modification, leaving Ethiopia a landlocked state once more. The decision was consistent with the cardinal article of an OAU charter adopted in 1963, stipulating that colonial boundaries were to be respected, and until May 1998, relations between the two countries were good. The Eritrean ports of Assab and Masawa remained open for Ethiopia free of charges.

In May 1998, disagreement over the sovereignty of border villages erupted into all-out war. Between 2 and 6 May 1998, Eritrean soldiers invaded and occupied Badme, in northeastern Ethiopia. Other areas were subsequently occupied in Tigray State. Ethiopia later recaptured Badme, but fighting continued for two and a half years, interspersed with periods of inactivity. A US- and Rwanda-sponsored peace plan proposed in early June 1998 failed; so did arbitration efforts by the OAU with each side claiming to accept an OAU framework agreement while accusing the other of making impossible preconditions to its implementation.

The war, which according to the UN claimed the lives of an estimated 70,000 people on both sides, ended officially with a peace treaty, the Algiers Agreement, on 12 December 2000. Under the Algiers Agreement, some 4,200 UN soldiers commanded under the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) remained on the border to monitor the so-called Temporary Security Zone (TSZ) that separates the two countries. Experts from the Eritrea Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC) established in April 2002 physically demarcated the internationally recognized boundary. However, Ethiopia rejected, as unjust and illegal, the ruling of the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague following its decision on 13 April 2002. Legally, the ruling was binding and final. The Ethiopian government announced in November 2004 that it accepted the EEBC ruling and urged Eritrea to accept its full implementation, but Prime Minister Meles Zenawi later said he would accept border demarcation only in undisputed areas. In October 2005 the Eritrean government banned UN flights in the 25-kilometer demilitarized TSZ, and by mid-November 2005 the UN Security Council expressed deep concern over rising tension in the shaky peace agreement over military movements by both parties towards the TSZ. In the last week of November 2005, the 15-member UN Security Council unanimously adopted a resolution that threatened action, including possible sanctions, to Eritrea if it did not immediately rescind its flight ban, and to Ethiopia if it did not reverse its military build-up. As of 6 December 2005 the military situation in the TSZ remained tense and potentially volatile.

Fallout from the war exacerbated the famine. A four-year drought resulted in malnutrition rates of between 15% and 30% in the under-five population by November 2005.

GOVERNMENT

After defeating the Ethiopian military government in May 1991, Eritrea functioned as a distinct political unit. Between the end of the war in May 1991 and the celebration of Independence Day in May 1993, the EPLF formed a provisional government to run the country. The provisional government was comprised of a 28-member executive council. This provisional government organized elections at the village, district, and provincial level throughout the country to broaden popular participation.

Following the referendum, in May 1993, an interim administration was created to govern for four years. In this government, a National Assembly was formed, consisting of the Central Committee of the EPLF and 60 other individuals. Ten out of the 60 seats were reserved for women. The assembly elected Isaias Afewerki president. He also served as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and chaired the executive branch—the State Council—whose members he nominated. The National Assembly ratified all of his nominations. This government was to serve until a constitutional commission prepared a constitution and the government organized elections.

In 1996, the 50-member constitutional commission submitted a draft document for public debate. It provided for multiparty democracy based upon Western standards featuring a full array of civil liberties. Ratified by referendum in 1997, the constitution called for national elections in May 1998, which were delayed by the war with Ethiopia, subsequently rescheduled for December 2001, and postponed indefinitely. By mid-2006, there were no elections in sight.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) started the armed struggle for the independence of Eritrea in September 1961. In 1970, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) evolved from the ranks of the ELF with a new vision and program. Initially, both fronts intensified the war against Ethiopia. Both the ELF and the EPLF were mixed Muslim-Christian groups. However, they differed in the way they dealt with religious, ethnic, and regional differences inside their organizations. For example, the ELF organized itself into relatively autonomous separate units by regional, and therefore typically religious and ethnic, divisions. The EPLF on the other hand was comprised of units with mixed religion, ethnic, and regional backgrounds. By 1977, the two parties controlled most of the countryside. However, with their contradictions at the breaking point in 1978, the parties fought an all-out war against one another. By 1981, the EPLF had defeated and chased the ELF from Eritrea, leaving it the lone party operating in the country.

One still unsettled issue is the nature and role of political parties. The EPLF government has opposed the creation of parties based on race, religion, region, or ethnicity. A split between Christian and Muslim-based parties would be disastrous because the Christian-Muslim divide in the country is about fifty-fifty. The EPLF itself is a good example of a party free of religious, ethnic, or regional basis. Since its inception in 1970, it represented a united front of people with very diverse political views who shared the common goal of obtaining the right of self-determination for Eritreans.

Following its defeat in 1981, the ELF leadership divided into more than a dozen different factions. Some ELF members joined the EPLF while others fled to Sudan. After 1991, most of the former leadership returned to Eritrea to accept positions in the government or to form businesses. Others continued to discredit the government from outside the country. The Eritrean Islamic Jihad, a militant terrorist group, is a notable example.

At its third Congress on 10–17 February 1994, the EPLF adopted a new name, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), and committed itself to widening its popular appeal to all sectors of the Eritrean society. The National Assembly, dominated by the PFDJ, declared a ban on opposition political activity until the implementation of the constitution, thereby giving the PFDJ a monopoly on power. Though a political party law was drafted by a committee of the National Assembly in January 2001, it had yet to be debated and approved by the Assembly. Hence Eritrea remains a one-party state, with only the PFDJ allowed to operate legally.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

During the years since independence in 1991, Eritreans have been participating in a process of electing governing councils for their villages, districts, and provinces. Between 1993 and 1997, both the central and local governments underwent a series of reorganizations. In 1996, Eritrea was restructured into six semiautonomous zones or regions, each consisting of several sub-zones. The change from ten provinces to six zones was controversial, but gradually won public acceptance.

Zones are administered by governors and have their own local assemblies. At the central level, the Ministry of Local Governments oversees local affairs, and concerns itself with formulating national policy, regulations, and research and manpower development, leaving implementation responsibilities to regional and local governments.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system is a civil law system borrowed from Ethiopia's adaptation of the Napoleonic Code. The court system consists of courts of first instance, courts of appeals composed of five judges, and military courts, which handle crimes committed by members of the military. Traditional courts play a major role in rural areas, where village elders determine property and family disputes under customary law or in the case of Muslims, Shariah law.

Although the judiciary appears to function independently of the executive branch, it suffers from lack of resources and training and there are signs of executive interference. The new constitution promulgated in 1997 provides for democratic freedoms, such as free speech, free assembly, and free association.

The government clamped down on freedom of speech and the press, assembly, association, and religion, and in 2001 it closed all privately owned print media. According to international human rights agencies, including Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, many journalists viewed as outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial. Eritrea also has a record of religious persecution over which the US State Department declared it a Country of Particular Concern in both 2004 and 2005. Human rights groups were not permitted to operate in the country, except for the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICR).

ARMED FORCES

In 2005 active armed forces personnel numbered around 201,750 with a reported 120,000 reservists. The Army constituted an estimated 200,000 personnel, whose equipment included 150 main battle tanks, 40 reconnaissance vehicles, 40 armored infantry fighting vehicles/armored personnel carriers, and more than 170 artillery pieces. The Navy numbered 1,400 members. Primary naval units consisted of eight patrol/coastal vessels and three amphibious land craft. There were 800 members of the Air Force, which had 17 combat capable aircraft, including 13 fighters, in addition to 1 attack helicopter. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $74 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Eritrea won its independence from Ethiopia 24 May 1993 and joined the United Nations later that year. The country has since joined several specialized UN agencies, such as the FAO, ICAO, IAEA, IFC, UNESCO, UNIDO, the World Bank, and the WHO. Eritrea is a member of the African Union, the ACP Group, the African Development Bank, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and G-77. It also belongs to COMESA and the Community of Sahel and Saharan States (CENSAD).

A border dispute with Ethiopia resulted in war from 1998–2000. The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) was established in 2000 to monitor the cessation of hostilities agreement made between the two countries, both of which later accepted a 2002 Boundary Commission delimitation decision. Eritrea is part of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, Eritrea is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, and the UN Conventions on Climate Change and Desertification.

ECONOMY

The Eritrean economy has yet to stabilize after years of armed struggle against the Ethiopian government. The population is still largely dependent on food aid. Agriculture and raising of livestock occupy over 80% of the population, taking place throughout the country, in both the highlands and lowlands. Long-term prospects for agricultural development appear to be strongest in the western lowlands. A small industrial sector shows signs of growth potential, but infrastructure and skilled labor is lacking.

The natural resource profile of Eritrea is not yet known with certainty. Known mineral resources include copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, marble, granite, barite, feldspar, kaolin, talc asbestos, salt, gypsum, and potash. Petroleum resources are also suspected, located offshore.

The military regime that ruled Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991 nationalized all housing and all large- and medium-sized businesses and services, including banks, in Eritrea. The post-independence government has denationalized housing, and is committed to denationalization of business and services. As of 2002, there were approximately 2,000 manufacturing companies operating in Eritrea: all but 45 were private enterprises, and of the state-owned businesses, 35 had been sold to private interests and 10 were awaiting privatization.

Eritrea's most significant economic assets may be its unspoiled coastline, which offers some of the best fishing and underwater diving in the world, and its two ports on the Red Sea.

The two-year war with Ethiopia (1998–2000) halted foreign investment. Fears of a resurgence of hostilities, combined with poverty, illiteracy, and a weak transportation and communications infrastructure also hamper the investment climate. The war greatly slowed economic growth (the economy contracted by 9% in 2000), largely due to a disruption in trade relations between Eritrea and Ethiopia. Eritrea's expenditures on defense and relief amounted to 23.5% of GDP in 1999.

The GDP growth rate was 1.0% in 2004, down from 1.8% in 2002, and 2.0% in 2003; in 2005, the economy was estimated to have expanded by only 0.7%. The inflation rate has been fluctuating, and at 18.2% in 2004, it was a significant impediment for economic development. Other impediments to the economy were the erratic rainfall, the late demobilization of agriculturalists from the military, and a relatively unskilled workforce.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Eritrea's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $4.5 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,000. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 15%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 8.7% of GDP, industry 26.3%, and services 65%.

Foreign aid receipts amounted to $307 million or about $70 per capita and accounted for approximately 34.2% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Eritrea totaled $835 million or about $190 per capita based on a GDP of $751.0 million, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of -3.9%. It was estimated that in 2004 about 50% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

Agricultural work accounted for approximately 80% of the labor force in 2002. The remaining 20% are engaged in industry and services. There is no data on the size of the Eritrean worforce or on its unemployment rate.

As of 2005, the right to form and join unions was limited by the government. All unions were run by the government and union leaders were usually government employees. Any union activity had to be sanctioned by the government. Workers could bargain collectively, but no collective bargaining agreements as of that date were known to exist. Strikes are also allowed, but as of 2005, that right had not been exercised by workers.

The minimum working age is 18, but apprentices may be hired at age 14. However, enforcement of the nation's child labor laws has been ineffective. It is common for children in rural areas who were not in school to work on family farms, while in urban areas, some children worked as street vendors. Most wage earners are employed by the public sector. Although there is no minimum wage in the private sector, a minimum wage does exist for the civil service sector. In 2005 it stood at $24 per month and is considered incapable of supporting a worker and family with a decent standard of living. The workweek is set at 44.5 hours, with one rest day every week. Health and safety standards are not regularly enforced.

AGRICULTURE

Eritrea has 565,000 hectares (1,396,000 acres) of arable land and permanent crops. Three-quarters of Eritrea's people are subsistence farmers dependent on unreliable rainfall to feed families that average seven children. Although these farmers have experienced relative peace and good harvests since May 1991, food production has not been able to keep pace with a rapidly expanding population. Harvests have been variable due to rainfall variations and pest infestations. The present government dissolved the former Ethiopian military regime's marketing board and reinstituted private markets for agricultural products. Principal crops in 2004 included sorghum, 56,700 tons; millet, 11,600 tons; barley, 16,900 tons; and wheat, 17,200 tons. Legumes, vegetables, fruits, sesame, and linseed are also grown. War, drought, deforestation, and erosion caused about 70–80% of the population to become dependent on food aid. Agricultural output, however, increased slightly during the 1990s, due to the ending of the war, favorable weather, and a newly developed seed and fertilizer distribution system. The army is involved in agricultural restoration, evidence of the government's commitment to agricultural reform.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Sheep, goats, cattle (especially zebu), and camels make up the majority of Eritrea's livestock. In 2001, Eritrea had 2,100,000 sheep, 1,700,000 goats, 1,950,000 head of cattle, 75,000 camels, and 1.4 million chickens. Total meat production that year was 30,900 tons; cow's milk, 39,200 tons; and eggs, 2,000 tons. The government is emphasizing development of agriculture and animal husbandry in order to decrease the reliance on international relief, caused by war and drought.

FISHING

With Eritrea's independence from Ethiopia, access to about 1,011 km (628 mi) of Red Sea coastline was obtained. Because Eritrea now controls the coastline, long-term prospects for development of offshore fishing and oil are good. The total catch rose from 475 tons in 1993 to 6,689 tons in 2003. The Eritrean navy patrols the coastal waters to limit poaching by unauthorized nonnationals. The development of local fishing will decrease the dependence on foreign food aid, even though fish has not been a major source of Eritreans' protein intake.

FORESTRY

Eritrea's forested area covers 1,585,000 hectares (3,916,000 acres), or 13.5% of the total land area. Total roundwood production in 2004 was 1,266,000 cu m (44.7 million cu ft), nearly all of it used for fuel. Since 1993, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front army has been involved in tree planting; the annual average rate of deforestation during 1990–2000 was 0.3%.

MINING

In 2002, mining and quarrying accounted for less than 1% of Eritrea's gross domestic product (GDP). Eritrea produced basalt, cement, common clay, kaolin, coral, gold, granite, gravel, gypsum, laterite, lime, limestone (for other than cement), marble, pumice, quartz, salt, sand, and silica sand. The country also had known resources of chromium, copper, magnesium, zinc, lead, silver, barite, feldspar, talc, asbestos, iron ore, nickel-chromite, potash, and potassium. Marine salt was produced at Massawa and Assab. Quarries for limestone, clay or shale, and gypsum were located near Massawa. Artisanal gold production, extracted over a large area in the southwestern hills, was 33 kg in 2004, up from 9 kg in 2003, but down from 107 kg in 2001. There was no recorded gold output in 2002. Production totals for 2004 included: basalt, 499,349 metric tons, up from 111,677 metric tons in 2003; granite, 192,803 metric tons, up from 140,418 metric tons in 2003; marble blocks, 780,733 cu m, down from 1,777,814 cu m in 2003; and sand, 611,000 tons, down from 788,000 tons in 2003. The outlook for Eritrea's mineral industry was for gradual recovery from the war, with demand for basalt, granite, gravel, limestone, marble, and sand likely to increase.

ENERGY AND POWER

Oil and gas exploration in the Red Sea off Eritrea began in the 1960s, when Eritrea was part of Ethiopia. Following independence, the country began awarding production contracts in 1995. However, as of 1 January 2003, Eritrea had no proven reserves of crude oil or natural gas. It also has no known reserves of coal. As a result, the country, as of 2001, has had no output of oil, natural gas or coal. Petroleum imports and consumption were estimated each at 4,590 barrels per day in 2002. In 1997, due to high costs, Eritrea and Ethiopia agreed to shut down their joint operations at the petroleum refinery at Assab and import refined petroleum products. The refinery had a capacity of 18,000 barrels per day. In 2000 an estimated 3.2 to 3.3 million barrels per day of oil were shipped through the Bab el-Mandeb, a narrow waterway between Eritrea, Yemen, and Djibouti that connects the Gulf of Aden with the Red Sea.

As of August 2003, about 80% of the population was without electricity, which was available only in the larger cities and towns, although the government was constructing additional electrical distribution lines. In 2002, net electricity generation was 243 million kWh, of which 100% came from fossil fuels. In the same year, consumption of electricity totaled 226 million kWh. As of August 2003 Eritrea had about 60 MW of diesel-fired generating capacity.

INDUSTRY

Ethiopia nationalized Eritrea's 42 largest factories and systematically dismantled the Eritrean industrial sector during the protracted civil war. By the end of the civil war, however, all production had stopped. Plants were generally inefficient, and most of these industries required significant investment to achieve productivity. Manufactured items in 2002 included beverages, processed foods, tobacco, leather, textiles, metal products, chemicals, printing, nonmetallic minerals, construction materials, salt, paper, and matches. The government sought privatization of these industries, and issued incentives such as exemptions from income tax, preferential treatment in allocation of foreign exchange for imports, and provisions for remittance of foreign exchange abroad. In 2002, there were approximately 2,000 manufacturing companies operating in the country.

The oil industry has potential, as major oil deposits are believed to lie under the Red Sea. In 2001, the United States firm CMS Energy entered into an exploration agreement with Eritrea for exploration in the Dismin Block in northeastern Eritrea. Due to high operating costs, the country's sole oil refinery, at Assab, was closed in 1997. It had crude refining capacity of 18,000 barrels per day. The construction industry is growing, as projects range from the construction and expansion of power plants; road, airport, and dam construction; upgrading sea ports; and the construction of schools and hospitals.

In 2005, industry had a 26.3% share of the GDP; services were the largest sector with a 65% participation in the economy; agriculture was least economically important sector (with only an 8.7% share in the GDP), but was by far the largest employer (80% of the total labor force). Recent industries include food processing, beverages, clothing and textiles, salt, cement, and commercial ship repair.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The University of Asmara, whose Italian and English sections were founded in 1958 and 1968, respectively, is the only facility of higher education in Eritrea offering courses in basic and applied sciences. It issues its Seismic Bulletin twice a year. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 30% of college and university enrollments.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Most of the population depends on subsistence farming and so domestic commerce is not a significant part of the economy. There are, however, a number of thriving small businesses and factories within the Asmara area. These include restaurants, bars, Internet cafes, auto repair shops, crafts, a brewery, cigarette factory, and

small glass and plastics producers. There are also several companies involved in making leather goods, and textile and sweater factories, operating primarily for domestic consumption. Most local industries rely on outmoded technology and suffer from a lack of capital investment.

Business hours are 9:00 am to 1:00 pm, and 4:00 pm to 8:00 pm, Monday through Saturday in Asmara; and 6:30 am to 12:00 pm and 5:00 pm to 10:00 pm Monday through Saturday in Massawa and Assab. Banks are open from 8 am to 12 pm and 2 pm to 4 pm, Monday through Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

In 1996, exports were estimated at $95 million, while imports came to $514 million, resulting in a trade deficit of $419 million. Main exports were livestock, sorghum, and textiles. Imports were mainly processed goods, machinery, and petroleum. Because Eritrea controlled the total coastline that was formerly part of Ethiopia, Ethiopia depended on Eritrean ports for its foreign trade. The recurring border war, though, ensured little usage of these ports.

In 2004, exports reached $34 million (FOB—free on board), while imports grew to $677 million (FOB). The bulk of exports went to Malaysia (21.4%), Italy (13.7%), Egypt (8.3%), India (7.8%), Japan (6.4%), Germany (5.3%), China (4.1%), and the United Kingdom (4%). Imports included machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals, manufactured goods, and chemicals, and mainly came from Ireland (25.7%), the United States (17.9%), Italy (16%), and Turkey (6.2%).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Hard currency transactions represented about 90% of imports in 1996. In 1997, the Eritrean currency, the nafka, was introduced, changing the financial situation.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Eritrea's exports was $34.8 million while imports totaled $470.5 million resulting in a trade deficit of $435.7 million. The trade gap is covered by external remittances from Eritrean expatriates, bank loans, and grants-inaid; but mounting debt threatens the country. Eritrea's large trade gap results from a weak export base and the need to import large amounts of capital goods needed to rebuild the country's infrastructure and industrial base. Economic growth slowed substantially due to the war with Ethiopia, largely due to the disruption of trade between the two nations, Ethiopia's boycott of the port of Assab, an increase in military spending, and the drafting of a large percentage of the work force into military service.

Exports of goods and services reached $80 million in 2004, same as in 2003. Imports decreased from $577 million in 2003, to $533 million in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, improving however from -$497 million in 2003, to -$453 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, slightly improving from -$89 million in 2003, to -$45 million in 2004. Foreign exchange reserves (including gold) decreased to $16 million, covering less than a month of imports.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

After the end of the war in 1991, the Central Bank of Eritrea and the Commercial Bank of Eritrea were reestablished, having been nationalized by the Ethiopian military junta in 1984.

The status of the National Bank of Eritrea (NBE) as central bank was clarified by a proclamation of April 1993. The Commercial Bank of Eritrea has a dozen branches across the country. It is the main retail bank and now has corresponding relations with both the Ethiopian and international banking systems. The Housing and Commerce Bank of Eritrea and the Agriculture and Industry Development Bank are also functioning, albeit at a very low capacity. In 1997, the government issued the Financial Institutions Proclamation, liberalizing the banking and insurance sectors to the private sector.

The CBE recorded assets of $800 million at the end of 2000. In mid-November 1994, the Housing and Commerce Bank of Eritrea started to issue dollar-denominated certificates of deposit with denominations of $1,000 and above, while the Eritrean Development and Investment Bank started operations shortly thereafter.

Eritrea was also hoping to establish offshore banking services and facilities to cater to the Middle Eastern market.

INSURANCE

The National Insurance Corporation of Eritrea (NICE) was established after the end of the war. It engages in all classes of insurance and was the only insurance provider operating in Eritrea as of late 2005. Insurance coverage provided by NICE included life, motor, workers' compensation, and personal accident protection.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The state retains control over most of the land, mineral resources, and infrastructure of Eritrea. Most government revenues come from custom duties and taxes on income and sales. Massive infusions of foreign aid and investment are needed to restore the

infrastructure and services and to develop private sector growth. Membership into the IBRD and IMF were approved in 1994. The government was set to invest heavily to upgrade and develop infrastructure and utilities.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Eritrea's central government took in revenues of approximately $248.8 million and had expenditures of $409.4 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$160.6 million. Total external debt was $311 million.

TAXATION

Customs duty and import and export taxes are 33.6% of government revenue; direct domestic tax (business and personal income taxes) are 27.8% of government revenue; domestic sales tax and taxes on services are 26.1% of government revenue. The main indirect taxes are municipal taxes, assessed at different local rates on goods and services. In the capital in 2002, the municipal tax on goods was 4%, and on services, 3.2%.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

As of 2005, customs tariffs are based upon the item's CIF (cost, insurance, freight) value. There is a 2–10% rate on most goods. Luxury goods, such as electronic equipment and automobiles, are assessed at 25–35%. Capital goods, industrial inputs, books, livestock and seeds, school supplies, and pharmaceuticals are assessed at rates of 2–10%. Also, the Eritrean Customs Service levies sales taxes of 2%, 5% and 15% on most goods.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Investment in Eritrea has come primarily from contributions of Eritrean exiles. International aid was restricted by the lack of international recognition of the Eritrean government's sovereignty, a problem resolved in the UN in April 1993. The government issued an investment code in December 1991 to encourage investment in the Eritrean economy. Incentives for investments in certain areas include exemption from customs and duties, exemptions from income tax, and special treatment regarding foreign currency exchange. While foreign direct investment reached $61 million in 1997, it went down to $14 million in 1998.

By 1998, the Eritrean investment center had licensed 661 investment projects worth $562 million, of which $235 million was foreign. Annual foreign direct investment (FDI) flows have remained remarkably steady, ranging from $31.7 million in 1998 to $38.7 million in 1997. In 2001, FDI inflow was $34.2 million. Major investors included the United States, South Korea, Italy, and China.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

The development priorities of the Eritrean government are food security, the development of a market-style economy, and the privatization of formerly nationalized enterprises. Encouraging the return of Eritrean exiles abroad is also a government goal in the reconstruction effort. The Emergency and Recovery Action Program was launched in late 1991 to focus on recovery of the transportation system (roads, railroads, and port and airport facilities), agriculture and fishing (including reliable water sources), and industry. Plans for 2000 were to invest $1 billion over the following decade to upgrade infrastructure and utilities. Some estimates put food self-sufficiency for Eritrea within the decade, but drought conditions negate this forecast.

Regulatory requirements imposed by the government have discouraged investment in the early 2000s, as had the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia. The port in Massawa was rehabilitated, and an airport constructed there. In 2003, the worst drought since Eritrea's independence threatened the lives of about a third of the population. Assistance from foreign donors was weak, and the country had to resort to borrowing to prevent starvation.

The humanitarian crisis is expected to hold down growth well into 2006. Other factors that will negatively influence the economy include the small production and population base, limited supplies of hard currency, and the country's dependence on foreign donor aid. Food insecurity is one of the main problems that the country is currently facing, and no solid economic development policies can be devised before this one is resolved.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

During its struggle for independence, the EPLF created an elaborate system of social services. It launched a literacy program, a health care system (including hospitals), and a food distribution network. The provisional government mandated equal pay for equal work, and equal educational opportunities. However, in practice, traditional male privileges in education, employment, and the domestic sphere largely persist as a result of ingrained custom and uneven enforcement of the law. Domestic violence and abuse are pervasive and not addressed by the government. Officially the practice of female genital mutilation (FGM) is condemned, but it remains widespread. As of 2004, it was estimated that 95% of women and girls had been subjected to FGM.

The human rights record remains poor. The government does not allow international human rights organizations to monitor prison conditions, and freedom of the press and speech is restricted.

HEALTH

Infant mortality was estimated to be 47.41 per 1,000 live births in 2005. At that time, the average Eritrean woman who lived through her childbearing years had 5.4 children. Of all children under five years of age, 38% were malnourished. As of 2002, the estimated crude birth rate of 42.2 per 1,000 people was higher than the crude death rate of 11.8. In 2004 there were an estimated 3 physicians, 16 nurses, and fewer than 1 dentist or pharmacist per 100,000 people. In 2000, 46% of the population had access to safe drinking water and only 13% had adequate sanitation. Average life expectancy was 58.47 years in 2005.

The immunization rates for children under one year old in 1997 were as follows: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, 60%; polio, 60%; measles, 53%, and tuberculosis, 67%. There were 6,000 deaths of children under five years old of diarrheal diseases in 1995. Goiter appeared in 22% of all school-age children in 1996.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 2.70 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 60,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 6,300 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

After 30 years of war, thousands of returning refugees experienced a severe housing shortage, particularly in urban areas. In the 2000 border conflict, about 100,000 homes were destroyed and at least 450,000 Eritreans were displaced. Government and economic reform are needed before the housing situation can be fully addressed. Some international aid and foreign programs have helped ease the situation; however, in 2004 there were an estimated 60,000 displaced persons still in shelter camps.

In highland rural communities, most housing is built as a joint project of community members. These homes are generally made from wood, stone, and straw. Rural lowland homes are also made of wood and straw. Nomads build temporary shelters of wood and leaves. Concrete block and wood is generally used in urban housing.

EDUCATION

Education is compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 14. The educational system is comprised of five years of elementary school, followed by two years of junior secondary and four years of senior secondary school. At tenth grade, students may choose to attend a three-year technical school. The academic year runs from September through June.

In 2001, about 5% of children between the ages of five and six were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 45% of age-eligible students, 49% for boys and 42% for girls. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 22% of age-eligible students, 25% for boys and 18% for girls. It is estimated that about 40% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 45:1 in 2000; the ratio for secondary school was about 52:1.

There is a university in Asmara. In 2003, about 2% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2003 was estimated at about 58.6%, with 69.9% for men and 47.6% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.1% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Asmara houses the library of the University of Asmara (60,000 volumes), the Asmara Public Library (28,000 volumes), and the library of the British Council (20,000 volumes).

The National Museum in Asmara—located in a former palace—and the Archeological Museum, operated by the Department of Culture in Asmara, are the country's two principal museums.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated nine mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 46,200 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation.

The government controls all nonreligious media, including one radio station, one television station, and three newspapers. The law prohibits private ownership of broadcast media. Religious media are prohibited from reporting on political news and events. Television broadcasts are Monday, Wednesday, and Saturday evenings in Tigrinya and Arabic languages. Dimtsi Hafash radio broadcasts daily in various local languages. In 2003, there were an estimated 464 radios and 53 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 2.9 personal computers for every 1,000 people and seven of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

Private newspapers have been banned since 2001, as the government cited many journalists for endangering public security. The government-owned daily, Asmara Herbet, is published in Arabic and Tigrinya and had a 2002 circulation of 4,000. Hadas Eritrea is published three days a week. Eritrea Profile is a weekly English-language paper. Tirigta and Geled are weekly government youth papers.

ORGANIZATIONS

Professional organizations exist, such as the Teachers Union, Association of Eritreans in Agricultural Sciences, Eritrean Nurses Association, Eritrean Pharmacists Association, and the Eritrean Medical Association. There is an Association of War Disabled Veterans. Various trade unions formed the National Confederation of Eritrean Workers in September 1994. The Eritrean National Chamber of Commerce is in Asmara.

There are various religious humanitarian groups (Christian and Muslim), sports clubs, and art groups centered around music, theater, painting, and drawing.

The National Union of Eritrean Youth Students has branches throughout the country and around the world. Planned Parenthood Association, the Red Cross Society, Caritas, and a Regional Center for Human Rights and Development all operate in Eritrea.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Because Eritrea inherited the entire coastline of Ethiopia, there is long-term potential for development of tourism. However, due to political unrest, the tourism industry is struggling to gain stability. In 2003, there were 80,029 visitors, a 20% decrease from 2002. There were 4,139 hotel rooms with 8,794 beds and an occupancy rate of 52%. Passports and visas are required. Proof of yellow fever vaccination may also be required if traveling from an infected area.

In 2005, the US Department of State estimated the cost of staying in Asmara at $219 per day. In other areas, the cost was estimated at $81 per day.

FAMOUS ERITREANS

Isaias Afwerki (b.1946) has been president of Eritrea since its independence from Ethiopia 24 May 1993.

DEPENDENCIES

Eritrea has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Birth of a Nation. Asmara, Eritrea: Government of Eritrea, 1993.

Connell, Dan. Against All Odds. Trenton, N.J.: Red Sea Press, 1993.

Denison, Edward. Eritrea. Chalfont St. Peter: Bradt, 2002.

Gebremedhin, Tesfa G. Beyond Survival: The Economic Challenges of Agriculture and Development in Post-independent Eritrea. Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press, 1996.

Iyob, Ruth. The Eritrean Struggle for Independence: Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941–1993. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Killion, Tom. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1998.

——. Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. [computer file] Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Negash, Tekeste. Brothers at War: Making Sense of the EritreanEthiopian War. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2000.

Pool, David. From Guerrillas to Government: The Eritrean People's Liberation Front. Athen: Ohio University Press, 2001.

Prouty, Chris. Historical Dictionary of Ethiopia and Eritrea. 2nd ed. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1994.

Tesfai, Alemseged and Martin Doornbos. Post-Conflict Eritrea: Prospects for Reconstruction and Development. Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press, 1999.

United Nations Industrial Development Organization. Eritrea: A New Beginning. New York: United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1996.

Woodward, Peter. The Horn of Africa: Politics and International Relations. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2003.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Eritrea

History & Background

Eritrea, Africa's newest nation, celebrated its tenth year of independence in 2001. In May 1991, Eritrean liberation fighters swept the besieged remnants of Ethiopia's occupying army out of Asmara, the Eritrean capital, ending four decades of Ethiopian control and Africa's longest continuous modern war. In April 1993, Eritreans overwhelmingly endorsed independence in a UN-monitored referendum. On May 24, 1993, Eritrea declared itself an independent nation and four days later joined the United Nations.

The armed struggle for Eritrea's independence began in 1962, after a decade of Ethiopian violations of a UN-imposed Ethiopia-Eritrea federation, and following Ethiopia's annexation of Eritrea as its fourteenth province. In the early 1970s, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), was organized and, throughout the next decade, emerged as the dominant liberation force. The Eritrean independence struggle became synonymous with "selfreliance"—a 30-year war fought from wholly within the country by a politically mobilized population supporting a large, well-trained army using captured weapons. The historical and political necessity of Eritrean self-reliance forced Eritreans to plan and test—while fighting for—the kind of society they wanted, with education a vital factor in the liberation movement's success and a key element in the Eritrean model of development.

Country & People: Eritrea is a torch-shaped wedge of land, about the size of Britain, along the Red Sea coast in northeast Africa. Sudan is to the north and west, Djibouti to the southeast, and the Ethiopian province of Tigray to the south. As a former province of Ethiopia, Eritrea formed that country's entire, 750-mile Red Sea coast. A highland plateau divides the northern half of the country, with lowlands to the west and east. The south is desert. Asmara and major towns are sited in the highlands. Massawa and Assab are significant Red Sea ports.

About 20 percent of Eritreans are urbanized, forming a significant working class. Of the rural population, more than 60 percent are farmers; the rest combine farming and herding, except for the less than 5 percent who lead purely nomadic lives in the far northern mountains and southern coastal desert. Eritreans comprise nine ethnolinguistic groups. The total population of about 3.5 million is approximately equally divided between Muslims and Christians, the religious division cutting across some ethnic lines. The predominant language is Tigrinya, spoken by the group of that name. Arabic is widely spoken among Muslims. English—the language of instruction in post-elementary schools—is increasingly common, especially in the cities.

Early History: Archeological sites in Eritrea have yielded hominid fossils judged to be two million years old. Tools from about 8000 B.C., unearthed in western Eritrea, provide the earliest concrete evidence of human settlement. Rock paintings found throughout the country, dating to at least 2000 B.C., have been assigned to a nomadic cattle-raising people. Between 1000 and 400 B.C., the Sabeans, a Semitic group, crossed the Red Sea into Eritrea and intermingled with the Pygmy, Nilotic, and Kushitic inhabitants known to have earlier migrated from Central Africa and the middle Nile. In the sixth century B.C., Arabs occupied the Eritrean coast, establishing trade with India and Persia, as well as with the pharaonic Egyptians. The ports of Eritrea enjoyed continuous contact with Red Sea traffic and Middle East cultures that fostered a cosmopolitanism unique to the coast.

The powerful Axumite kingdom, centered in the present-day Ethiopian province of Tigray, prospered on trade through Eritrea from the first to sixth century A.D., adopting Christianity in the fourth century, then declined as Beja tribes migrated from Sudan and Arabs gained dominance of the Red Sea. The Ottoman Turks ruled Massawa and its coastal plains from 1517 to 1848, when they were displaced by Egypt. With the opening of the Suez canal in 1869, the Red Sea coast gained strategic and commercial importance. In that year the Italian government purchased the port of Assab from the local sultan. The Italians occupied Massawa in 1885. In 1889 the Ethiopian King Menelik ceded Eritrea to the Italians in exchange for military support against his Tigrayan rivals.

Prior to Italian domination, education fell into two broad categories, religious and local. Christian and Muslim clerical hierarchies replenished themselves by educating—essentially raising—small numbers of children in the tenets of the faith. Local education, as in any society, consisted of training children in practical, productive skills: home construction, traditional medicine, music-making, storytelling, and decorative arts. These practices persist in all of Eritrea's cultures and can be detected in general in the force of authority, especially generational authority, and the educative functioning of exemplary behavior, demonstration, and imitation.

Italian Eritrea: Despite Menelik's treaty with Italy, Italian legions invaded Tigray in 1895. The Italian generals, however, blundered fatally at Adwa on March 1, 1896, losing nearly half of their forces. In the ensuing Treaty of Addis Ababa, Italy renounced claims to Ethiopia, while Menelik affirmed Italian control of Eritrea.

The Italians ruled Eritrea until their defeat in Africa by the British in 1941. Education in Italian Eritrea prior to fascism was in the hands of Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries. Swedish missionaries had established the first school, in Massawa, in the 1860s, and by the 1920s had schools in eight centers, serving 1,100 students. An early center of Roman Catholic missionary education was the highland city of Keren, where a seminary, day school, and orphanage served a few hundred children. In 1909, the first colonial educational policy was declared, based on separate schools for Italians and Eritreans. Schooling was compulsory for Italians to age 16; the curriculum of Italy was used. Education for Eritreans, however, limited to the Italian language and basic skills, was designed to produce menials for the Italians.

After Mussolini's rise to power, strict racial laws enforced segregation and wage differentials based on color. Benefiting from low wages and extensive use of child labor, the Italians built diverse manufacturing concerns, increasing the drift to the towns; by the end of Italian colonial rule, about 20 percent of the population was living in urban centers, where they were restricted by law to native quarters. In 1932, the first central office for primary education was established, the purpose of which as defined by its director, Andrea Festa, was to ensure that education accorded with the principles of the Italian regime. In 1938 Festa wrote to headmasters: "The Eritrean student should be able to speak our language moderately well; he should know the four arithmetical operations within normal limits...and of history he should know only the names of those who have made Italy great." But education was never widely available to Eritreans, and fourth grade was the highest level an Eritrean was allowed to reach. There were only 20 schools for Eritreans in 1938-39, with 4,177 students.

British Administration: Italian colonialism was an early casualty of World War II. British forces entered Eritrea in January 1941. British administration continued to 1952. The British gradually removed the color bar, began an "Eritreanization" of lower administrative positions, and allowed the formation of political parties and trade unions. At the beginning of British rule, there were no Eritrean teachers but, in 1942, nineteen were recruited. Over the next ten years, the British increased the number of elementary schools to 100 and opened 14 middle and 2 secondary schools. The curriculum introduced in 1943 covered agriculture, woodworking, clay-modeling, carpet-making, shoe-making, reading, writing, and hygiene for boys, and reading, writing, hygiene, weaving, sewing, basket work, and domestic science for girls. Textbooks in Tigrinya were locally printed, books in Arabic and English were provided, and entrance to the middle schools required students to be able to read and write English. In 1946 a teacher training college was established; by 1950, fifty-three men and seven women were in training to be teachers.

Through school committees organized in the villages, Eritreans actively supported education, funding school construction, and paying teachers. But the demand for education far exceeded budgeted funds, a 1950 British government report admitted, leaving many children unserved because of a lack of buildings, equipment, and staff.

Federation & Annexation: In 1952, after lengthy debate, and with Cold War politics a factor, the UN General Assembly voted to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia. Eritrea was to be an autonomous unit under the sovereignty of Ethiopia's monarch, Haile Selassie. The contradictions of federation were immediately apparent. Ethiopia's feudal economy and imperial political system clashed with the capitalist development of Eritrea and the democratic constitution approved by the elected Eritrean Assembly in 1952. Eritrean political parties and trade unions were banned, newspapers censored, and protests attacked by police. Finally, in November 1962, Selassie terminated Eritrea's federal status, making Eritrea a province of Ethiopia.

Eritrea had passed from British control to the federal arrangement with better educational facilities than Ethiopia, but Ethiopia's imperial government soon began to undermine Eritrean education, along with other institutions. In 1956, Eritrean languages were banned and replaced by Amharic, an Ethiopian language virtually unknown in Eritrea. Ethiopian teachers brought in to teach Amharic were paid 30 percent more than their Eritrean counterparts. The first of many student strikes occurred in 1957 at the Haile Selassie Secondary School in Asmara, the first school at which Amharic was made compulsory; in response, 300 students were jailed for a month.

Following annexation in 1962, all education decisions were made in Addis Ababa. The policies of "Ethiopianization" and "Amharization" intensified and became factors that awakened Eritreans' national consciousness and united diverse ethnic groups against the imperial regime.

In 1962 the Santa Familia University, founded in Asmara by the Comboni Sisters in 1958, obtained recognition from the Ethiopian government, changing its name to the University of Asmara. But Eritrean students resented entrance policies they viewed as favoring Ethiopians.

The Independence War: In 1963, elementary and secondary teachers went on strike, ostensibly over the pay differential between Eritrean and Ethiopian teachers. Underlying the strike, however, were sympathies for the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), which had begun a guerrilla war for independence a year before. Teachers were active in clandestine nationalist organizations, and many were arrested, jailed without trial, or transferred to Ethiopia. Starting in 1967 when large-scale military confrontations broke out between the Ethiopian army and ELF, young nationalists began joining the guerrillas outright. In 1970, members of ELF had a falling out, some of the dissidents eventually forming the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). The ELF was organized along religious and regional lines; the EPLF called for nonsectarian unity and social revolution, a stance that attracted even more students and intellectuals.

The Dergue: Ethiopia's monarchy was replaced by a military dictatorship, called the Dergue (committee) in 1974. Under Haile Mengistu Mariam, the Dergue pressed for a military victory over the Eritrean independence movement. Ethiopian forces steadily lost ground. By 1977 the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That year, however, a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF, largely intact, to retreat to the mountainous north of the country.

Educated Eritreans were a particular target of Dergue harassment and violence. Thousands were detained and many killed. Amharic remained compulsory, and the number of Ethiopian teachers increased—up to 2,000 by 1980. The Dergue had declared Ethiopia a Marxist state, and all teachers were required to attend weekly classes in Marxism-Leninism, where their allegiance to the official doctrine was scrutinized. Eritrean teachers were further demoralized by the lack of professional development afforded them. In this climate, school officials feared widespread desertion of students to the guerrillas, and teachers were susceptible to accusations of political deviance; both factors led to a precipitous drop in educational quality and standards. In 1990 the Dergue disbanded the University of Asmara, taking its staff and movable property to Ethiopia.

The EPLF: Between 1978 and 1986, the Dergue launched eight major offensives against the EPLF; all failed. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea. At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union withdrew support, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF began to advance on remaining Ethiopian positions. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. In May 1991, the EPLF entered Asmara without firing a shot. Simultaneously, Mengistu fled before the advance of the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front, which formed a new government in Ethiopia.

During the war the EPLF established healthcare and education programs and facilities in the regions under its control. Education was seen by EPLF leaders as integral to the national liberation struggle. An early EPLF slogan was "Illiteracy is our main enemy." EPLF-sponsored education was marked by the integration of theory and practice. In the 1970s, efforts focused on the combatants themselves with all new recruits—men and women (women made up a third of the fighters) with less than seven years of schooling required to complete their education in the EPLF, attending classes for up to six hours a day. Many rural villagers and farmers encountered education for the first time in the front.

In the mid-1970s liberated areas began to expand. In essaying the beginnings of a national school system, the EPLF began the Zero School, a boarding school for orphans, refugees, children of fighters, and those who had run away to join the front but were too young to fight. The Zero School, started with about 150 students and a handful of teachers, was designed as a teaching laboratory and workshop for the expanding education system. The Zero School eventually offered five years of elementary education and two years of middle school, adding grades as students continued. By 1983, the school had more than 3,000 students.

In addition to the Zero School, the EPLF maintained regular schools in liberated, predominantly rural areas. At many sites, students sat on stones in the shade of trees. Schools had to be camouflaged against air attack, and students had to be prepared to take cover.

In 1983 a national adult literacy campaign was begun with the dispatch of 451 teenage Zero School students to serve as teachers behind enemy lines. The literacy campaign reached 56,000 adults, 60 percent of them women. The campaigners taught reading, writing, numeration, hygiene, sanitation, and health, and participated in agriculture in the rural communities.

Drought and Ethiopian military offensives after 1985 disrupted the literacy campaign, and the EPLF abandoned the campaign form altogether when it began its own offensives in 1988, continuing adult education only for civilian health, agricultural, and political workers brought in groups to protected areas for one to two months at a time. By 1990, with the war intensifying to its climax, adult education was available only to combatants. Nevertheless, in the vast areas of liberated countryside, education continued. In 1990, a year before liberation, there were 165 schools administered by the EPLF, with 1,782 teachers serving about 27,000 students.

Independent Eritrea: In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum on independence could be held and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias Afwerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body. On April 23-25, 1993, Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored referendum. The government was reorganized and after a national, freely contested election, the National Assembly, which chose Afwerki as President of the State of Eritrea, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. Expressing the government's commitment to working towards gender equality, 30 percent of the Assembly seats were reserved for women, while the remaining seats were open to men and women. The EPLF established itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) in February 1994. A new constitution establishing a tripartite government and guaranteeing human and civil rights for all Eritreans was ratified in 1997 but was not implemented, as pending parliamentary elections were postponed indefinitely following the start of a border conflict with Ethiopia in May 1998. The National Assembly—with 150 seats, half elected by the people, half installed by the PFDJ—continued to govern the country, and Afwerki remained president, but new elections were scheduled for the end of 2001.

After the long independence war, Eritrea faced an enormous task of reconstruction. The economy and infrastructure had collapsed, and social services had disintegrated, the result of war damage, population displacement, and prolonged, severe neglect. Education was seen as a key to overall development of the country, and an immediate priority: Five months after the May 1991 victory, the EPLF reopened schools country-wide. A 1994 policy document outlined these educational objectives:

• to produce a population equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge, and culture for a self-reliant and modern economy
• to develop self-consciousness and self-motivation in the population
• to fight poverty, disease, and all the attendant causes of backwardness and ignorance
• to make basic education available to all.

In meeting these goals, the government from 1991 to 2000 constructed 365 new schools, mostly in the severely disadvantaged lowland areas. An additional 323 existing schools were rehabilitated, in many cases old schools made of twigs and sacks being replaced by entirely new buildings. From 1991 to 2000, total school enrollment (government and non-government elementary, middle, and secondary schools) increased by 255 percent, from 168,783 pupils to 429,884 pupils. The number of teachers also increased, from 5,188 in 1991 to 8,588 in 2000. A sharp increase in the number of qualified elementary teachers, from 42.7 to 72.4 percent from 1992 to 1996, was the result of three consecutive summers of inservice training at the Asmara Teachers Training Institute.

In the ten years after independence, the existing curriculum was extensively reviewed, and weaknesses were identified. English curriculum, grades 2-10, was completely revised and new textbooks were created, but few other reforms had been implemented by 2001. Additionally during this period, a score of research projects looked into such areas as girls' participation at the elementary level, education of nomads, the structure of technical and vocational education, community response to mother-tongue teaching, and preschool education needs. Beginning in 1994, secondary school students were sent during summer vacation to various regions to engage in development work: environmental protection, road construction and maintenance, production and repair of school furniture, laying power lines, and improving community sanitation. Each summer, approximately 30,000 students (38 percent of them female) participated. The program's goals include strengthening students' cultural experience, work ethic, and ecological awareness.

In 1999 a border dispute with Ethiopia devolved into large-scale war. During the fighting, as many as a million Eritreans were internally displaced and 67,000 were expelled from Ethiopia, most arriving destitute in Eritrea, severely straining the nation's social services. Among those still displaced at the end of fighting in mid-2000 were 139,000 school-age children. The government responded with makeshift schools, enlarged class sizes, and emergency shipments of school supplies to the affected areas.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

A new constitution guaranteeing the right to education to all citizens was ratified in 1997 but was not implemented following the start of the border war with Ethiopia in 1998. Education is administered in the Ministry of Education, one of 17 ministries with cabinet status in the executive branch of the government, under President Isaias Afwerki. The government of Eritrea views education as a key factor in political transformation, economic growth, social justice, and the alleviation of poverty, and education for all Eritreans is the government's goal.

Educational System—Overview

The government offers education at elementary (for five years), middle (two years), and secondary (four years) levels, and provides one special school for blind and two schools for deaf students. The University of Asmara, offering 17 bachelor degree programs, enrolled about 4,000 students in 1999. Nongovernmental Coptic, Catholic, Protestant, and Islamic schools (a total of 110) are found throughout the country. So-called public schools (a total of ten) are administered by municipalities or village committees. Five schools are administered by foreign communities in Asmara for their children.

The government also offers technical and vocational programs for middle and secondary graduates, as well as literacy, continuing education, and skill development training programs for adults. Additionally, the Ministry of Education is responsible for school sports programs at national and international levels.

In government schools, enrollment grew an average of 7.4 percent (6.1 percent primary, 14.9 middle, 7.0 secondary) each year from independence to 1999. However, the number of children not enrolled, at all levels and particularly in rural regions, was still high in 2000: about 320,000 at elementary age and 172,000 at middle school age. Literacy for the country is estimated to be 30 percent—for women just 10 percent. Despite the EPLF's and the government's longstanding commitment to women's equal participation in all areas of national life, female enrollment in schools, in numbers or growth, has not kept pace with male participation.

Government policy is for the local language, or the language locally chosen, to be the language of instruction at the elementary level and in literacy programs. To implement this policy, alphabetic forms have been created for six previously nonwritten languages. As of 2000, elementary education and literacy programs were being conducted in eight of the nine Eritrean languages.

Objectives of the educational system, as outlined in the Government's 1994 Macro-Policy, are to create a united, prosperous, peaceful, and democratic nation by educating women and men to:

• have the skills and commitment to work together to reconstruct the economic, environmental, and social fabric
• love and respect their nation and all people within it, regardless of sex, ethnic group, religion, or profession; this includes producing citizens who are fully literate in their mother tongue and who know and wish to preserve the best aspects of their culture while changing the negative aspects, including working toward the achievement of gender and ethnic equality
• respect democratic institutions and to fully and effectively participate in the democratic process, including developing and defending basic human rights, and to be guided by and adhere to the highest ethical principles
• have a deep knowledge of and respect for the environment and the need for its restoration and protection
• wisely use scientific processes and developments so as to achieve self-sufficiency in food, modern services, and industries, based on the principle of environmental sustainability
• develop to the fullest their creative potential in all aspects.

These principles are largely inherited from the liberation struggle, which included tremendous efforts to consolidate national identity and unity, promote social progress, and inculcate tolerance and democratic ideals.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preschool education begins at age five. Early childhood education is largely a community responsibility, with the government giving functional support by developing policies, programs, and teacher training activities. The government considers early childhood education as the first component of the basic education strategy and envisages expansion of preprimary schools but not supplanting the role and responsibility of parents and the community in early childhood upbringing and education. In addition, the overall tendency is to encourage nongovernmental organizations and nonformal activities in this field. The policy gives much attention to the need and importance of early and extensive investment in health care, cognitive development, and socialization. The number of preschools—90 in 2000, almost all in urban areas—has not significantly increased since independence, but enrollment rose by 50 percent, from 7,747 children in 1993 to 11,885 children (or about 5 percent of eligible children) in 2000. In 1996, many preschools run by the municipalities were transferred to private institutions and communities, and some were closed for lack of funds. Most surviving preschools are situated in Asmara and are controlled by religious institutions. The learning environment in most centers suffers from lack of basic resources and play materials. More than 50 percent of preschool teachers were untrained, but in 1996 a summer training program was organized; approximately 90 teachers had completed this training by 1999. In 2000 there were 223 trained and 97 untrained preschool teachers.

Elementary, or primary, education lasts five years. The official starting age is seven, but due to the previous lack of access to school, the majority of students are older.

The academic year runs from September to June and consists of approximately 200 school days divided into two semesters. Schools in lowland areas operate six days a week in order to finish before the hottest season. At the primary level, school exams are given four times per year at the end of every half semester, and reports are given at the end of each semester. Total gross primary enrollment in 2000 was 295,941 students. The gross enrollment percentage (enrolled students to eligible children in the population) went from 36.3 percent in 1992 to 57.5 percent in 2000; within this, the female student enrollment percentage increased from 33.8 to 52.4 percent. Elementary teachers numbered 6,229 in 2000.

The elementary curriculum includes reading and writing in the mother tongue, mathematics, science, art and music, and physical education. Starting at the second grade, English (plus Arabic where teachers are available) and civics and moral education are added. Geography is added during fourth grade.

Secondary Education

Elementary education is followed by two years of middle level (completing what is called basic formal primary education) and four years of secondary education, at the end of which students take the Eritrean Secondary Education Certificate Examination. Instruction in middle and secondary classes is in English. In middle schools, overall enrollment grew by 266 percent from 1992 to 2000, from 27,917 to 74,317 students. This represented a doubling of the ratio of enrolled students to middle-school-age children in the population, from 20.1 to 43.2 percent. Female middle students totaled 33,284 in 2000. Secondary enrollment increased from 27,627 in 1992 to 59,626, of which 37 percent were female, in 2000. The gross enrollment rate grew from 12.2 to 26.0 percent for males in this period, but from 12.1 to only 16.2 for females. In 2000 there were 1,312 middle and 1,047 secondary teachers.

The middle curriculum includes general science; mathematics; English; Arabic; geography; Eritrean, African and world history; civics and moral education; physical education; and music and art at some schools.

Secondary subjects are biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, English, Arabic, geography, history, civics, physical education, and music and art.

Instructional Technology: In 2001 computers were available in only a few secondary schools in Asmara; these schools had piloted computer education classes for selected students. In some cases, Parent-Teacher Associations had raised money to buy computers for a school. Adding more computers, as it becomes financially feasible, is slated to take place first at the secondary level, and then expand downwards. In preparation for these developments, a computer lab was set up at the Asmara Teacher Training Institute in order to have teacher-trainees computer-literate by the time they begin or return to teaching.

Higher Education

Eritrea faces a serious shortage of skilled professionals in all fields. The only institute of higher education in the country, the University of Asmara, since its reopening in October 1991, has been engaged in restructuring and revitalization and is still establishing new colleges. Since 1997, there have been eight—Agriculture and Aquatic Sciences; Arts and Language Studies; Business and Economics; Education; Engineering; Health Sciences; Law; Science—that offer a total of 17 bachelor degree programs, as well as diploma and certificate programs. The College of Business and Economics offers evening programs for working adults. A degree program requires four years' attendance. All students follow a general freshman program during the first year, then enter the college of their choice. After their second year, students are obliged to serve one year of national service; this means that it will take them a minimum of five years to earn a bachelor's degree. In 2000, the university graduated 371 students with bachelor's degrees, 170 with diplomas, and 106 with certificates. Enrollment in Fall 2000 was 4,642 (about 13 percent women). Total faculty was 230. The university foresees steady growth, with enrollment reaching 6,000 students in 2005 and stabilizing at around 8,000 by 2010.

The university aspires to become a regional center of higher education, but first to primarily serve national needs, and has developed linkages both to national programs and initiatives and to international donor organizations and foreign universities. In 2001, the university was still suffering from a lack of basic equipment, computers, laboratories, library facilities, and a shortage of qualified academic staff.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

The Ministry of Education, the body responsible for administering the schools and setting and implementing the national curriculum, consists of three departments: General Education, responsible for early childhood through secondary education; Technical and Vocational Education, which includes adult literacy; and Research and Human Resource Development, whose responsibilities include teacher and staff training. At the regional level are six regional offices, which have autonomy to manage educational matters within their geographical area. Sub-regional offices are responsible for direct management of schools within each sub-region.

At the end of 1999, the Ministry of Education installed its first computer network, making information on all aspects of school administration available to all departments. The network extends to most district offices in all regions of the country, but in 2001 was still too slow in functioning to be of much use outside of the Asmara offices of the Ministry. When it is functioning efficiently, the network will aid decentralized decision-making in regions and sub-regions.

Education expenditures as a percent of the government's total expenditures grew from 4 percent in 1993 to more than 9 percent in 1997 (education accounted for an average of 38 percent of yearly social service expenditures in that period). As a percentage of GNP, education increased from 2 to 4 percent over those five years, a significant investment compared to many sub-Saharan African nations and a testament to the government's commitment to education. In 2000, salaries, nonsalary recurrent expenditures, and capital cost totaled 115 million, 38 million, and 77 million nakfa respectively; international donors provided 66 million nakfa applied to capital expenditures.

Nonformal Education

Through the Department of Technical and Vocational Education, the Ministry of Education runs technical and vocational programs, adult literacy programs, continuing basic education classes, and adult skills development programs.Technical and vocational education is offered at basic, intermediate, and advanced levels. Seven basic level training centers provide employment skills courses, four to nine months in length, for elementary completers. The centers graduated 296 students (78 female) in 1999 and 157 students (0 female) in 2000. At the intermediate level, three technical institutes (Asmara, Wina, and Mai Habar) provide training programs, lasting two to three years, for middle-school completers. Total enrollment of the three schools was 908 (15 percent female) in 2000. At the advanced level for secondary graduates, two schools are available: the Asmara Business and Commerce Training School, providing courses in accounting, banking and finance, secretarial science, and management; and the nongovernmental Pavoni Technical Institute, which offers machine shop training. Enrollment in the Business School was 190 (30.5 percent female) in 2000; Pavoni had 67 students, including 5 women.

A school of fine arts and a school of music were pioneered by the EPLF during the independence war. The arts school trains secondary school completers in sculpture, painting, and printmaking. In 2000, the school had 29 beginning (8 female) and 39 intermediate (12 female) students. The Asmara Music School offers one to two years of theoretical and practical training to those who complete grade eight. In 2000, the school had 22 male and 34 female students.

In 2000, a literacy program was operating in 796 centers, serving more than 49,000 adults, 94 percent of them women. Four-fifths of these adults were new students in the first year of the three-year program; the border war with Ethiopia had reduced the number of continuing students. The literacy program was conducted, and primers printed, in seven languages.

Evening classes in basic education are conducted at the elementary, middle, and secondary levels, with 4,872 adults (3,461 female) attending in 2000, the majority at the secondary level. Since independence, many adult skills development programs were begun in cooperation with NGOs, but the Ministry of Education has largely taken over responsibility for the programs. From 1993 to 1997, some 6,000 to 7,000 adults were trained in building trades, metal fabrication, agricultural technology, secretarial skills, and other job skills.

Various professional training programs are run by other ministries, most importantly the Ministry of Health (nurses, pharmacists, village health workers, and technicians), and the Ministry of Agriculture (farmers and its own staff of technicians). The Institute of Management Studies has been established to upgrade the skills of existing civil servants. Quasi-governmental organizations such as the National Union of Eritrean Woman and the National Union of Eritrean Youth and Students offer a variety of vocational and some academic courses across the nation. The National Union of Eritrean Women has been especially active in mounting women's literacy projects in small towns and rural villages.

Teaching Profession

There is one Teachers Training Institute (TTI), located in Asmara; graduates are qualified for elementary teaching. Teacher training was given a high priority following independence, with TTI graduating about 1,600 students per year (using intensive short courses) from 1992 to 1995; however, from 1996 to 1999 enrollments averaged 350 a year. In 2000, TTI had 606 trainees enrolled. In 2000, 72 percent of the nation's elementary teachers were qualified.

The Faculty of Education at the University of Asmara trains middle and secondary school teachers, offering a diploma in middle school teaching and a bachelor's degree in secondary teaching, as well as bachelor's degrees in educational administration and educational psychology. In 2001, approximately 800 students were enrolled in all programs. The teaching staff totaled 21, the largest in the university. The school has strong links to the Ministry of Education, and its programs are keyed to national needs. Students are prepared to meet the challenges of teaching in rural schools, to innovate, and to rely on local resources and materials.

In 2000, about 32.0 percent of middle teachers and 71.2 percent ofsecondary teachers were qualified. To make up for a shortage of qualified teachers, and to allow Eritrean teachers to spend time abroad pursuing advanced degrees, the Eritrean government, in a program partially financed by the World Bank, has recruited expatriate teachers, mainly from India, since 1997. In 2000, approximately 250 such teachers were bolstering the teaching staff at secondary and technical schools. At the same time, 64 Eritrean teachers were studying in postgraduate programs outside Eritrea.

Summary

Eritrean education has suffered from the disregard, and even malice, of colonial occupiers and the devastation of a long independence war—and benefited from the experience of the liberation movement that developed an educational system with some modern and progressive features years before coming to power.

From the liberation movement, the national education system inherited a respect for all the languages and cultures of the country, now seen in policies that primary and literacy education be conducted in students' mother tongue; that priority for educational expansion be given to disadvantaged and marginalized areas and ethnic groups; that communities be involved in the establishment and running of schools; and that women be accorded full educational equality with men. Additionally, Eritrean education has inherited from the independence struggle a self-reliant attitude. As a nation, Eritrea has sought to keep development firmly in the hands of Eritreans and is known for refusing international aid that would compromise that ideal. Nevertheless, the Ministry of Education has maintained and sought international aid and assistance to build its capacity and improve teaching and learning.

As an independent nation since 1991, Eritrea has managed to build or rehabilitate more than 600 schools, add 3,400 teachers, and more than double enrollments—a creditable achievement for a young, poor, and warravaged country. The government has stated its intention to provide basic education for all and considers education a key to development. For a country that is one of the world's poorest, Eritrea has devoted significant financial resources to education.

Still, in 2000 more than 716,000 school-age children remained unenrolled, curriculum reform was stalled, illiteracy for the population as a whole stood at 70 percent, and the planned-for widespread adult education had barely begun. At the turn of the millennium, improving educational quality was seen as the Ministry of Education's major priority. Plans were under way to fully implement curriculum reform in the coming five years; to improve and expand teacher training, including opening a second Teacher Training Institute, enlarging the Faculty of Education at the University of Asmara, and creating more opportunities for teachers to increase their skills and pursue higher education both in and out of the country; to establish new and strengthen existing Parent-Teacher Associations; provide more vocational training options to students; to create a unit to address the needs of children with learning difficulties; to systematize preschool education; to increase adult literacy; to expand computer technology at all administrative levels and in academic programs beginning with secondary schools; to better coordinate the educational activities of various government ministries; and to correct inefficiencies within the Ministry of Education itself.

Bibliography

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—Leslie D. Gottesman

Eritrea

Compiled from the January 2008 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

State of Eritrea

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 125,000 sq. km. (48,000 sq. mi.); about the size of Pennsylvania.

Cities: Capital—Asmara (est. pop. 435,000). Other cities—Keren (57,000); Assab (28,000); Massawa (25,000); Afabet (25,000); Tessenie (25,000); Mendefera (25,000); Dekemhare (20,000); Adekeieh (15,000); Barentu (15,000); Ghinda (15,000).

Terrain: Central highlands straddle escarpment associated with Rift Valley, dry coastal plains, and western lowlands.

Climate: Temperate in the highlands; hot in the lowlands.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Eritrean(s).

Population: (2004 est.) 3.6 million.

Annual growth rate: 2.5%.

Ethnic groups: Tigrinya 50%, Tigre 31.4%, Saho 5%, Afar 5%, Beja 2.5%, Bilen 2.1%, Kunama 2%, Nara 1.5%, and Rashaida 0.5%.

Religions: Christian 50%, mostly Orthodox, Muslim 48%, indigenous beliefs 2%.

Education: Years compulsory—none. Attendance—elementary (net 2002) 45.2%; secondary (net 2002) 21.2%.

Health: Infant mortality rate (2003)—45/1,000. Life expectancy—52 yrs.

Work force: Agriculture—80%. Industry and commerce—20%.

Government

Type: Transitional government.

Independence: Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993.

Constitution: Ratified May 24, 1997, but not yet implemented.

Government branches: Executive—president, cabinet. Legislative—Transitional National Assembly (does not meet). Judicial—Supreme Court.

Political subdivisions: Six administrative regions.

Political parties: People's Front for Democracy and Justice (name adopted by the Eritrean People's Liberation Front when it established itself as a political party).

Suffrage: Universal, age 18 and above (although no national elections have been held).

Budget: (2005 est.) $485 million.

Defense: (2004 est.) $185 million.

Economy

Real GDP: (2004 est.) $700 million. Annual growth rate: (2005 est.) 4.8%.

Per capita income: $900 (on a purchasing power parity basis); per capita GNI (World Bank Atlas method), 2004 est. $180.

Avg. inflation rate: (2004 est.) 25%.

Mineral resources: Gold, copper, iron ore, potash, oil.

Agriculture: (12% of GDP in 2004) Products—millet, sorghum, teff, wheat, barley, flax, cotton, papayas, citrus fruits, bananas, beans and lentils, potatoes, vegetables, fish, dairy products, meat, and skins. Cultivated land—10% of arable land.

Industry: (25% of GDP in 2004) Types—processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, leather goods, textiles, chemicals, cement and other construction materials, salt, paper, and matches.

Trade: Exports (2005 est.)—$12 million: skins, meat, live sheep and cattle, gum arabic. Major markets—Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Yemen), Europe (Italy), Djibouti, and Sudan. Imports (2005 est.)—$474 million: food, military materiel, and fuel, manufactured goods, machinery and transportation equipment. Major suppliers—U.A.E., Saudi Arabia, Italy, Germany, Belgium.

GEOGRAPHY

Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. The country has a high central plateau that varies from 1,800 to 3,000 meters (6,000-10,000 ft.) above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 300 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's landmass. Eritrea has no year-round rivers.

The climate is temperate in the mountains and hot in the lowlands. Asmara, the capital, is about 2,300 meters (7,500 ft.) above sea level. Maximum temperature is 26o C (80o F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, with the short or belg rains occurring February-April and the big or meher rains beginning in late June and ending in mid-September.

PEOPLE

Eritrea's population comprises nine ethnic groups, most of which speak Semitic or Cushitic languages. The Tigrinya and Tigre make up four-fifths of the population and speak different, but related and somewhat mutually intelligible, Semitic languages. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional beliefs live in lowland regions. Tigrinya and Arabic are the most frequently used languages for commercial and official transactions. In urban areas, English is widely spoken and is the language used for secondary and university education.

HISTORY

Prior to Italian colonization in 1885, what is now Eritrea had been ruled by the various local or international powers that successively dominated the Red Sea region. In 1896, the Italians used Eritrea as a springboard for their disastrous attempt to conquer Ethiopia. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. In 1952, a UN resolution federating Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. The resolution ignored Eritrean pleas for independence but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated.

In 1962, Emperor Haile Sellassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence from Ethiopia that continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The new Ethiopian Government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta led by Ethiopian strongman Mengistu Haile Miriam.

During the 1960s, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) led the Eritrean independence struggle. In 1970, some members of the group broke away to form the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, with Isaias Afwerki as its leader. The EPLF used material captured from the Ethiopian Army to fight against the government.

By 1977, the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement—all of which failed. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia.

At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF—along with other Ethiopian rebel forces—advanced on Ethiopian positions. The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Meng-istu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. The four major combatant groups, including the EPLF, attended these talks.

Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum could be held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.

A high-level U.S. delegation was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet assistance for Mengistu limited the level of Eritrean interest in seeking Soviet support. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF (and later its successor, the PFDJ) expressed its commitment to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights. On April 23-25, 1993, Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-

monitored free and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on April 27, and Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Eritrea's Government faced formidable challenges following independence. With no constitution, no judicial system, and an education system in shambles, the Eritrean Government was required to build institutions of government from scratch. Currently, the Government of Eritrea exercises strict control of political, social, and economic systems, with nearly no civil liberties allowed.

On May 19, 1993, the PGE issued a proclamation regarding the reorganization of the government. The government was reorganized, and after a national, freely contested election, the Transitional National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF established itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). The PGE declared that during a 4-year transition period it would draft and ratify a constitution, draft a law on political parties, draft a press law, and carry out elections for a constitutional government.

In March 1994, the PGE created a constitutional commission charged with drafting a constitution flexible enough to meet the current needs of a population suffering from 30 years of civil war as well as those of the future, when prospective stability and prosperity would change the political landscape. Commission members traveled throughout the country and to Eritrean communities abroad holding meetings to explain constitutional options to the people and to solicit their input. A new constitution was ratified in 1997 but has not been implemented, and general elections have not been held. The government had announced that Transitional National Assembly elections would take place in December 2001, but those were postponed and new elections have not been rescheduled.

The present government structure includes legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. The legislature, the Transitional National Assembly, comprises 75 members of the PFDJ and 75 additional popularly elected members. The Transitional National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country.

The president nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the Transitional National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It is composed of 17 ministers and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is accountable to the Transitional National Assembly. The ministries are agriculture; defense; education; energy and mines; finance; fisheries; foreign affairs; health; information; labor and human welfare; land, water, and environment; local governments; justice; public works; trade and industry; transportation and communication; and tourism.

Nominally, the judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the district, provincial, and national levels. However, in practice, the independence of the judicciary is limited. In 2001, the president of the High Court was detained after criticizing the government for judicial interference.

In September 2001, after several months in which a number of prominent PFDJ party members had gone public with a series of grievances against the government and in which they called for implementation of the constitution and the holding of elections, the government instituted a crackdown. Eleven prominent dissidents, members of what had come to be known as the Group of 15, were arrested and held without charge in an unknown location. At the same time, the government shut down the independent press and arrested its reporters and editors, holding them incommunicado and without charge. In subsequent weeks, the government arrested other individuals, including two Eritrean employees of the U.S. Embassy. All of these individuals remain held without charge and none are allowed visitors.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: ISAIAS Afworki

Vice Pres.:

Min. of Agriculture: AREFAINE Berhe

Min. of Defense: SEBHAT Ephrem

Min. of Education: SEMERE Russom

Min. of Energy & Mines: TESFAI Gebreselassie

Min. of Finance: BERHANE Abrehe

Min. of Fisheries: AHMED Haj Ali

Min. of Foreign Affairs: OSMAN Saleh Mohammed

Min. of Health: SALEH Meki

Min. of Information: ALI Abdu

Min. of Justice: FOZIA Hashim

Min. of Labor & Human Welfare: ASKALU Menkerios

Min. of Land, Water, & Environment: WOLDEMICHAEL Gebremariam

Min. of Maritime Resources: AHMED Haj Ali

Min. of National Development: WOLDAI Futur

Min. of Public Works: ABRAHA Asfaha

Min. of Tourism: AMNA Nurhusein

Min. of Trade & Industry: GERGIS Teklemichael, Dr.

Min. of Transport & Communications:WOLDENKIEL Abraha

Governor, Bank of Eritrea: BEYENE Tekie

Ambassador to the US: GHIRMAI Ghebremariam

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: ARAYA Desta

Eritrea maintains an embassy in the United States at 1708 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-319-1991).

ECONOMY

The Eritrean economy is largely based on agriculture, which employs 80% of the population but currently may contribute as little as 12% to GDP. Agricultural exports include cotton, fruits and vegetables, hides, and meat, but farmers are largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and growth in this and other sectors is hampered by lack of a dependable water supply. Worker remittances and other private transfers from abroad currently contribute about 32% of GDP.

While in the past the Government of Eritrea stated that it was committed to a market economy and privatization, the government and the ruling PFDJ party maintain complete control of the economy. The government has imposed an arbitrary and complex set of regulatory requirements that discourage investment from both foreign and domestic sources, and it often reclaims successful private enterprises and property.

After independence, Eritrea had established a growing and healthy economy. But the 1998–2000 war with Ethiopia had a major negative impact on the economy and discouraged investment. Eritrea lost many valuable economic assets in particular during the last round of fighting in May-June 2000, when a significant portion of its territory in the agriculturally important west and south was occupied by Ethiopia. As a result of this last round of fighting, more than one million Eritreans were displaced, though by 2007 nearly all have been resettled. According to World Bank estimates, Eritreans also lost livestock worth some $225 million, and 55,000 homes worth $41 million were destroyed during the war. Damage to public buildings, including hospitals, is estimated at $24 million. Much of the transportation and communication infrastructure is outmoded and deteriorating, although a large volume of intercity road-building activity is currently underway. The government sought international assistance for various development projects and mobilized young Eritreans serving in the national service to repair crumbling roads and dams. However, in 2005, the government asked the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) to cease operations in Eritrea.

According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), post-border war recovery was impaired by four consecutive years of recurrent drought that have reduced the already low domestic food production capacity. The government reports that harvests have improved, but it provides no data to support these claims. Eritrea currently suffers from large structural fiscal deficits caused by high levels of spending on defense, which have resulted in the stock of debt rising to unsustainable levels. Exports have collapsed due to strict controls on foreign currencies and trade, as well as a closed border with Ethiopia, which was the major trading partner for Eritrea prior to the war. In 2006, Eritrea normalized relations with Sudan and is beginning to open the border to trade between the two countries. Large and persistent transfers from Eritreans living abroad offer significant support to the economy.

The port in Massawa has been rehabilitated and is being developed. In addition, the government has begun on a limited basis to export fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia. A newly constructed airport in Massawa capable of handling jets could facilitate the export of high-value perishable seafood.

DEFENSE

During the war for independence, the EPLF fighting force grew to almost 110,000 fighters, about 3% of the total population of Eritrea. In 1993, Eritrea embarked on a phased program to demobilize 50%–60% of the army, which had by then shrunk to about 95,000. During the first phase of demobilization in 1993, some 26,000 soldiers—most of who enlisted after 1990—were demobilized. The second phase of demobilization, which occurred the following year, demobilized more than 17,000 soldiers who had joined the EPLF before 1990 and in many cases had seen considerable combat experience. Many of these fighters had spent their entire adult lives in the EPLF and lacked the social, personal, and vocational skills to become competitive in the work place. As a result, they received higher compensation, more intensive training, and more psychological counseling than the first group. Special attention was given to women fighters, who made up some 30% of the EPLF's combat troops. By 1998, the army had shrunk to 47,000.

The moves to demobilize were abruptly reversed after the outbreak of war with Ethiopia over the contested border. During the 1998-2000 war, which is estimated to have resulted in well over 100,000 casualties on the two sides, Eritrea's armed forces expanded to close to 300,000 members, almost 10% of the population. This imposed a huge economic burden on the country. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that the economy shrank by more than 8% in 2000, although it rebounded somewhat in 2001. The war ended with a cessation of hostilities agreement in June 2000, followed by a peace agreement signed in December of the same year. A UN peacekeeping mission, the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE), was established and monitors a 25-kilometer-wide Temporary Security Zone separating the two sides. Per the terms of the cessation of hostilities agreement, two commissions were established: one to delimit and demarcate the border and the other to weigh compensation claims by both sides. The Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission announced its decision in April 2002. Demarcation was expected to begin in 2003, but despite attempts to progress, it has been delayed by a stalemate betwee Ethiopia and Eritrea. The government has been slow to demobilize its military after the most recent conflict, although it formulated an ambitious demobilization plan with the participation of the World Bank. A pilot demobilization program involving 5,000 soldiers began in November 2001 and was to be followed immediately thereafter by a first phase in which some 65,000 soldiers would be demobilized. This was delayed repeatedly. In 2003, the government began to demobilize some of those slated for the first phase; however, the government maintains a “national service”program, which includes most of the male population between 18-40 and the female population between 18-27. The program essentially serves as a reserve force and can be mobilized quickly. There are estimates that one in twenty Eritreans actively serve in the military.

Presently, the U.S. has no military-to-military cooperation with Eritrea.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Eritrea is a member of the Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the African Union (AU) but does participate actively in the AU. Eritrea maintains diplomatic relations with the United States, Italy, and several other European nations, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, and the Netherlands. Relations with these countries became strained as a result of the 2001 government crackdown against political dissidents and others, the closure of the independent press, and limits on civil liberties.

Eritrea's relations with its neighbors other than Djibouti also are somewhat strained. Although a territorial dispute with Yemen over the Haynish Islands was settled by international arbitration, tensions over traditional fishing rights with Yemen resurfaced in 2002. The relationship to date remains cordial. Relations with Sudan also were colored by occasional incidents involving the extremist group, Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ)— which the Eritrean Government believes is supported by the National Islamic Front government in Khartoum—and by continued Eritrean support for the Sudanese opposition coalition, the National Democratic Alliance; however, Eritrea normalized relations with Sudan in 2006.

U.S.-ERITREAN RELATIONS

The U.S. consulate in Asmara was first established in 1942. In 1953, the United States signed a mutual defense treaty with Ethiopia. The treaty granted the United States control and expansion of the important British military communications base at Kagnew near Asmara. In the 1960s, as many as 4,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed at Kagnew. In the 1970s, technological advances in the satellite and communications fields were making the communications station at Kagnew increasingly obsolete. In 1974, Kagnew Station drastically reduced its personnel complement. In early 1977, the United States informed the Ethiopian Government that it intended to close Kagnew Station permanently by September 30, 1977. In the meantime, U.S. relations with the Mengistu regime were worsening. In April 1977, Mengistu abrogated the 1953 mutual defense treaty and ordered a reduction of U.S. personnel in Ethiopia, including the closure of Kagnew Communications Center and the consulate in Asmara. In August 1992, the United States reopened its consulate in Asmara, staffed with one officer. On April 27, 1993, the United States recognized Eritrea as an independent state, and on June 11, diplomatic relations were established, with a charge d'affaires. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived later that year. In the past, the United States has provided substantial assistance to Eritrea, including food and development. In FY 2004, the United States provided over $65 million in humanitarian aid to Eritrea, including $58.1 million in food assistance and $3.47 million in refugee support. In 2005, the Government of Eritrea told USAID to cease operations. At the Eritrean Government's request, the United States no longer provides bilateral development assistance to Eritrea.

U.S. interests in Eritrea include consolidating the peace with Ethiopia, encouraging progress toward establishing a democratic political culture, supporting Eritrean efforts to become constructively involved in solving regional problems, assisting Eritrea in dealing with its humanitarian and development needs, and promoting economic reform.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

ASMARA (E) 179 Alaa Street. P.O.Box 211, Asmara, 291-1-120004, Fax 291-1-127584, INMARSAT Tel 00-871-683-142-188, Workweek: Mon-Thu 0800-1800; Fri 0800-1200, Website: http://asmara.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

October 15, 2007

Country Description: Eritrea is a poor but developing East African country, the capital of which is Asmara. Formerly a province of Ethiopia, Eritrea became an independent country on May 24, 1993, following a 30-year struggle that culminated in an overwhelming referendum vote for independence. Tourism facilities are very limited.

Entry Requirements: All travelers must have a passport and valid visa prior to arrival; visas are not available at the airport. All visitors to Eritrea who cannot be considered Eritrean citizens and who enter the country with a U.S. passport and a visa do not need an exit visa as long as they do not stay past their visa expiration date. Persons who stay beyond the time for which their visa is valid may be subject to fines or imprisonment, or be required to remain in Eritrea for more than a month while their case is reviewed in court. All long-term residents, regardless of their citizenship, must obtain an exit visa before departure. Upon entry and exit, visitors must declare foreign currency and may be asked to declare electronic equipment such as cameras, computers and video equipment. Visitors should save all receipts for foreign exchange and present these upon departure. Failure to report foreign currency or meet customs requirements could result in imprisonment and/or a fine. There is an airport departure tax. Information about the airport tax and entry/exit requirements is available from the Embassy of Eritrea, 1708 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20009; telephone (202) 319-1991; fax (202) 319-1304. Overseas, inquiries may be made at the nearest Eritrean embassy or consulate.

U.S. citizens who were born in Eritrea, or of Eritrean parents, or who in any other way appear to have Eritrean origins, are required to register with the Immigration and Nationality office in Asmara within seven business days of their entry into the country.

Safety and Security: Following the 1998–2000 armed conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia, a peace agreement was signed in December 2000. A United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force has been deployed along the Eritrean-Ethiopian border since January 2001, where it monitors portions of a 15-mile wide Temporary Security Zone. As part of the peace agreement, the two countries agreed to settle the border issue via international arbitration, but demarcation of the border has not yet begun due to political disagreements between the parties on the agreement's implementation. Both countries maintain large military presences along the border and currently all border crossings into Ethiopia from Eritrea remain closed. U.S. citizens are strongly advised to avoid travel near the Eritrean-Ethiopian border and to register their presence in Eritrea with the U.S. Embassy in Asmara.

Landmines and unexploded ordnance remain a serious problem throughout the country. There are reports of accidents and numerous incidents where vehicles and people occasionally detonate mines. Many detonations occurred on relatively well-traveled roads in and near the Gash Barka region of western Eritrea; subsequent investigations indicated that several mines had been laid recently. Vast areas of the country still have not been certified free of mines and unexploded ordnance left over from both the 30-year war for independence and the subsequent 1998–2000 conflict. Americans should avoid walking alone and hiking in riverbeds or areas that local government officials have not certified as safe.

Although Eritrea and Sudan have diplomatic relations, their closed common border makes overland travel between the two countries dangerous and highly ill advised. Another border area that is tense, unsafe, and holds the risk of banditry or Islamic extremist insurgent activity is near the Eritrean-Sudanese frontier north and west of the Keren-Barentu road. There have been several incidents that apparently involved insurgents or criminals in this area. There have been sporadic bombings of vehicles and government facilities in the Gash Barka region near Sudan, resulting in the UN restricting travel for its personnel in this region to pre-approved trips that strictly adhere to UN security precautions. If travel near the Eritrean-Sudanese border is essential, travelers should consult both the Eritrean authorities and the U.S. Embassy in advance. Travelers who wish to visit areas outside of Asmara, Mendefera, Decamhare, Massawa, and Keren, using the roads that connect these cities, must apply at least ten days in advance for a travel permit from the Eritrean government.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers out-side the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Street crime, such as theft, robbery, and assault, are rare in Asmara and other cities, although the incidence of these occurrences is increasing. Travelers should exercise vigilance in their personal security and safety precautions regarding what valuables they carry and which areas they visit.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities And Other Health Information: Medical facilities in Eritrea are extremely limited. Travelers must carry their own supplies of prescription drugs and preventative medicines because pharmaceuticals are in short supply. Food and water-borne illnesses are very common among travelers, so drink only bottled or purified water and eat foods that are cooked or peeled. Malaria is a serious risk to travelers in Eritrea.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Eritrea is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The roads between major cities (Asmara, Massawa, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Barentu, and Keren) are paved and are in relatively good condition. However, secondary roads and those in remote areas are usually unpaved and in poor condition, so U.S. citizens should avoid traveling on them, especially at night. Bad weather can also make poor roads worse. If you must take unpaved roads, check first with local government and village officials as new minefields continue to be discovered.

Landmines and unexploded ordnance litter the countryside in many areas, occasionally causing injuries and deaths. Although de-mining efforts are underway, all areas that are not well traveled are potentially dangerous due to live mines, especially north and west of Keren. There are also minefields near Massawa, Ghinda, Agordat, Barentu, south of Tessenae, Nakfa, Adi Keih, Arezza, Dekemhare, and in a roughly 40-kilometer wide region just west of the Eritrean-Ethiopian border between the Setit and Mereb Rivers.

Many Eritreans use inexpensive public transportation, especially bus service, but travelers should avoid taking buses if possible because extreme over-crowding makes them unsafe. Taxis are plentiful and inexpensive in Asmara, but usually carry multiple passengers who tend not to wear seatbelts. If an empty taxi is available, a customer may request a “contract” for a slightly higher price so the driver will not pick up additional passengers. This option increases comfort and safety at a small extra cost. Drivers should be aware of heavy pedestrian and bicycle traffic that obstructs the flow of vehicles on city streets. Occasionally horse-drawn carts, cattle, or goats add to the obstacles. Other hazards are children and the elderly, who sometimes wander into the path of moving traffic, and small, slow, motorized carts. Elderly or disabled people usually drive these carts and do not always yield to faster moving traffic. When parallel parking on city streets, watch for pedestrians as you back into the space.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Eritrea, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Eritrea's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Eritrea has complicated citizenship laws and does not recognize renunciation of Eritrean citizenship. Dual nationals who enter the country on Eritrean documents are treated as Eritrean citizens, regardless of their other citizenship. U.S. citizens born in Eritrea, or who otherwise are considered to have acquired Eritrean citizenship, may be subject to certain obligations, including being drafted into national service, regardless of the documents they present at entry. (National service is approximately six months of military training, followed by a number of years in military or other government service.)

U.S.-Eritrean dual nationals who enter the country on an Eritrean passport or national ID card must obtain an exit visa prior to departure. Exit visa applications can significantly delay travel plans or be denied, even for persons who entered Eritrea legally. Eritrean dual nationals are also required to pay a 2% income tax on overseas earnings to the Eritrean Government prior to being granted an exit visa.

Additionally, Eritrean authorities maintain that Eritreans who left the country after 1993, and prior to obtaining U.S. citizenship, may not depart Eritrea once they re-enter, even if they have a U.S. passport and valid Eritrean visa. The U.S. Embassy in Asmara knows of several such cases where the individuals were imprisoned, although they were later released. The Government of the State of Eritrea neither informs the U.S. Embassy that American Citizens have been detained, nor does it allow consular assistance in most instances.

Visitors are advised to exercise caution when taking photographs in Eritrea. Foreigners in Asmara have been harassed and detained by local police and plain clothes security officials for taking photographs of street scenes in the city. No law has been cited, but the arresting officials' justifications have been that (unmarked) government buildings are in the background and/or that the pictures are being taken (illegally) for commercial reasons.

All foreign nationals in Eritrea are required to apply for permits to travel outside of Asmara. Checkpoints exist on all roads leaving Asmara. Travel permits must be presented at all checkpoints. Applications for travel permits are available at the Ministry of Tourism located on Harnet Avenue.

American Citizens should also be aware that these travel restrictions apply to U.S. diplomatic personnel. The Government of Eritrea requires resident diplomats to apply 10 days in advance for travel outside of the Asmara city limits. This requirement can delay or preventU.S. Embassy assistance to American citizens.

There is a high risk of earthquakes in Eritrea. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available on the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Eritrean laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Eritrea are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sex with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues web pages.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Eritrea are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Eritrea. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 179 Alaa Street, PO Box 211, Asmara; telephone (291-1) 12-00-04; fax (291-1) 124-255 and (291-1) 127-584; the Embassy's web site is located at http://eritrea.usembassy.gov.

Travel Warning

January 18, 2008

This Travel Warning updates information on Eritrea's current security situation and reiterates the Department of State's advice that U.S. citizens defer non-essential travel to Eritrea due to restrictions on travel outside the capital city of Asmara and heightened tensions along the Eritrea-Ethiopia border. This Travel Warning supersedes the Travel Warning issued on November 14, 2007.

The Government of the State of Eritrea (GSE) continues to restrict the travel of all foreign nationals, including resident diplomats. These restrictions require all visitors and residents to apply with the GSE 10 days in advance for permission to travel outside Asmara city limits. As a result, the U.S. Embassy cannot provide consular assistance in an emergency outside of Asmara. Travelers also should be aware that that the GSE does not inform the U.S. Embassy when American citizens have been arrested or detained.

American citizens considering travel within Eritrea should be aware of the presence of large numbers of Eritrean and Ethiopian troops along the unde-marcated Eritrean-Ethiopian border, and acute political tensions between the two countries. A firefight between Eritrean and Ethiopian forces took place near the Eritrean town of Tsorena on December 26, 2007. The same month, there was also a report of a United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) vehicle traveling near the same town being disabled by a landmine. U.S. citizens are strongly advised to avoid travel near the Eritrean-Ethiopian border.

Americans currently living or traveling in Eritrea are strongly encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Asmara in person or through the State Department's travel registration web site, https:// travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Eritrea.

By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of an emergency and provide updates on the security situations. The U.S. Embassy is located at 179 Alaa Street, P.O. Box 211, Asmara; telephone (291-1) 12-00-04; fax (291-1) 124-255 and (291-1) 127-584; web site http://asmara.usembassy.gov. For additional information, consult the Department of State's latest Country Specific Information sheet for Eritrea and the Worldwide Caution at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may also obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States and Canada, or 1-202-501-4444 from overseas.

International Adoption

July 2006

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: In order to adopt Eritrean children, prospective adoptive parents who are not Eritrean citizens must reside in Eritrea for at least six continuous months immediately prior to the adoption. In the U.S. Embassy's experience, most adoptions by U.S. citizens have been of younger relatives. However, there have been difficulties in verifying the children's ages and that they meet the U.S. immigration requirements for “orphan.” Eritrea requires post-adoption reports for adopted children at three months, six months and one year after the adoption and annually thereafter until the child reaches 18.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The adoption authority responsible for adoptions in Eritrea is the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare. They can be reached by phone at: (291) 1-151846. Contact Mr. Tekle Tesfay at that office for more information.

Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare
P. O. Box 5252
Asmara, Eritrea
Telephone: (291) 1-151846

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Prospective adoptive parents must be between the ages of 25 and 50 and be at least 21 years older than the child at the time of adoption. Prospective adoptive parents do not need to be married.

Residency Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents must have resided in Eritrea for at least six consecutive months prior to the date of the application unless they are Eritrean citizens.

Time Frame: The adoption process takes approximately six months, but can take longer. This time period is separate from the 6-month residency requirement.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no official adoption agencies in Eritrea; however, the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare facilitates and oversees both local and intercountry adoptions. There are no specialized adoption attorneys. If there is a request regarding an intercountry adoption, the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare will be asked to assist. with the processing and obtaining documentation regarding the adoption.

In the event prospective adoptive parents wish to consult an attorney, a list of attorneys can be obtained from the U.S. Embassy website at: http://usembassy.state.gov. Neither the U.S. Embassy nor the Department of State can vouch for the efficacy or professionalism of attorneys on this list.

All adoptions must be finalized through the office of the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare and/or by the High Court.

Adoption Fees: Please note that prospective adoptive parents are required under Eritrean law to retain an attorney for adoption proceedings. Adoption fees paid to the attorney vary depending.

Adoption Procedures: Most children in orphanages are abandoned children, i.e. they have no living parents or relatives to care for them. The Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare has custody of abandoned children and the authority to place these children with prospective adoptive parents.

However, some children residing in orphanages also have surviving parent(s) and/or distant relatives. Prospective adoptive parents need to work with birth parent(s) or the distant relative of the child regarding the release of the child for adoption.

Please be advised that directed adoptions involving two birth parents to U.S. citizen prospective adoptive parents may disqualify a child from receiving a U.S. immigrant visa.

All adoptions are reviewed by the High Court. Prospective adoptive parents must first work with local clerks of the municipal government of the area where the child resides to obtain a statement that transfers authority from the biological parents or relative (if available) or the Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare to the prospective adoptive parents. Prospective adoptive parents submit the request for transfer of authority and the application to adopt to the High Court.

The High Court issues a decision based on their statement and the court's satisfaction of the decision done in the best interests of the child. The adoption goes into effect as of the date the High Court's judge signs the petition.

Required Documents: Prospective adoptive parents must provide the following documents to Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare:

• A written statement from the prospective adoptive parents explaining why an Eritrean child is preferred;
• Original birth certificate(s) of the prospective adoptive parent(s);
• Original marriage license/certificate, if applicable. Note: If originals are not available, certified copies must be authenticated by the Department of State or U.S. Embassy Asmara;
• An original Eritrean police clearance for each of the prospective adoptive parent(s) including those residing in Eritrea;
• A medical certificate/clearance for each of the prospective adoptive parent(s);
• The original home study prepared by a qualified social worker, which specifies the following: personal and family status; character and personal qualities; educational background; duration and stability of marriage; financial and medical situations; present address and U.S. address; condition of home in country of residence; address and names of family of origin (i.e., parents) and the agency's recommendation regarding your suitability as an adoptive parent with an original translation into Tigrigna;
• Evidence of economic status, which must include proof of life insurance and health insurance, other proof of income or assets may also be submitted;
• Three letters of reference from friends, relatives, church or other sources qualified to assess prospective adoptive parents' character, the stability of marriage, and ability to parent;
• Two passport-size photographs of the prospective adopting parent(s);
• If the prospective adoptive parent(s) do not come to Eritrea together to oversee this entire process, then they must execute a power of attorney for their adoption agency, or if only one parent will travel to Eritrea, the other parent must execute a power of attorney for him/her. That power of attorney must be authenticated by the Eritrean Embassy in Washington, D.C. This applies to all prospective adopting parents coming from the U.S.Eritrean nationals living in the United States as well as non-Eritreans who plan to adopt. Documents that are notarized by a U.S. notary public in the United States must be authenticated by the Eritrean Embassy in Washington, D.C. in order to be recognized by the Eritrean government;
• Obligation of Adoption or Social Welfare Agency signed by the adoption agency handling the adoption, or for private adopters, from the organization that provided the home study, or by the parents' employer, in which the parent(s) agree to allow follow-up visits by a U.S. social worker, and to submit regular progress report to the Ministry of Labor and Human on the child's (or children's) adjustment to/development in the adoptive home;
• Verification by the adoption agency or home study organization on the child's qualification for naturalization under the laws of the parents' country of residence with an original translation into Tigrigna.

Embassy of the State of Eritrea
1708 New Hampshire Ave, NW
Washington, DC20009
Tel: (202) 588-7594
Fax: (202) 319-1304
E-mail: [email protected]

Consulate General of the State of Eritrea
Tribune Tower, 409 13th Street
Oakland, CA 94612
Tel: (510) 986-1991
Fax: (510) 986-1904 E-mail: [email protected]

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions.

Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

American Embassy Asmara
Ala Street, P.O. Box 211
Asmara, Eritrea

The Consular Section's telephone number is (291)1-120-004. The fax number is (291)-1-124255. The e-mail address is [email protected]. American citizens can walk in from 2:00 p.m.—4:00 p.m., Monday through Thursday.

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Eritrea may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Asmara. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Eritrea

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
State of Eritrea

PROFILE

GEOGRAPHY

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-ERITREAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 125,000 sq. km. (48,000 sq. mi.); about the size of Pennsylvania.

Cities: Capital—Asmara (est. pop. 435,000). Other cities—Keren (57,000); Assab (28,000); Massawa (25,000); Afabet (25,000); Tessenie (25,000); Mendefera (25,000); Dekemhare (20,000); Adekeieh (15,000); Barentu (15,000); Ghinda (15,000).

Terrain: Central highlands straddle escarpment associated with Rift Valley, dry coastal plains, and western lowlands.

Climate: Temperate in the highlands; hot in the lowlands.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Eritrean(s).

Population: (2005 est.) 4.5 million.

Annual growth rate: 2.5%.

Ethnic groups: Tigrinya 50%, Tigre 31.4%, Saho 5%, Afar 5%, Beja 2.5%, Bilen 2.1%, Kunama 2%, Nara 1.5%, and Rashaida.5%.

Religions: Christian 50%, mostly Orthodox, Muslim 48%, indigenous beliefs 2%.

Education: Years compulsory—none. Attendance—elementary 57%; secondary 21%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—75/1,000. Life expectancy—52 yrs.

Work force: Agriculture—80%. Industry and commerce—20%.

Government

Type: Transitional government.

Independence: Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993.

Constitution: Ratified May 24, 1997, but not yet implemented.

Government branches: Executive—president, cabinet. Legislative—Transitional National Assembly. Judicial—Supreme Court.

Political subdivisions: Six administrative regions.

Political parties: People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (name adopted by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front when it established itself as a political party).

Suffrage: Universal, age 18 and above.

Budget: (2000 est.) $442 million.

Defense: $107 million.

Economy

Real GDP: (2004 est.) $700 million.

Annual growth rate: (2004 est.) 1%.

Per capita income: $900 (on a purchasing power parity basis).

Avg. inflation rate: (2004 est.) 18.2%.

Mineral resources: Gold, copper, iron ore, potash, oil.

Agriculture: (12% of GDP in 2004) Products—millet, sorghum, teff, wheat, barley, flax, cotton, papayas, citrus fruits, bananas, beans and lentils, potatoes, vegetables, fish, dairy products, meat, and skins. Cultivated land—10% of arable land.

Industry: (25% of GDP in 2004) Types—processed food and dairy products, alcoholic beverages, leather goods, textiles, chemicals, cement and other construction materials, salt, paper, and matches.

Trade: Exports (2004)—$39 million: skins, meat, live sheep and cattle, gum arabic. Major markets—Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Yemen), Europe (Italy), Djibouti, and Sudan. Imports (2004)—$335 million: food, military materiel, and fuel, manufactured goods, machinery and transportation equipment. Major suppliers—U.A.E., Saudi Arabia, Italy, Germany, Belgium.

GEOGRAPHY

Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea, on the west and northwest by Sudan, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the southeast by Djibouti. The country has a high central plateau that varies from 1,800 to 3,000 meters (6,000-10,000 ft.) above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 300 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea’s landmass. Eritrea has no year-round rivers.

The climate is temperate in the mountains and hot in the lowlands. Asmara, the capital, is about 2,300 meters (7,500 ft.) above sea level. Maximum temperature is 26o C (80o F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, with the short or belg rains occurring February-April and the big or meher rains beginning in late June and ending in mid-September.

PEOPLE

Eritrea’s population comprises nine ethnic groups, most of which speak Semitic or Cushitic languages. The Tigrinya and Tigre make up four-fifths of the population and speak different, but related and somewhat mutually intelligible, Semitic languages. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional beliefs live in lowland regions. Tigrinya and Arabic are the most frequently used languages for commercial and official transactions, but English is widely spoken and is the language used for secondary and university education.

HISTORY

Prior to Italian colonization in 1885, what is now Eritrea had been ruled by the various local or international powers that successively dominated the Red Sea region. In 1896, the Italians used Eritrea as a springboard for their disastrous attempt to conquer Ethiopia. Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. In 1952, a UN resolution federating Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect.

The resolution ignored Eritrean pleas for independence but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. In 1962, Emperor Haile Sellassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence from Ethiopia that continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The new Ethiopian Government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta led by strongman Mengistu Haile Miriam.

During the 1960s, the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) led the Eritrean independence struggle. In 1970, some members of the group broke away to form the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF). By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, with Isaias Afwerki as its leader. The EPLF used material captured from the Ethiopian Army to fight against the government.

By 1977, the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement—all of which failed. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea’s western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea’s second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army’s morale plummeted, and the EPLF—along with other Ethiopian rebel forces—advanced on Ethiopian positions.

The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. The four major combatant groups, including the EPLF, attended these talks.

Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum could be held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.

A high-level U.S. delegation was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea’s relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.

Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet assistance for Mengistu limited the level of Eritrean interest in seeking Soviet support. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF (and later its successor, the PFDJ) expressed its commitment to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights.

On April 23-25, 1993, Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored free

and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on April 27, and Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Eritrea’s Government faced formidable challenges following independence. With no constitution, no judicial system, and an education system in shambles, the Eritrean Government was required to build institutions of government from scratch. On May 19, 1993, the PGE issued a proclamation regarding the reorganization of the government. The government was reorganized, and after a national, freely contested election, the Transitional National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF established itself as a political party, the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ). The PGE declared that during a 4-year transition period it would draft and ratify a constitution, draft a law on political parties, draft a press law, and carry out elections for a constitutional government.

In March 1994, the PGE created a constitutional commission charged with drafting a constitution flexible enough to meet the current needs of a population suffering from 30 years of civil war as well as those of the future, when prospective stability and prosperity would change the political landscape. Commission members traveled throughout the country and to Eritrean communities abroad holding meetings to explain constitutional options to the people and to solicit their input. A new constitution was ratified in 1997 but has not been implemented, and general elections have not been held. The government had announced that Transitional National Assembly elections would take place in December 2001, but those were postponed and new elections have not been rescheduled.

The present government structure includes legislative, executive, and judicial bodies. The legislature, the Transitional National Assembly, comprises 75 members of the PFDJ and 75 additional popularly elected members. The Transitional National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country. The president nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the Transitional National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country’s executive branch. It is composed of 17 ministers and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is accountable to the Transitional National Assembly. The ministries are agriculture; defense; education; energy and mines; finance; fisheries; foreign affairs; health; information; labor and human welfare; land, water, and environment; local governments; justice; public works; trade and industry; transportation an d communication; and tourism. Nominally, the judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the district, provincial, and national levels. However, in practice, the independence of the judiciary is limited. In 2001, the president of the High Court was detained after criticizing the government for judicial interference.

In September 2001, after several months in which a number of prominent PFDJ party members had gone public with a series of grievances against the government and in which they called for implementation of the constitution and the holding of elections, the government instituted a crackdown. Eleven prominent dissidents, members of what had come to be known as the Group of 15, were arrested and held without charge in an unknown location. At the same time, the government shut down the independent press and arrested its reporters and editors, holding them incommunicado and without charge. In subsequent weeks, the government arrested other individuals, including two Eritrean employees of the U.S. Embassy. All of these individuals remain held without charge and none are allowed visitors.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/7/2006

President: ISAIAS Afworki

Vice President:

Min. of Agriculture: AREFAINE Berhe

Min. of Defense: SEBHAT Ephrem

Min. of Education: OSMAN Saleh

Min. of Energy & Mines: TESFAI Gebreselassie

Min. of Finance: BERHANE Abrehe

Min. of Fisheries: AHMED Haj Ali

Min. of Foreign Affairs (Acting): MOHAMED Omer

Min. of Health: SALEH Meki

Min. of Information: ALI Abdu

Min. of Justice: FOZIA Hashim

Min. of Labor & Human Welfare: ASKALU Menkerios

Min. of Land, Water, & Environment: WOLDEMICHAEL Gebremariam

Min. of Maritime Resources: AHMED Haj Ali

Min. of National Development: WOLDAI Futur

Min. of Public Works: ABRAHA Asfaha

Min. of Tourism: AMNA Nurhusein

Min. of Trade & Industry: GERGIS Teklemichael, Dr.

Min. of Transport & Communications: WOLDENKIEL Abraha

Governor, Bank of Eritrea: BEYENE Tekie

Ambassador to the US: GHIRMAI Ghebremariam

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: ARAYA Desta

Eritrea maintains an embassy in the United States at 1708 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-319-1991) headed by Ambassador Girma Asmerom.

ECONOMY

The Eritrean economy is largely based on agriculture, which employs 80% of the population but currently may contribute as little as 12% to GDP. Agricultural export include cotton, fruit and vegetables, hides, and meat, but farmers are largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and growth in this and other sectors is hampered by lack of a dependable water supply. Worker remittances and other private transfers from abroad currently contribute about 32% of GDP.

The Government of Eritrea states that it is committed to a market economy and privatization, and it has made development and economic recovery its priorities. Nevertheless, the government and the ruling PFDJ party play pervasive roles in the economy. The government has imposed an arbitrary and complex set of regulatory requirements that discourage investment from both foreign and domestic sources. The economy was devastated by war and the misguided policies of the Derg, which disrupted agriculture and industry.

The more recent 1998-2000 war with Ethiopia also has had a major negative impact on the economy and further discouraged investment. Eritrea lost many valuable economic assets in particular during the last round of fighting in May-June 2000, when a significant portion of its territory in the agriculturally important west and south was occupied by Ethiopia. As a result of this last round of fighting, more than one million Eritreans were displaced. According to World Bank estimates, Eritreans also lost livestock worth some $225 million, and 55,000 homes worth $41 million were destroyed. Damage to public buildings, including hospitals, is estimated at $24 million.

Much of the transportation and communication infrastructure is outmoded and deteriorating, although a large volume of intercity road-building activity is currently underway. As a result, the government has sought international assistance for various development projects and has mobilized young Eritreans serving in the National Service to repair crumbling roads and dams.

According to the IMF, post-border war recovery has been impaired by four consecutive years of recurrent drought that have reduced the already low domestic food production capacity. There are now some encouraging signs that the drought may be ending. Eritrea currently suffers from large structural fiscal deficits caused by high levels of spending on defense and on emergency reconstruction and humanitarian programs, which have resulted in the stock of debt rising to unsustainable levels. Exports have collapsed, mainly owing to the border conflict with Ethiopia and border tensions with Sudan; however, large and persistent transfers from Eritreans living abroad have cushioned the impact.

In Massawa, the port has been rehabilitated and is being developed. In addition, the government has begun to export fish and sea cucumbers from the Red Sea to markets in Europe and Asia. A newly constructed airport in Massawa capable of handling jets could facilitate the export of high-value perishable seafood.

DEFENSE

During the war for independence, the EPLF fighting force grew to almost 110,000 fighters, about 3% of the total population of Eritrea. In 1993, Eritrea embarked on a phased program to demobilize 50%-60% of the army, which had by then shrunk to about 95,000. During the first phase of demobilization in 1993, some 26,000 soldiers—most of who enlisted after 1990—were demobilized. The second phase of demobilization, which occurred the following year, demobilized more than 17,000 soldiers who had joined the EPLF before 1990 and in many cases had seen considerable combat experience. Many of these fighters had spent their entire adult lives in the EPLF and lacked the social, personal, and vocational skills to become competitive in the work place. As a result, they received higher compensation, more intensive training, and more psychological counseling than the first group. Special attention has been given to women fighters, who made up some 30% of the EPLF’s combat troops. By 1998, the army had shrunk to 47,000.

The moves to demobilize were abruptly reversed after the outbreak of war with Ethiopia over the contested border. During the 1998-2000 war, which is estimated to have resulted in well over 100,000 casualties on the two sides, Eritrea’s armed forces expanded to close to 300,000 members, almost 10% of the population. This imposed a huge economic burden on the country. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that the economy shrank by more than 8% in 2000, although it rebounded somewhat in 2001. The war ended with a cessation of hostilities agreement in June 2000, followed by a peace agreement signed in December of the same year. A UN peacekeeping mission, the UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE), was established and monitors a 25-kilometer-wide Temporary Security Zone separating the two sides. Per the terms of the cessation of hostilities agreement, two commissions were established: one to delimit and demarcate the border and the other to weigh compensation claims by both sides. The Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission announced its decision in April 2002. Demarcation was expected to begin in 2003 but has been delayed by a stalemate between Ethiopia and Eritrea.

The government has been slow to demobilize its military after the most recent conflict, although it recently formulated an ambitious demobilization plan with the participation of the World Bank. A pilot demobilization program involving 5,000 soldiers began in November 2001 and was to be followed immediately thereafter by a first phase in which some 65,000 soldiers would be demobilized. This was delayed repeatedly. In 2003, the government began to demobilize some of those slated for the first phase. The World Bank has not yet approved the demobilization program, and funding for it from other donors is uncertain.

U.S. military cooperation with Eritrea, which was suspended following the outbreak of hostilities with Ethiopia and a UN embargo on military cooperation with either side, has resumed on a modest basis.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Eritrea is a member of the African Union (AU) and the Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). It has had close relations with the United States, Italy, and several other European nations, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, and the Netherlands, which have become important aid donors. Relations with these countries became strained as a result of the 2001 government crackdown against political dissidents and others, the closure of the independent press, and by the expulsion of the Italian Ambassador to Eritrea. Efforts have been made to repair relations with donor countries.

Eritrea’s relations with its neighbors other than Djibouti also are somewhat strained. Although a territorial dispute with Yemen over the Haynish Islands was settled by international arbitration, tensions over traditional fishing rights with Yemen resurfaced in 2002. Relations with Sudan also were colored by occasional incidents involving the extremist group, Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ)—which the Eritrean Government believes is supported by the National Islamic Front government in Khartoum—and by continued Eritrean support for the Sudanese opposition coalition, the National Democratic Alliance.

U.S.-ERITREAN RELATIONS

The U.S. consulate in Asmara was first established in 1942. In 1953, the United States signed a mutual defense treaty with Ethiopia. The treaty granted the United States control and expansion of the important British military communications base at Kagnew near Asmara. In the 1960s, as many as 4,000 U.S. military personnel were stationed at Kagnew. In the 1970s, technological advances in the satellite and communications fields were making the communications station at Kagnew increasingly obsolete. In 1974, Kagnew Station drastically reduced its personnel complement. In early 1977, the United States informed the Ethiopian Government that it intended to close Kagnew Station permanently by September 30, 1977. In the meantime, U.S. relations with the Mengistu regime were worsening. In April 1977, Mengistu abrogated the 1953 mutual defense treaty and ordered a reduction of U.S. personnel in Ethiopia, including the closure of Kagnew Communications Center and the consulate in Asmara. In August 1992, the United States reopened its consulate in Asmara, staffed with one officer. On April 27, 1993, the United States recognized Eritrea as an independent state, and on June 11, diplomatic relations were established, with a chargé d’affaires. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived later that year.

The United States has provided substantial assistance to Eritrea, including food and development. In FY 2004, the United States provided over $65 million in humanitarian aid to Eritrea, including $58.1 million in food assistance and $3.47 million in refugee support.

U.S. interests in Eritrea include consolidating the peace with Ethiopia, encouraging progress toward establishing a democratic political culture, supporting Eritrean efforts to become constructively involved in solving regional problems, assisting Eritrea in dealing with its humanitarian and development needs, and promoting economic reform.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ASMARA (E) Address: 179 Alaa Street. P.O. Box 211, Asmara; Phone: 291-1-120004; Fax: 291-1-127584; INMARSAT Tel: 00-871-683-142-188; Workweek: Mon-Thu 0800-1800; Fri 0800-1200; Website: http://asmara.usembassy.gov/.

Last Updated: 1/26/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : May 5, 2006

Country Description: Eritrea is a poor but developing East African country, the capital of which is Asmara. Formerly a province of Ethiopia, Eritrea became an independent country on May 24, 1993, following a 30-year struggle that culminated in an overwhelming referendum vote for independence. Tourism facilities are very limited.

Entry/Exit Requirements: All travelers must have a passport and valid visa prior to arrival; visas are not available at the airport. All visitors to Eritrea who cannot be considered Eritrean citizens and who enter the country with a U.S. passport and a visa do not need an exit visa as long as they do not stay past their visa expiration date. Persons who stay beyond the time for which their visa is valid may be subject to fines or imprisonment, or be required to remain in Eritrea for more than a month while their case is reviewed in court. All long-term residents, regardless of their citizenship, must obtain an exit visa before departure. There is an airport departure tax. Information about the airport tax and entry/exit requirements is available from the Embassy of Eritrea, 1708 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 319-1991; fax (202) 319-1304. Overseas, inquiries may be made at the nearest Eritrean embassy or consulate.

U.S. citizens who were born in Eritrea, or of Eritrean parents, or who in any other way appear to have Eritrean origins, are required to register with the Immigration and Nationality office in Asmara within seven business days of their entry into the country. See the “Special Circumstances” section below for more information about dual nationality.

Safety and Security: Following the 1998-2000 armed conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia, a peace agreement was signed in December 2000. A United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force has been deployed along the Eritrean-Ethiopian border since January 2001, where it monitors a 15-mile wide Temporary Security Zone. As part of their peace agreement, the two countries agreed to settle the border issue via international arbitration, but demarcation of the border has not yet begun and currently all border crossings into Ethiopia from Eritrea remain closed. U.S. citizens should inquire at the U.S. Embassy in Asmara and with Eritrean officials before traveling near the border.

Landmines and unexploded ordnance remain a serious problem throughout the country. There are reports of accidents and numerous incidents where vehicles and people occasionally detonate mines. Many detonations occurred on relatively well-traveled roads in and near the Gash Barka region of western Eritrea; subsequent investigations indicated that several mines had been laid recently. Vast areas of the country still have not been certified free of mines and unexploded ordnance left over from both the 30-year war for independence and the subsequent 1998-2000 conflict. Americans should avoid walking alone and hiking in riverbeds or areas that local government officials have not certified as safe.

Although Eritrea and Sudan have diplomatic relations, their closed common border makes overland travel between the two countries dangerous and highly ill advised. Another border area that is tense, unsafe, and holds the risk of banditry or Islamic extremist insurgent activity is near the Eritrean-Sudanese frontier north and west of the KerenBarentu road. There have been several incidents that apparently involved insurgents or criminals in this area.

There have been sporadic bombings of vehicles and government facilities in the Gash Barka region near Sudan, resulting in the UN restricting travel for its personnel in this region to pre-approved trips that strictly adhere to UN security precautions. If travel near the Eritrean-Sudanese border is essential, travelers should consult both the Eritrean authorities and the U.S. Embassy in advance. Travelers who wish to visit areas outside of Asmara, Mendefera, Decamhare, Massawa, and Keren, using the roads that connect these cities, must apply at least ten days in advance for a travel permit from the Eritrean government.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site at where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Street crime, such as theft, robbery, and assault, are rare in Asmara and other cities, although the incidence of these occurrences is increasing. Travelers should exercise vigilance in their personal security and safety precautions regarding what valuables they carry and which areas they visit.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Other Health Information: Medical facilities in Eritrea are extremely limited. Travelers must carry their own supplies of prescription drugs and preventative medicines because pharmaceuticals are in short supply. Food and water-borne illnesses are very common among travelers, so drink only bottled or purified water and eat foods that are cooked or peeled. Malaria is a serious risk to travelers in Eritrea.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Eritrea is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The roads between major cities (Asmara, Massawa, Mendefera, Dekemhare, Barentu, and Keren) are paved and are in relatively good condition. However, secondary roads and those in remote areas are usually unpaved and in poor condition, so U.S. citizens should avoid traveling on them, especially at night. Bad weather can also make poor roads worse. If you must take unpaved roads, check first with local government and village officials as new minefields continue to be discovered.

Landmines and unexploded ordnance litter the countryside in many areas, occasionally causing injuries and deaths. Although de-mining efforts are underway, all areas that are not well traveled are potentially dangerous due to live mines, especially north and west of Keren. There are also minefields near Massawa, Ghinda, Agordat, Barentu, south of Tessenae, Nakfa, Adi Keih, Arezza, Dekemhare, and in a roughly 40-kilometer wide region just west of the Eritrean-Ethiopian border between the Setit and Mereb Rivers.

Many Eritreans use inexpensive public transportation, especially bus service, but travelers should avoid taking buses if possible because extreme over-crowding makes them unsafe. Taxis are plentiful and inexpensive in Asmara, but usually carry multiple passengers who tend not to wear seatbelts. If an empty taxi is available, a customer may request a “contract” for a slightly higher price so the driver will not pick up additional passengers. This option increases comfort and safety at a small extra cost. Drivers should be aware of heavy pedestrian and bicycle traffic that obstructs the flow of vehicles on city streets. Occasionally horse-drawn carts, cattle, or goats add to the obstacles. Other hazards are children and the elderly, who sometimes wander into the path of moving traffic, and small, slow, motorized carts. Elderly or disabled people usually drive these carts and do not always yield to faster moving traffic. When parallel parking on city streets, watch for pedestrians as you back into the space.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Eritrea, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Eritrea’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Eritrea has complicated citizenship laws and does not recognize renunciation of Eritrean citizenship. Dual nationals who enter the country on Eritrean documents are treated as Eritrean citizens, regardless of their other citizenship. U.S. citizens born in Eritrea, or who otherwise are considered to have acquired Eritrean citizenship, may be subject to certain obligations, including national service, regardless of the documents they present at entry. (National service is approximately six months of military training, followed by a number of years in military or other government service.) U.S.-Eritrean dual nationals who enter the country on an Eritrean passport or national ID card must obtain an exit visa prior to departure. Exit visa applications can significantly delay travel plans or be denied, even for persons who entered Eritrea legally.

Additionally, Eritrean authorities maintain that Eritreans who left the country after 1993, and prior to obtaining U.S. citizenship, may not depart Eritrea once they re-enter, even if they have a U.S. passport and valid Eritrean visa. The U.S. Embassy in Asmara knows of several such cases where the individuals were imprisoned, although they were later released. Eritrea, largely a cash economy, introduced its new currency, the nafka, in November 1997. Only a few airlines and one hotel in Asmara accept credit cards. Foreigners generally must pay hotel bills in U.S. dollars, either cash or traveler’s checks. Upon arrival every visitor to Eritrea must declare how much foreign currency they are bringing into the country, and they must keep all receipts and/or transaction records for expended cash during their visit to show immigration officials upon departure.

There is a high risk of earthquakes in Eritrea. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available on the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Eritrean laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Eritrea are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sex with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Eritrea are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration web site, http://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Eritrea. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 179 Alaa Street, P.O. Box 211, Asmara; telephone (291-1) 12-00-04; fax (291-1) 124-255 and (291-1) 127-584; the Embassy’s website is located at http://asmara.usembassy.gov/.

International Adoption : July 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: In order to adopt Eritrean children, prospective adoptive parents who are not Eritrean citizens must reside in Eritrea for at least six continuous months immediately prior to the adoption. In the U.S. Embassy’s experience, most adoptions by U.S. citizens have been of younger relatives. However, there have been difficulties in verifying the children’s ages and that they meet the U.S. immigration requirements for “orphan.”

Eritrea requires post-adoption reports for adopted children at three months, six months and one year after the adoption and annually thereafter until the child reaches 18.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The adoption authority responsible for adoptions in Eritrea is the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare. They can be reached by phone at: (291) 1-151846. Contact Mr. Tekle Tesfay at that office for more information.

Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare
P. O. Box 5252
Asmara, Eritrea
Telephone: (291) 1-151846

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Prospective adoptive parents must be between the ages of 25 and 50 and be at least 21 years older than the child at the time of adoption. Prospective adoptive parents do not need to be married.

Residency Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents must have resided in Eritrea for at least six consecutive months prior to the date of the application unless they are Eritrean citizens.

Time Frame: The adoption process takes approximately six months, but can take longer. This time period is separate from the 6-month residency requirement.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no official adoption agencies in Eritrea; however, the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare facilitates and oversees both local and intercountry adoptions.

There are no specialized adoption attorneys. If there is a request regarding an intercountry adoption, the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare will be asked to assist. with the processing and obtaining documentation regarding the adoption. In the event prospective adoptive parents wish to consult an attorney, a list of attorneys can be obtained from the U.S. Embassy website at: http://usembassy.state.gov/eritrea/attorney.html. Neither the U.S. Embassy nor the Department of State can vouch for the efficacy or professionalism of attorneys on this list. All adoptions must be finalized through the office of the Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare and/or by the High Court.

Adoption Fees: Please note that prospective adoptive parents are required under Eritrean law to retain an attorney for adoption proceedings. Adoption fees paid to the attorney vary depending.

Adoption Procedures: Most children in orphanages are abandoned children, i.e. they have no living parents or relatives to care for them. The Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare has custody of abandoned children and the authority to place these children with prospective adoptive parents. However, some children residing in orphanages also have surviving parent(s) and/or distant relatives. Prospective adoptive parents need to work with birth parent(s) or the distant relative of the child regarding the release of the child for adoption. Please be advised that directed adoptions involving two birth parents to U.S. citizen prospective adoptive parents may disqualify a child from receiving a U.S. immigrant visa.

All adoptions are reviewed by the High Court. Prospective adoptive parents must first work with local clerks of the municipal government of the area where the child resides to obtain a statement that transfers authority from the biological parents or relative (if available) or the Ministry of Labor and Human Welfare to the prospective adoptive parents. Prospective adoptive parents submit the request for transfer of authority and the application to adopt to the High Court. The High Court issues a decision based on their statement and the court’s satisfaction of the decision done in the best interests of the child. The adoption goes into effect as of the date the High Court’s judge signs the petition.

Documentary Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents must provide the following documents to Ministry of Labor & Human Welfare:

• A written statement from the prospective adoptive parents explaining why an Eritrean child is preferred;
• Original birth certificate(s) of the prospective adoptive parent(s);
• Original marriage license/certificate, if applicable. Note—If originals are not available, certified copies must be authenticated by the Department of State or U.S. Embassy Asmara;
• An original Eritrean police clearance for each of the prospective adoptive parent(s) including those residing in Eritrea;
• A medical certificate/clearance for each of the prospective adoptive parent(s);
• The original home study prepared by a qualified social worker, which specifies the following: personal and family status; character and personal qualities; educational background; duration and stability of marriage; financial and medical situations; present address and U.S. address; condition of home in country of residence; address and names of family of origin (i.e., parents) and the agency’s recommendation regarding your suitability as an adoptive parent with an original translation into Tigrigna.) Note—The agency that conducts the home study and issues the recommendation must have approval in the parents’ state of residence to do so. If adoptive parents establish residency in Eritrea, they may submit an Eritrean home study instead;
• Evidence of economic status, which must include a letter from prospective adoptive parents’ employer showing salary, date of employment, position in the organization and a bank statement. Proof of life insurance and health insurance, other proof of income or assets may also be submitted;
• Three letters of reference from friends, relatives, church or other sources qualified to assess prospective adoptive parents’ character, the stability of marriage, and ability to parent;
• Two passport-size photographs of the prospective adopting parent(s);
• If the prospective adoptive parent(s) do not come to Eritrea together to oversee this entire process, then they must execute a power of attorney for their adoption agency, or if only one parent will travel to Eritrea, the other parent must execute a power of attorney for him/her. That power of attorney must be authenticated by the Eritrean Embassy in Washington, D.C. This applies to all prospective adopting parents coming from the U.S.—Eritrean nationals living in the United States as well as non-Eritreans who plan to adopt;
• “Obligation of Adoption or Social Welfare Agency” signed by the adoption agency handling the adoption, or for private adopters, from the organization that provided the home study, or by the parents’ employer, in which the parent(s) agree to allow follow-up visits by a U.S. social worker, and to submit regular progress report to the Ministry of Labor and Human on the child’s (or children’s) adjustment to/development in the adoptive home. These visits should be scheduled at three months, six months and one year after the adoption and annually thereafter until the child reaches 18. This form must be forwarded together with the psychosocial study/home study and an original translation into Tigrigna, by either the parents or the adoption agency;
• Verification by the adoption agency or home study organization on the child’s qualification for naturalization under the laws of the parents’ country of residence with an original translation into Tigrigna.

Embassy of the State of Eritrea:
1708 New Hampshire Ave, NW
Washington, DC20009
Tel: (202) 588-7594
Fax: (202) 319-1304
E-mail: [email protected]

Consulate General of the State of Eritrea:
Tribune Tower, 409 13th Street
Oakland, CA 94612
Tel: (510) 986-1991
Fax: (510) 986-1904
E-mail: [email protected]

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adopting Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel. state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy:
American Embassy Asmara
Ala Street, P. O. Box 211
Asmara, Eritrea

The Consular Section’s telephone number is (291)-1-120-004. The fax number is (291)-1-124255. The email address is [email protected]. American citizens can walk in from 2:00 p.m. – 4:00 p.m., Monday through Thursday.

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Eritrea may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Asmara. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Travel Warning : June 5, 2006

This Travel Warning is being issued to advise American citizens to defer non-essential travel to Eritrea due to increased restrictions on travel outside the capital city of Asmara. This Travel Warning also provides information on Eritrea’s current security situation and supersedes the Public Announcement issued on December 9, 2005.

On May 30, 2006, the Government of the State of Eritrea (GSE) informed U.S. Embassy Asmara of new travel restrictions for all foreign nationals, including resident diplomats in Eritrea. The new restrictions, effective June 1, 2006, require all visitors and residents to obtain travel permits from the GSE for any travel outside of the Asmara city limits. American citizens currently in Eritrea, but outside of Asmara, are advised to contact local Zoba authorities for further information.

The GSE has cited security and safety concerns as the reasons for requiring travel permits for all travel outside Asmara. Due to these revised travel restrictions, the U.S. Embassy cannot guarantee consular assistance in an emergency outside of Asmara, and the Department of State recommends U.S. citizens defer all non-essential travel at this time.

American citizens also should be aware that tensions remain high due to the border dispute with Ethiopia. Additionally, over the last year, some long-term expatriate residents were ordered to leave Eritrea on short notice and without explanation, while others are finding their activities subject to increased government scrutiny. Similarly, a number of international organizations have been asked to cease some or all of their operations in the country.

In October 2005, the GSE imposed significant restrictions on the UN Observer Mission (UNMEE) working in the temporary security zone on the Eritrean side of the disputed border, and ordered the departure of American, Canadian, European and Russian members of UNMEE staff. Other UN agencies in Eritrea ordered dependents to depart Eritrea in mid-November 2005.

Americans currently living or traveling in Eritrea are strongly encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Asmara in person or through the State Department’s travel registration web site, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Eritrea. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency and provide updates on the security situations. The U.S. Embassy is located at 179 Alaa Street, P.O. Box 211, Asmara; telephone (291-1) 12-00-04; fax (291-1) 124-255 and (291-1) 127-584; web site http://asmara.usembassy.gov/.

For additional information, consult the Department of State’s latest Consular Information Sheet for Eritrea and the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may also obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States and Canada, or 1-202-501-4444 from overseas.

ERITREA

Major City:
Asmara

Other City:
Keren

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 2000 for Eritrea. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

Eritrea is Africa's newest country, having achieved its de facto independence in 1991 following a 30-year war with neighboring Ethiopia. Its origins are ancient, as evidenced by its many prehistoric archaeological sites and the ruins of Adulis, a port city believed to have been founded by the Greeks in 600 B.C.

From the 1880s to 1991, Eritrea was successively under Italian, British, and Ethiopian rule. The country was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. Over the next 10 years Ethiopia gradually eroded the institutions that gave Eritrea a degree of autonomy, and finally, in 1962 abolished the federation altogether and made Eritrea an Ethiopian province.

These actions led to the three-decade war for independence, in which the Eritrean forces challenged one of Africa's largest armies. The war ended in 1991 when Eritrean forces captured Asmara and the socialist dictatorship of Haile Mariam Mengistu in Addis Ababa collapsed. In 1993, Eritreans overwhelmingly voted for independence in a UN-supervised referendum.

Under a transitional government headed by the former liberation movement, the EPLF, the Eritreans made an impressive start in rebuilding the economy, institutions and infrastructure in 1991. The EPLF formally ended its existence and became the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), Eritrea's only political party. The PFDJ drafted a constitution and issued proclamations pending parliamentary and presidential elections. Plans for a transition to a full democracy have been indefinitely delayed as a result of a border conflict that began in May 1998, which led to renewed fighting with Ethiopia. Tens of thousands of soldiers on both sides have been killed or wounded, and hundreds of thousands of Eritreans have been internally displaced. In addition, 75,000 Eritreans have been forcibly expelled from Ethiopia. Finally, through an OAU-led mediation effort that included the participation of the U.S. and the E.U., a cessation of hostilities agreement was signed in June 2000. This was followed by the signing of a peace agreement in December 2000.

The 30-year war both helped form and continues to define the Eritrean character. They are a proud, resourceful and determined people, filled with a spirit of self-help and independence. During the independence struggle, fighters (about one-third of them women) taught villagers and one another to read and write, and formed cultural troupes to teach villages about the diverse cultural, religious and ethnic traditions to be found within Eritrea. Indeed, one of Eritrea's greatest achievements has been the creation of a cohesive and tolerant society from such diversity. Eritrea can also boast a government virtually free of corruption, and safe cities where citizens are not afraid to walk the streeets at night. Despite their long ordeal, Eritreans have retained a sense of humor and are a remarkably friendly and welcoming people.

MAJOR CITY

Asmara

Clean, safe, unpolluted, a near-perfect climate, interesting architecture and friendly people-all describe Eritrea's capital of Asmara. It is located on a high rocky plateau two miles from a breathtaking escarpment.

The city has a small-town atmosphere where people walk anywhere day or night without fear of harassment. The downtown shopping district along the palm tree-lined main boulevard comes alive at night, when the inevitable cool evening breezes draw residents out for a stroll. There are many small cafes offering cappuccino, fruit juices, snacks, ice cream or beer. A series of traditional markets winds behind the main avenue offering foodstuffs, spices, handmade baskets, furniture, jewelry, religious artifacts and other items for sale.

Asmara escaped serious damage during the war but it suffered from very limited maintenance or expansion of needed infrastructure during the 30-year struggle. Thus, Asmara's charming architecture-essentially unique in Africa though badly deteriorated, survived intact. Asmara is a marvel of modern Italian architecture, reflecting Italy's long colonial and post-colonial presence in the country and in some areas, the city appears like a postcard from 50 years in the past. One particularly fine example is an art deco style gas station in the shape of an airplane.

Food

There is a plenitude of little corner stores in Asmara packed with everything from foodstuffs to batteries to bottled water, cigarettes and beer. In addition, there are large open-air covered markets for vegetables, grains and spices. There are also a number of very good bakeries in town, offering bread, baguettes, rolls and pita bread, as well as pastries, including chocolate donuts. Homemade ice cream is available in a few restaurants but is not as rich as American ice cream. Brown and whole-grain breads can be ordered and purchased at the Intercontinental Hotel though the bread is extremely expensive by Eritrean standards.

Local fresh produce is inexpensive and easily obtained from corner stores and the downtown markets. Some of the produce is seasonal, however, and there are occasional absences of some items. Almost always available are: onions, potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, hot peppers, lettuce, chard, garlic and parsley. More seasonal are green beans, eggplant, celery, artichokes, fennel, leeks, radishes, green peppers and cauliflower. Cucumbers are scarce, though the supply is improving. Corn, though seasonally available, is of poor quality. Herbs, other than parsley, are almost never seen on the market. Familiar spices are pretty much limited to chili powder or paste, dried coriander seeds, curry powder, and cumin. Dried ginger is readily available, but fresh ginger is rare.

Bananas, oranges and limes are available throughout the year, but other fresh fruits are seasonal, including tangerines, lemons, grapes, mangoes, papayas, water-melon, cantaloupe, peaches, apples, grapefruit, and various others native to the region, including a delicious cactus fruit high in oxalic acid. Fresh berries are almost never found on the market. Several times a year, one market imports grapes, pears, apples and kiwis. Locally made pasteurized milk, butter, yogurt and cheeses (parmesan, mozzarella) are of good quality and readily available but there can be seasonal shortages. Beef is inexpensive, lean and very good, as are pork, lamb and goat. A wide variety of fresh fish is brought up in refrigerated trucks from the coast several times a week and is available daily from a downtown market and directly from a facility run by the Ministry of Marine Resources. Locally grown chicken can always be found but is almost always tough. Imported frozen chicken is sold at several downtown stores.

Staples such as flour (white only), rice (several varieties including basmati), sugar (granulated only), salt/pepper, and vegetable and peanut oils are always on the shelves. So too are products reflecting Eritrea's long Italian colonial influence, including olive oil, balsamic vinegar, various prepared pastas, tomato sauce, ketchup, mayonnaise, canned tomatoes, peas, capers, anchovies, tuna, and sardines. Locally produced peanuts and cookies are good and inexpensive, and Italian-pack-aged cookies and candies are also available. Powdered milk and long-life milk are often found, but there can be shortages. A box of corn flakes, the only cereal presently sold here, is expensive.

Spending time browsing through the various small grocery stores can often be rewarded with surprises such as canned coconut milk, Thai green curry paste, or fresh chestnuts, but supplies of specialty items cannot be counted on.

Coffee beans, ground or whole, are plentiful, as is tea. A local factory produces Coke (classic only), Fanta and tonic water. The local brewery produces a good Western-style lager beer as well as an excellent bottled carbonated water. Plain bottled water is also available. Imported liquor and wine can be bought at a duty-free shop, and a number of stores sell good and relatively inexpensive South African wines. There are two home-brewed alcoholic beverages: meas, a wine made from honey, and suwa, a weak, slightly sour version of beer.

Paper products, cleaning and personal hygiene items are imported and of varying quality, not always available and usually very expensive.

Clothing

The climate alone is worth a tour in Asmara. The city's temperature typically ranges from 55°F at night to 75 °F during the day, (a little hotter in the summer and a little cooler at night), and is usually extremely dry. During the day, the weather can feel quite hot in the sun and relatively cool in the shade. In this climate, most people opt for layered clothing. At night, jackets and warm sweaters are often needed. During the July/August rainy season, rain tends to fall an hour or two a day, usually in the afternoons. Raincoats aren't really necessary, but umbrellas are useful.

Asmara is not considered a particularly formal city in terms of dress. Most invitations are marked "informal." Men usually wear suits or sports jackets at the office and for receptions and dinner, though more casual attire is also often seen.

Women wear dresses or pants for the office, but nicer dresses or pant-suits with heels and stockings are appropriate or more formal events.

For recreation, running errands or just walking around the town, jeans, T-shirts and jogging shoes are just fine. Swimsuits and shorts are needed for trips to the coast. Hats and plenty of sunscreen are recommended for protection against the powerful sun anywhere in the country.

Children need a good supply of clothes for both warm and cool weather, including pants, long-sleeved shirts, sweaters, sweatshirts, jackets, sturdy shoes, shorts, socks, warm pajamas, t-shirts, hats, etc.

Try to bring all the clothing necessary for a complete tour, recognizing that supplementary items can be ordered through catalogs. Clothing, fabric and tailors can be found in town, but all tend to be of poor quality. Some shops will custom-make sweaters, vests, shirts and suits, but quality is often a problem. Relatively inexpensive leather items, of varying quality, can be custom made, including shoes, purses, jackets, coats, pants, skirts and backpacks.

Supplies and Services

Most services in Asmara are quite basic, but include bicycle and car repair, quite good dry-cleaning and laundry, film developing, shoe repair and small mending jobs of all types. Hair salons and barbers are extremely basic, though the new Inter-Continental Hotel is planning to open a hair salon soon. In the meantime, "easy care" hairstyles are strongly recommended.

Domestic Help

Domestic help is available to assist with house cleaning, clothes washing and ironing, as well as a range of other duties that can include food shopping, errand running and cooking; these jobs are usually filled by Eritrean women. Most people also hire a full-or part-time gardener. Duties and working hours are negotiated individually with the employee. Salaries are not expensive, about $90 to $100 a month for full-time help.

Fine cuisine was not a priority during the 30-year war; cooks thus lack training and are unfamiliar with most spices-as a result, most cooks can produce only basic meals. Since most domestic help speak and read some English, it would be helpful to bring simple cookbooks containing recipes and pictures of meals that you like.

Religious Activities

Churches found in Eritrea are Orthodox Christian, Moslem, Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican and Greek Orthodox. There is a very beautiful small synagogue maintained by the last Jewish family in Asmara, but there is no rabbi. Some churches offer weekly services in English.

Education

There is a small Asmara International Community School (AICS) offering instruction in English for grades K-7 and a half-day pre-school.

There is also an Italian school for preschool through high school students. All instruction is in Italian though English courses are offered. Anyone interested in placing a child in the school should contact the school directly to determine what is necessary for placement, including documents and health records. The elementary school address is: Michelangelo Buonarotti, PO Box 5230, Asmara, Eritrea. Telephone: (291 1) 12-57-98. For the high school, write to Alessandro Volta and Guglielmo Marconi, PO Box 5554, Asmara, Eritrea. Telephone: 291 1 12 05 05.

Special Educational Opportunities

Other educational opportunities in Asmara are limited. It is the University of Asmara's policy not to admit foreigners at this time. The Alliance Française offers classes in French and Tigrinya. The Italian Embassy sponsors Italian classes, and private tutors in Tigrinya can be found.

Sports

Eritreans are quite enthusiastic cyclists and hold periodic bicycle races. The more adventurous challenge themselves on strenuous trips to nearby towns or the spectacular 120 km five-hour bike trip down the escarpment to the port of Massawa. Be sure to bring along extra tire tubes or repair kits.

Hiking in the countryside outside Asmara is a popular activity and a good way to get some exercise while seeing some very beautiful landscapes. One exceptional hike is a zig-zag dirt trail straight up a very tall mountain, on the top of which is a monastery (sorry, only men allowed). No matter where the hike, however, it is absolutely necessary to keep to well-established trails used by people and animals. Though Eritrea has made a start on demining, much of the countryside is still mined. Jogging is not a particularly popular sport with Eritreans, but male and female joggers can run anywhere in town without fear of harassment. Soccer is the most popular team sport. There are a few playgrounds with swings and slides.

Touring and Outdoor Activities

The coral reefs around the 350 or so islands off the port of Massawa offer superb snorkeling and scuba diving. Many of the sites are totally unexplored and others haven't been seen for 30 years or more. Since there is only one basic hotel on one of the islands, most of these snorkeling/diving trips involve camping out for several days. Fishing is also excellent, including tuna, kingfish, jack-fish, and grouper.

Travel by road is steadily improving, although there are still many unpaved roads. Exploring the countryside requires a four-wheel-drive vehicle, and in some areas it might be necessary to take along extra food, plenty of water, gasoline and spare parts. Given the many winding roads, anyone prone to motion seasickness should take preventive medication. As with hiking, it is necessary to use common sense, especially in more remote areas. Guides who speak Tigrinya are useful, especially in finding obscure or remote sites. Any traveler should, at a minimum consult with local inhabitants in advance on the conditions of the roads and about the potential existence of mines.

The port of Massawa, badly damaged by heavy fighting during the war, is rapidly being repaired. The old town's architecture reflects its Arab and Turkish influence. The city's hotels, both in town and on the coast north of town, are basic, but improvements are in the works. The beach, with very shallow water, can be a disappointment. Massawa's Salaam restaurant, in the old city, is extremely popular with Americans. Its specialties, in fact the only things on the menu, are fish and bread, which are cooked, Yemeni style, by throwing them into a hole in a very hot clay oven. The fish exterior is blackened but inside it is moist, succulent, and tasty. The bread, a cross between pita and pan, is equally good. All of this is eaten at rustic tables in the dirt street outside the restaurant. Assab, Eritrea's other port, is a 1-hour flight from Asmara or a difficult 2-day drive south of Massawa, although part of the road has been paved, almost to the ruins of the port of Adulis, believed to have been established by the Greeks in 600 BC. It later became the seaport of the ancient Axumite kingdom although today the sea is several kilometers distant. Though it is easy to see that this was once a major city, only a small portion of the site has been excavated.

Keren is a very beautiful 2-hour drive north of Asmara. It has long been a crossroads between the Christian highlands and the Moslem lowlands. There are pleasant outdoor cafes, and the local market is a good place to buy gold and silver jewelry at better prices than in Asmara.

North of Keren is the small town of Afabet, famous as the site of a battle that was one of the turning points of the war. Near here, an outnumbered Eritrean force in one battle captured 70 Ethiopian tanks and killed or captured thousands of Ethiopian soldiers. The road along here is still littered with burned-out tanks, trucks and jeeps.

Further north still is the town of Nakfa, dear to all Eritreans as the redoubt for the EPLF in the bleakest years of the war. In the mountains around Nakfa are a hospital, schools and other buildings constructed deep inside mountains and many miles of deep trenches. Completely destroyed during the war, the town is being rebuilt, including a new hotel. In recognition of the area's importance to the struggle, the Eritrean currency is named the Nakfa.

Among other places of interest are Fil Fil, a mountainous, green, and forested area 2 hours northeast of Asmara, which offers a nice contrast to the dry landscapes of most of Eritrea; and Adi Keyih, about 2 hours southeast of Asmara, the site of a 2000-year-old Axumite dam, and an Axumite city dating from the 6th to the 9th century A.D.

The border town of Axum is a political and religious site that dates as far back as the first century A.D. Among its attractions are tall obelisks, one, at 76 feet, still standing; a stone throne; a reservoir carved in rock; an underground tomb; and an ancient Orthodox Church. Many Orthodox Christians believe Axum to be the final resting place of the Ark of the Covenant.

Entertainment

There are only two cinemas in Asmara, for the most part showing films several years old or more. For movie entertainment, most families rely on their VCR, making use of the videotape stores in town, two of which carry surprisingly up-to-date English-language selections. Other cultural activities are offered by the Alliance Française, the Italian Club and the British Council. The Alliance Française and the British Council also have an excellent collection of films and television shows on videotape for borrowing.

The restaurant scene has recently shown vast improvement. Just a few years ago. other than a good Chinese restaurant, the China Star, the only options were places with limited menus of Eritrean cuisine, simple grilled meats and fishes, and substandard versions of Italian dishes such as pizza or spaghetti. The Chinese restaurant remains open, but has been supplemented by restaurants serving everything from European to Middle Eastern food. The Inter-Continental Hotel offers a pastry/sandwich shop and two restaurants, including an excellent Italian restaurant, as well as an Irish pub. The Irish Pub and a couple of restaurants also offer disco music and dancing, but the places usually don't start jumping until around midnight. People also frequently entertain with dinners and parties at home.

Social Activities

The Eritrean arts scene is slowly rebuilding after the war. There are occasional exhibits of work by Eritrean artists, but most painting, perhaps understandably, has war-related themes. There are also quite good artisans, making pottery, basketry, and gold and silver jewelry. Eritrean traditional music, akin to Arabic music, is most often heard at weddings and ceremonial occasions. There are more modern musicians popular with young Eritreans, but concerts are rare. This music, as well as Western music, is heard in Asmara's discos.

OTHER CITY

The town of KEREN is the regional capital of the Anseba Region and one of the major agricultural centers of Eritrea, particularly for fruits and vegetables. Banana plantations are nearby and many dairy herds supply the town's cheese factory. In the town market, you can purchase fresh milk, butter and cream. There are also a wood market and, once a week, a livestock market where sheep, goats, camels and donkeys are sold.

The majority of the 60,000 residents are Muslim, but the town also contains many examples of its Italian and Ethiopian heritage in the architecture of public buildings and churches. The name Keren means highland, which reflects the towns location on a plateau surrounded by mountains. Tigu, an Ethiopian fort, sits on a rise to the northeast of town. A British War Cemetery and the Italian Cemetery serve as a WWII memorial, since the town was the site of heavy fighting between the British and the Italians.

Near the town market is the shrine of St Maryam Dearit, an ancient baobab tree that locals believe has powers for fertility. Traditionally, women will brew coffee in the shade of the tree, and if a passing traveler accepts a cup, they will be blessed with children.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

About the size of Pennsylvania, Eritrea is a country of stark and dramatic landscapes from its 630-mile Red Sea coastline to its high craggy mountains to the desolate Danakil Depression. To the north and west is the Sudan, with Ethiopia and Djibouti to the south. The capital of Asmara, at 7,600 feet above sea level, is located on a high plateau in the center of the country. The descent from Asmara to the port of Massawa is one of the most spectacular drives in the world, taking nearly three hours over hairpin curves to cover the 65 miles to the coast. Off the coast are some 350 islands, most of them uninhabited and little explored. The coral reefs which surround many of the islands were left undisturbed by tourism and over-fishing during the long war, and are among the healthiest in the world. The country's lowest point is minus 75 meters, near Dalul in the Danakil Depression; its highest is Mount Soira at 3,018 meters. Only about 12% of the land is arable.

The climate in the central highlands, including Asmara, is near perfection, usually in the 70s or 80s during the day, cooling off to the 50s at night. There is little humidity and it seldom rains except during the July/August rainy season when daily afternoon showers are the norm. Asmara receives about 21 inches of rain each year. April, May and June are the warmest months on the plateau, with the cooler season stretching from November to March.

Temperatures in the lowlands can be scorchingly hot, typically ranging from 105°F to 120°F, sometimes more, in August. Along the coast, including in the port cities of Massawa and Assab, high humidity often accompanies the heat. Winter highs here are around 90, with evening temperatures in the '70s.

The country has been sadly deforested by the war, and by the need for heating and cooking fuel, and feed for livestock. Some attempts have been made to reforest but with varying success. Almost any kind of flower seems to do well in the highlands, but much of the lowlands is limited to various acacias, scrub and cactus plants. Wild-life includes an impressive array of birds, including raptors and water birds, some of which are migrants and some of which are unique only to Eritrea and little documented. Wild animals include baboons, monkeys, ostriches, hyenas, and gazelles. The hope was that the end of the liberation struggle would see traditional wildlife return to the region, but the renewed fighting is a deterrent. There is the occasional report of a leopard sighting, and elephants have been sighted recently in the west of the country.

Population

Eritrea's population is estimated at close to 3,500,000, the numbers swollen recently with some 75,000 people expelled from Ethiopia following the renewal of hostilities. In addition, the UNHCR has registered 150,000 Eritrean refugees in Sudan for voluntary repatriation following the restoration of diplomatic relations between the two countries in January 2000. However, more than one million Eritreans were displaced as a result of the war with Ethiopia and of drought. Approximately 400,000 people live in the capital; the next largest cities are: Keren (75,000), Massawa (24,000), and Assab (21,000).

The people are composed of nine major tribal and ethnic groups: Tigrinya (50%), Tigre and Kunama (40%), Afar (4%), Saho (3%), and the remaining 3% are made up of Begia, Bilen, Nara, and Rashaida. Each has its own language, mode of dress and cultural traditions. About half the country is Moslem, living primarily in the lowlands. The other half, mostly highlanders, is Christian, primarily Orthodox Christian and Roman Catholic, although there are small Protestant communities.

The government's official working languages are Tigrinya and Arabic, though most officials speak English, and a great deal of diplomatic and commercial business is conducted in English. English is also the language of instruction in public schools from the 6th grade onward, including at the University of Asmara. Ge'ez, an ancestor of Tigrinya, Amharic, and Tigre, survives as the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church. Western dress predominates in the capital, especially for men and young people. Women can often be seen in the traditional dress of white cotton with a colorful border. The traditional dress for men, also white, is seldom used in Asmara except for ceremonial occasions.

The cuisine will be familiar to anyone who has eaten at an Ethiopian or Eritrean restaurant. The staple is zigny, a highly spiced stew containing mutton, beef, goat, or sometimes chicken.

The stew is ladled into the center of a large flat fermented bread called injera. Diners then use their hands to break off pieces of the bread and scoop up bite-size pieces of the zigny. Italian dishes, particularly pastas and pizza, are also readily available. Many Orthodox Christians, as well as Moslems, do not eat pork. Orthodox Church members abstain from meat and animal products two days a week, as well as for long periods leading up to Christmas and Easter.

There are no family names in Eritrea. A child is given a "first" name, and then takes the name of his father as a "last" name. Women do not change their names after marriage, but they do change their title from Woizerit (Miss) to Woizero (Mrs.). Men are addressed as Ato (Mr.).

Although the Western calendar is used for business and official purposes, it co-exists with both the Moslem and traditional Orthodox calendars. The latter runs eight years behind the Western calendar and the year begins on September 11; it has twelve 30-day months, plus an extra "month" of 5 or 6 days. Days of the week are identical to Western usage.

Public Institutions

Eritrea began statehood in 1993 under a provisional government, which created the Constituent Assembly, charged with drafting a constitution and laws. After the successful referendum for independence in 1993, the Provisional Government gave way to the Government of the State of Eritrea. After ratification of the Constitution in 1997, the Constituent Assembly gave way to a National Assembly, with members either appointed or elected; it was established as one of three independent branches of government and its initial tasks were to create an election code to be followed by Parliamentary and Presidential elections. However, due to the conflict with Ethiopia, elections have been postponed indefinitely, as has full implementation of the Constitution.

The legislative branch of the transitional government, called the National Assembly, is the highest legislative authority in Ethiopia. The National Assembly has met only sporadically since being created but, when fully established, it will be responsible for national policies, enactment of laws and their implementation, as well as approving the budget. It chose Isaias Afwerki as its President with 95% of the vote. The Assembly is a unicameral body, its 150 members include:

• 75 representatives appointed from the People's Front for Democracy and Justice. The PFDJ is the political party that succeeded the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), which waged the successful struggle for independence;
• 60 elected members of the constituent assembly; and
• 15 people chosen from the Eritrean Diaspora.

The President serves as both chief of state and head of government under the transitional government. As such, he is head of both the National Assembly and the State Council, a collective executive authority akin to a Cabinet. The President is responsible for nominating people to head the various Ministries and Commissions and Agencies, which make up the Executive Branch, subject to the approval of the National Assembly. President Isaias is also Chairman of the PFDJ-the only political party recognized by the Government, though other interests groups do exist.

When the Constitution is fully implemented, the Judicial Branch will operate independently of both the legislative and executive branches of government; there is already in place a court system extending from the village through the district, provincial and national levels. The justice system consists of a Supreme Court, 10 provincial courts and 29 district courts.

Arts, Science, and Education

The Eritrean education system, having suffered a severe decline during the war, was given a top priority by the new Eritrean Government. School attendance is compulsory and free through grade seven. At the primary and secondary school levels, 331 new schools were constructed between 1991 and 1998, and another 356 were rehabilitated. The number of teachers increased by 33%. Despite this achievement, as of 1997, only 29% of elementary-age children, 8% of junior high school, and 10% of high school students were attending school. The overall literacy rate is only about 30% for men and 15% for women.

University-level education began in Eritrea with the 1958 establishment of the Santa Famiglia, a small private Catholic school administered and largely staffed by Italian Sisters. In 1967, the school was renamed as the University of Asmara, but it remained privately funded and never resembled a national university. In 1990, Ethiopia moved the university (students, staff and materials) to Ethiopia.

Thus, at liberation, Eritrea had no university in any real sense of the word. The University of Asmara now enrolls about 4,350 students and is crucial to the economic development of the country. As such, its priorities are training to produce secondary school teachers, government and economic development workers, and academics to eventually fill the university's faculty needs. Another goal is expansion of the university to include advanced degree programs.

Commerce and Industry

Considerable remittances from Eritreans living abroad mask the fact that Eritrea is one of the world's poorest countries. Its economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture with nearly 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. Per capita income is $240 a year (1999 estimate). The population growth rate is over three per cent.

At independence, Eritrea faced the problems of being a small, desperately poor African country with few natural resources; a workforce trained for little other than warfare and traditional agriculture; outmoded light industries; poor infrastructure, with roads, communications and whole towns destroyed by the war.

Eritrea began to tackle these problems with all the determination it had exhibited in winning its independence. Though the 1998 resumption of hostilities with Ethiopia forced Eritrea to put many of its plans on hold-and will create new ones-it had made an impressive start toward rebuilding. Roads, despite the heavy beating they took during the struggle, are now in better shape than in most other African countries and the railroad between Asmara and the Massawa port has been partially rebuilt. A major electric power generating project is underway but the site was bombed in May 2000, which will lead to a lengthy setback. Domestic and international telephone services have improved markedly, although the country still does not have cellular services. Internet service became available in November 2000. Eritrea's first international-class hotel, the Asmara Palace, opened in 1999 and is managed by the Inter-Continental chain.

To attract investors, a top priority, the government created one of the most liberal investment climates in Africa. The investment code provides a number of incentives for investors, including no taxes on exports and items brought in for re-export; a reduced tax rate over several years; and free movement of any amount of capital in and out of the country for both Eritrean and foreign investors.

Apart from infrastructure improvements, the government has privatized more than two-thirds of the 42 state-owned enterprises nationalized by the former Ethiopian Government, including a brewery and milk, soap, textile, furniture, cigarette, leather, oil, metal, machinery and candy factories. It has plans to modernize the textile, glass and leather industries, and is also in the process of developing a fisheries industry. Other potential opportunities for American businesses can be found in energy (oil, natural gas, and thermal), agriculture, food processing, construction, mining (including gold), telecommunications, tourism and general consumer goods. The American petroleum company, Anadarko, found offshore oil in 1999 but not in commercially recoverable quantities. At present, no energy companies are exploring for petroleum or gas.

Transportation

One of the delights of Asmara is that nothing is more than a 5-or 10-minute drive, or a 15-to 30-minute bike ride, from anything else. The city is small enough for most people to traverse the central area on foot in not much more than an hour.

Asmara traffic is light even in rush hour, but newcomers should be warned that Eritreans are inattentive drivers and pedestrians, paying little attention to traffic around them, and frequently walk or enter into traffic without a glance at what might be coming. Fortunately, the normal speed for Eritrean drivers in Asmara is only 15 to 20 mph, so serious accidents in the capital are rare. The road to Massawa is another matter. It is necessary to pay close attention on the winding, steep descent because Eritrean truckers and other drivers often drive either in the middle of the road or, when swinging around curves, take the oncoming lane. One mistake risks a drop of a thousand feet or more in the upper parts of the road, and there are few guard-rails.

For trips out of town, travelers can rent cars, with or without drivers, at about the same prices as in the U.S.

Cars are scarce at present and very expensive. Also, no vehicle more than 10 years old may be imported into Eritrea. A standard economy car is adequate for Asmara and main paved roads. Any real exploration of the countryside, however, requires a four-wheel-drive with good clearance. Air-conditioning is not needed in Asmara, but is important for lowland travel. European and Japanese cars prevail; repair services exist, but the right spare parts cannot always be found. Diesel fuel and regular gasoline are available, but there is no high-octane or unleaded gasoline in the country.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

The quality and service are generally good, but calls to and from Eritrea are among the most expensive in the world (currently about $3.00 a minute). Residential call-back service is also readily available. Fax machines are in some places in town. Several companies offer e-mail only services for personal home use and the monthly fee is expensive by U.S. standards. Web access is due in August 2000.

Mail

International mail takes 2 to 3 weeks. The local post office, unlike in many third world countries, is reliable, though any private packages must be cleared through customs.

Radio and TV

Eritrea has one television station that broadcasts a half-hour of English news nightly and an occasional film in English, but most programs are in Tigrinya and Arabic. Additional television programming is available by satellite, including CNN, two movie channels with fairly recent offerings, two BBC channels, one with news the other with sitcoms and specials, cartoon channels, MTV style programming, the Discovery, Hallmark and Travel channels, several sports channels and one channel offering nothing but cooking programs. This TV service also has programming in Chinese, Italian, Portuguese and Greek as well as international radio stations (VOA, BBC 1 and 2, RFI and very wide range of non-commercial music stations). Subscription to the satellite service is expensive by American standards, and it is necessary to purchase a satellite dish locally.

Both local and satellite TV operate on the European PAL system; videotapes available locally are made for the same system. To enjoy programming and videotapes available in Ethiopia, as well as American videotapes, it is absolutely necessary to have a multi-system TVNCR that can handle both PAL and the U.S. NTSC systems. In purchasing the equipment, make certain that it uses the same system as found in Eritrea.

There are two local radio stations, one AM and one FM. The VOA and the BBC broadcast in English to Eritrea but the quality of reception can vary greatly.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

There are ten Eritrean newspapers, including one, The Eritrean Profile, in English. Some Western magazines, including Time, Newsweek, and The Economist, are available locally. Very few books in English are available.

The Eritrean media consists of one government-owned television station, three official newspapers, one magazine, and two radio stations. There are seven independent newspapers. Freedom of the press is guaranteed under the Constitution, which has been ratified but not implemented. Though there is no official censorship, government reaction to some criticism by the media has at times been harsh, including the jailing of reporters and editors. As a result, the independent media exercise a form of self-censorship.

Health and Medicine

The first medical challenge for newcomers is acclimatization to Asmara's 7,400 feet elevation. Since the air is thinner at that height, some people may initially experience shortness of breath, fatigue, headaches and difficulty sleeping. The dry climate can cause dehydration, irritate the eyes of contact lens wearers, and exacerbate respiratory diseases and allergies. Given the altitude and Eritrea's proximity to the equator, it is necessary to take extra precautions against sun damage.

The most common illnesses found in Eritrea are upper respiratory and gastrointestinal, malaria and measles. Communicable diseases of concern include tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and meningitis.

Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever are not a problem in the highlands, but are found in the lowlands. Malaria suppressants are thus not necessary in Asmara and other highland areas, but are recommended for the lowlands. Insect repellents, while rarely needed in Asmara, are essential for the lowlands, particularly on the coast.

All water for consumption should be boiled and filtered. In a rare case of a long power interruption, keep in mind that the boiling temperature of water is lower at higher altitudes. Local mineral water is safe. All fruits and vegetables must be peeled, cooked or disinfected by soaking in a solution of bleach (available locally) and water.

Medical, dental, diagnostic, and hospital facilities in Eritrea do not meet Western standards. They are, in general, overcrowded, have a limited stock of medicines, and are poorly maintained; limited laboratory tests and x-ray services are available. A new clinic has opened that is better equipped than most, but patients requiring medical assistance other than basic services are evacuated to London or the U.S. There is one western-standard dental facility, but others are not recommended for routine use.

The supply of prescription and non-prescription medicines in local pharmacies is limited and unreliable. Bring all needed prescription and non-prescription medicines and supplies for both routine and chronic medical conditions. This includes items such as aspirins, bandages, adult and baby acetaminophen, vitamins, cough syrups, and any other medicines needed for routine home-treatable conditions. Other useful items recommended are: a thermometer, mosquito repellent, Dramamine against motion sickness on winding roads, tampons, sun block, hand and body creams, and contact lens supplies, as well as an extra pair of glasses and the prescriptions for both.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs and Duties

At present, no American carriers serve Asmara directly. Transfers to a foreign carrier for direct service to Asmara are available at London, Rome, Frankfurt, and Cairo at the time of this writing. It is not necessary to transit Addis Ababa.

A passport and visa, which must be obtained in advance, are required. There is an airport departure tax, and residents of Eritrea generally must obtain an exit visa from Eritrean Immigration in advance of their departure. Entry information (and information on the departure tax) may be obtained from the Embassy of Eritrea, 1708 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 319-1991; fax (202) 319-1304. Overseas, inquiries may be made at the nearest Eritrean embassy or consulate.

Persons arriving in Eritrea from a yellow-fever endemic area must have proof of a current yellow fever vaccine.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Asmara and to obtain updated information on travel and security in Eritrea. The U.S. Embassy address is: Franklin Roosevelt Street, P.O. Box 211 Asmara, telephone (291-1)12-00-04; fax (291-1)12-75-84.

Pets

There are no quarantine restrictions, but all pets must have an upto-date health certificate, including evidence of a rabies shot for warm-blooded pets, especially dogs and cats. Tick fever and intestinal parasites have been reported as problems for pets here. There are many diseases among the local chickens, a fact that could pose a problem for pet birds. Only the most basic veterinarian services (for dogs and cats, not birds) are available in Asmara, so before coming to the country, have your pet examined and given all of its needed shots and vaccinations. Bring all pet supplies, including food and medicine, with you. A rabies vaccine is available. Make sure before you leave for Eritrea that you have the necessary paperwork to bring pets, particularly parrots and other birds protected by the CITES treaty, back with you to the United States. For more information on the CITES treaty, contact the Fish and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior.

Firearms and Ammunition

The importation of personal firearms is forbidden by the Eritrean Government. The Eritrean Government also prohibits the possession of personal firearms in the country.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

The Eritrean currency is the nakfa, which is available in denominations of 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, and 1 bills. The current exchange rate is approximately US$1=nakfa 10. Credit cards are rarely accepted in Eritrea except by airlines, the new Intercontinental Hotel, and a few car-hire companies. Foreigners must pay for their airline tickets and hotel bills in U.S. currency (dollar bills, travelers checks, or credit cards). Major hotels, banks, and the airport will exchange dollars for local currency.

Local time is Greenwich Mean Time plus 3 hours. Eritrea is thus 7 hours ahead of Washington, D.C. during U.S. daylight savings months, and 8 hours ahead for the rest of the year. Eritrea does not adopt daylight savings. The metric system of weights and measures is used.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 7 …Christmas (Orthodox)

Jan. 19 …Timket (Epiphany/Orthodox))

Mar. 8…Women's Day

Apr./May …Good Friday^*

Apr/May. … Easter^*

May 24…Liberation Day

June 20 …Martyrs' Day

Sep. 1 …Start of the Armed Struggle

…Id al Adha^*

…Mawlid an Nabi^*

…Ramadan^*

…Id al-Fitr^*

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country.

Connell, Dan. Against All Odds: AChronicle of the Eritrean Revolution. The Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1993.

Cliffe, Lionel and Davidson, Basil, eds. The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace. Spokesman: Nottingham, England, 1988.

Davidson, Basil, et al., ed. Behind the War in Eritrea. Spokesman: Nottingham, 1980.

Duffield, Mark and John Pendergast. Without Troops and Tanks: Humanitarian Intervention in Ethiopia and Eritrea. Red Sea Press: Lawrenceville, N.J., 1994.

Eritrean People's Liberation Front. Eritrea: Dawn After a Long Night. Department of Information: Asmara, Eritrea, 1989.

Firebrace, James, with Holland, Stuart. Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development, and Liberation in Eritrea. Spokesman: Nottingham, England, 1984.

Gamst, Frederick C. "Conflict in theHorn of Africa." In Peace and War. Cross-Cultural Perspectives. Mary L. Foster and Robert A. Rubenstein, ed. Transaction Books: New Brunswick, N.J., 1986.

Gayim, Eyassu. The Eritrean Question: The Conflict Between the Right of Self-Determination and the Interests of States. Lustus Forlag: Uppsala, 1993.

Gebre-Medhin, Jordan. Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1989.

Habte Selassie, B. Riding the Whirlwind: An Ethiopian Story of Love and Revolution. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1993.

Henze, Paul B. The Horn of Africa:From War to Peace. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1991.

Haggai Erlich. Ras Alula and theScramble for Africa: A Political Biography, and Ethiopia and Eritrea, 1875-1897. Red Sea Press: Trenton. N.J., 1996.

Keneally, Thomas. To Asmara: ANovel of Africa. Warner Books: New York. N.Y., 1989.

Kutschera, Chris. Erythree/Eritrea. J.J. Productions: Barcelona, 1994.

Mesghenna, Yemane. Italian Colonialism: A Case Study of Eritrea, 1869-1834. International Graphics: Maryland, 1989.

Paice, Edward. Guide to Eritrea. The Globe. Pequot Press: Old Saybrook, Connecticut, 1994.

Papstein, R. Eritrea: Revolution at Dusk. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1991

Papstein, Robert. Eritrea: Tourist Guide. Red Sea Press: Lawrenceville, N.J. 1995.

Pateman, Roy. Even the Stones are Burning. Red Sea Press: Trenton. N.J., 1990.

Tekle, A. Eritrea and Ethiopia:From Conflict to Cooperation. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1992.

Tesfagiorgis, Abeba. A Painful Season and a Stubborn Hope: The Journey of an Eritrean Mother. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1992.

Tesfagiorgia, G. Emergent Eritrea:Challenges of Economic Development. The Red Sea Press: Trenton. N.J., 1993.

U.S. Department of the Army. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Ethiopia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, D.C., 1993.

Wilson, A. The Challenge Road:Women and the Eritrean Revolution. Red Sea Press: Trenton, N.J., 1991.