Air masses and fronts
Air masses and fronts
An air mass is a body of air with a relatively constant temperature and moisture content over a significant altitude. Air masses typically cover hundreds, thousands, or millions of square kilometers. A front is the boundary at which two air masses of different temperature and moisture content meet. The role of air masses and fronts in the development of weather systems was first appreciated by the Norwegian father and son team of Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes in the 1920s. Today, these two phenomena are still studied intensively as predictors of future weather patterns.
Source regions
Air masses form when a body of air comes to rest over an area large enough for it to take on the temperature and humidity of the land or water below it. Certain locations on Earth’s surface possess the topographical characteristics that favor development of air masses. The two most important of these characteristics are topographic regularity and atmospheric stability. Deserts, plains, and oceans typically cover large areas and contain relatively few topographical irregularities. In such regions, large masses of air can accumulate without being broken apart by mountains, land/water interfaces, and other features that would disturb the air mass. The absence of strong wind also favors the development of an air mass; hence, air masses cannot develop easily in regions where cyclonic or anticyclonic storms are common.
Classification
The system by which air masses are classified reflects the fact that certain locations possess the topographic and atmospheric conditions that favor air mass development. That system uses two letters to designate an air mass. One letter, written in upper case, indicates the approximate latitude (and, therefore, temperature) of the region: A for arctic, P for polar, E for equatorial, and T for tropical. The distinctions between arctic and polar on the one hand and equatorial and tropical on the other are relatively modest. The first two terms (arctic and polar) refer to cold air masses whereas the second two (equatorial and tropical) refer to warm air masses. A second letter, written in lower case, indicates whether the air mass forms over land or sea and, hence, the relative amount of moisture in the mass. The two designations are c for continental (land) air mass and m for maritime (water) air mass. The two letters are then combined to designate both the temperature and the humidity of an air mass.
One source region of arctic air masses is the northern-most portions of Alaska, Canada, and Greenland. Thus, air masses developing in this source region are designated as cA (continental arctic) air masses. Similarly, air masses developing over the Gulf of Mexico, a source region for maritime tropical air masses, are designated as mT (marine tropical) air masses.
Properties of air masses
The movement of air masses across Earth’s surface is an important component of the weather that develops in an area. For example, weather patterns in North America are largely dominated by the movement of about a half dozen air masses that travel across the continent on a regular basis. Two of those air masses are the cP and cA systems that originate in Alaska and central Canada, and sweep down over the northern United States during the winter months. These air masses bring low temperatures, strong winds, and heavy precipitation, such as the snowstorms commonly experienced in the Great Lakes states and New England. The name “Siberian Express” is sometimes used to describe some of the most severe storms originating from these cP and cA air masses. From the south, mT air masses based in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and western Atlantic Ocean move northward across the southern states, bringing hot, humid weather that is often accompanied by thunderstorms in the summer. Weather along the western coast of North America is strongly influenced by mP air masses that flow across the region from the north Pacific Ocean. These masses originate as cP air over Siberia, but are modified to mP masses as they move over the Pacific and increase their moisture. When an mP mass strikes the west coast of North America, it releases its moisture in the form of showers and, in northern regions, snow.
Fronts
The term “front” was suggested by the Bjerkneses because the collisions of two air masses reminded them of a battlefront during a military operation. Fronts develop when two air masses with different temperatures and, in most cases, different moisture contents come into contact with each other. The result depends on the relative temperature and moisture content of the two air masses and the relative movement of the two masses.
When a mass of cold air moving across Earth’s surface comes into contact with a warm air mass, the denser cold air mass may force its way under the lighter warm air mass. The boundary formed between these two air masses is a cold front. Cold fronts are generally accompanied by a decrease in atmospheric pressure and the development of large cumulonimbus clouds that bring rain and thunderstorms. Cold fronts are represented on weather maps as solid lines with solid triangles at regular distances along them. The direction in which the triangles point shows the direction in which the cold front is moving.
KEY TERMS
Anticyclonic— Referring to an area of high pressure around which winds blow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
Continental— Referring to very large land masses.
Cyclonic— Referring to an area of low pressure around which winds blow in a counter-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
Humidity— The amount of water vapor contained in the air.
Maritime— Referring to the oceans.
Topographical— Referring to the surface features of an area.
The opposite situation is one in which a warm air mass approaches and then slides up and over a cold air mass. The boundary formed in this case is a warm front. As the warm air mass comes into contact with the cold air mass, it is cooled and some of the moisture held within it condenses to form clouds. In most cases, the first clouds to appear are high cirrus clouds, followed sometime later by stratus and nimbostratus clouds. Warm fronts are shown on weather maps as solid lines to which are attached solid half circles. The direction in which the half circles point shows the direction in which the warm front is moving.
A more complicated situation occurs when a cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front to create an occluded front. A distinction can be made depending on whether the approaching cold air mass is colder or warmer than the second air mass beneath the warm front. The former is called a cold-type occluded front whereas the latter is a warm-type occluded front. The development of an occluded front is accompanied by the formation of clouds and, in most cases, by steady and moderate precipitation. An occluded front is shown on a weather map with a solid line that contains, alternatively, both triangles and half circles on the same side of the line.
In some instances, a collision occurs in which neither mass is strong enough to displace the other and no movement occurs. The boundary between the air masses in this case is known as a stationary air mass and is designated on a weather map by a solid line with triangles and half circles on opposite sides of the line. Stationary fronts generally accompanied by fair, clear weather, although some light precipitation may occur.
See also Atmosphere, composition and structure; Storm; Weather forecasting; Weather mapping.
Resources
BOOKS
Ahrens, Donald C. Meteorology Today. Pacific Grove, Calif.: Brooks Cole, 2006.
Palmer, Tim and Renate Hagedorn, ed. Predictability of Weather and Climate. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
David E. Newton
Air Masses and Fronts
Air masses and fronts
An air mass is an extensive body of air that has a relatively homogeneous temperature and moisture content over a significant altitude. Air masses typically cover areas of a few hundred, thousand, or million square kilometers. A front is the boundary at which two air masses of different temperature and moisture content meet. The role of air masses and fronts in the development of weather systems was first appreciated by the Norwegian father and son team of Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes in the 1920s. Today, these two phenomena are still studied intensively as predictors of future weather patterns.
Source regions
Air masses form when a body of air comes to rest over an area large enough for it to take on the temperature and humidity of the land or water below it. Certain locations on the Earth's surface possess the topographical characteristics that favor the development of air masses. The two most important of these characteristics are topographic regularity and atmospheric stability. Deserts, plains, and oceans typically cover very wide areas with relatively few topographical irregularities. In such regions, large masses of air can accumulate without being broken apart by mountains , land/water interfaces, and other features that would break up the air mass.
The absence of consistent wind movements also favors the development of an air mass. In regions where cyclonic or anticyclonic storms are common, air masses obviously cannot develop easily.
Classification
The system by which air masses are classified reflects the fact that certain locations on the planet possess the topographic and atmospheric conditions that favor air mass development. That system uses two letters to designate an air mass. One letter, written in upper case, indicates the approximate latitude (and, therefore, temperature) of the region: A for arctic; P for polar; E for equatorial; T for tropical. The distinctions between arctic and polar on the one hand and equatorial and tropical on the other are relatively modest. The first two terms (arctic and polar) refer to cold air masses, and the second two (equatorial and tropical) to warm air masses.
A second letter, written in lower case, indicates whether the air mass forms over land or sea and, hence, the relative amount of moisture in the mass. The two designations are c for continental (land) air mass and m for maritime (water) air mass.
The two letters are then combined to designate both temperature and humidity of an air mass. One source region of arctic air masses, for example, is the northernmost latitudes of Alaska, upper Canada, and Greenland. Thus, air masses developing in this source region are designated as cA (cold, land) air masses. Similarly, air masses developing over the Gulf of Mexico, a source region for maritime tropical air masses, are designated as mT (warm, water) air masses.
Properties of air masses
The movement of air masses across the Earth's surface is an important component of the weather that develops in an area. For example, weather patterns in North America are largely dominated by the movement of about a half dozen air masses that travel across the continent on a regular basis.
Two of these air masses are the cP and cA systems that originate in Alaska and central Canada and sweep down over the northern United States during the winter months. These air masses bring with them very cold temperatures, strong winds, and heavy precipitation , such as the snowstorms commonly experienced in the Great Lakes states and New England. The name "Siberian Express" is sometimes used to describe some of the most severe storms originating from these cP and cA air masses.
From the south, mT air masses based in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and western Atlantic Ocean move northward across the southern states, bringing hot, humid weather that is often accompanied by thunderstorms in the summer.
Weather along the western coast of North America is strongly influenced by mP air masses that flow across the region from the north Pacific Ocean. These masses actually originate as cP air over Siberia, but are modified to mP masses as they move over the broad expanse of the Pacific, where they can pick up moisture. When an mP mass strikes the west coast of North America, it releases its moisture in the form of showers and, in northern regions, snow.
Fronts
The term front was suggested by the Bjerkneses because the collisions of two air masses reminded them of a battlefront during a military operation. That collision often results in war-like weather phenomena between the two air masses.
Fronts develop when two air masses with different temperatures and, usually, different moisture content come into contact with each other. When that happens, the two bodies of air act almost as if they are made of two different materials, such as oil and water. Imagine what happens, for example, when oil is dribbled into a glass of water. The oil seems to push the water out of its way and, in return, the water pushes back on the oil. A similar shoving match takes place between warm and cold air masses along a front. The exact nature of that shoving match depends on the relative temperature and moisture content of the two air masses and the relative movement of the two masses.
Cold fronts
One possible situation is that in which a mass of cold air moving across the Earth's surface comes into contact with a warm air mass. When that happens, the cold air mass may force its way under the warm air mass like a snow shovel wedging its way under a pile of snow. The cold air moves under the warm air because the former is more dense. The boundary formed between these two air masses is a cold front.
Cold fronts are usually accompanied by a falling barometer and the development of large cumulonimbus clouds that bring rain showers and thunderstorms. During the warmer seasons, the clouds form as moisture-rich air inside the warm air mass, which is cooled and water condenses out as precipitation.
Cold fronts are represented on weather maps by means of solid lines that contain solid triangles at regular distances along them. The direction in which the triangles point shows the direction in which the cold front is moving.
Warm fronts
A situation opposite to the preceding is one in which a warm air mass approaches and then slides up and over a cold air mass. The boundary formed in this case is a warm front. As the warm air mass comes into contact with the cold air mass, it is cooled and some of the moisture held within it condenses to form clouds. In most cases, the first clouds to appear are high cirrus clouds, followed sometime later by stratus and nimbostratus clouds.
Warm fronts are designated on weather maps by means of solid lines to which are attached solid half circles. The direction in which the half circles point shows the direction in which the warm front is moving.
Occluded front
A more complex type of front is one in which a cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front. When that happens, the cold air mass behind the cold front eventually catches up and comes into contact with the cold air mass underneath the warm front. The boundary between these two cold air masses is an occluded front.
A distinction can be made depending on whether the approaching cold air mass is colder or warmer than the second air mass beneath the warm front. The former is called a cold-type occluded front, while the latter is a warm-type occluded front.
Once again, the development of an occluded front is accompanied by the formation of clouds and, in most cases, by steady and moderate precipitation. An occluded front is represented on a weather map by means of a solid line that contains, alternatively, both triangles and half circles on the same side of the line.
Stationary fronts
In some instances, the collision of two air masses results in a stand-off. Neither mass is strong enough to displace the other, and essentially no movement occurs. The boundary between the air masses in this case is known as a stationary air mass and is designated on a weather map by a solid line with triangles and half circles on opposite sides of the line. Stationary fronts are often accompanied by fair, clear weather, although some light precipitation may occur.
See also Atmosphere, composition and structure; Storm; Weather forecasting; Weather mapping.
Resources
books
Ahrens, C. Donald. Meteorology Today. 2nd ed. St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Company, 1985.
Eagleman, Joe R. Meteorology: The Atmosphere in Action. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1985.
Lutgens, Frederick K., and Edward J. Tarbuck. The Atmosphere: An Introduction to Meteorology. 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
Lutgens, Frederick K., Edward J. Tarbuck, and Dennis Tasa. The Atmosphere: An Intorduction to Meteorology. 8th ed. New York: Prentice-Hall, 2000.
Moran, Joseph M., and Michael D. Morgan. Essentials of Atmosphere and Weather. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994.
other
"Genesis of Fronts and Airmasses." Weatherwise (December 1985): 324-328.
David E. Newton
KEY TERMS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- Anticyclonic
—Referring to an area of high pressure around which winds blow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
- Continental
—Referring to very large land masses.
- Cyclonic
—Referring to an area of low pressure around which winds blow in a counter-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
- Humidity
—The amount of water vapor contained in the air.
- Maritime
—Referring to the oceans.
- Topographical
—Referring to the surface features of an area.
Air Masses and Fronts
Air masses and fronts
An air mass is an extensive body of air that has a relatively homogeneous temperature and moisture content over a significant altitude. Air masses typically cover areas of a few hundred, thousand, or million square kilometers. A front is the boundary at which two air masses of different temperature and moisture content meet. The role of air masses and fronts in the development of weather systems was first appreciated by the Norwegian father and son team of Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes in the 1920s. Today, these two phenomena are still studied intensively as predictors of future weather patterns.
Air masses form when a body of air comes to rest over an area large enough for it to take on the temperature and humidity of the land or water below it. Certain locations on the earth's surface possess the topographical characteristics that favor the development of air masses. The two most important of these characteristics are topographic regularity and atmospheric stability. Deserts, plains, and oceans typically cover very wide areas with relatively few topographical irregularities. In such regions, large masses of air can accumulate without being broken apart by mountains, land/water interfaces, and other features that would break up the air mass.
The absence of consistent wind movements also favors the development of an air mass. In regions where cyclonic or anticyclonic storms are common, air masses obviously cannot develop easily.
The system by which air masses are classified reflects the fact that certain locations on the planet possess the topographic and atmospheric conditions that favor air mass development. That system uses two letters to designate an air mass. One letter, written in upper case, indicates the approximate latitude (and, therefore, temperature) of the region: A for arctic; P for polar; E for equatorial; T for tropical. The distinctions between arctic and polar on the one hand, and equatorial and tropical on the other are relatively modest. The first two terms (arctic and polar) refer to cold air masses, and the second two (equatorial and tropical) to warm air masses.
A second letter, written in lower case, indicates whether the air mass forms over land or sea and, hence, the relative amount of moisture in the mass. The two designations are c for continental (land) air mass and m for maritime (water) air mass.
The two letters are then combined to designate both temperature and humidity of an air mass. One source region of arctic air masses, for example, is the northern-most latitudes of Alaska, upper Canada, and Greenland. Thus, air masses developing in this source region are designated as cA (cold, land) air masses. Similarly, air masses developing over the Gulf of Mexico , a source region for maritime tropical air masses, are designated as mT (warm, water) air masses.
The movement of air masses across the earth's surface is an important component of the weather that develops in an area. For example, weather patterns in North America are largely dominated by the movement of about a half dozen air masses that travel across the continent on a regular basis. Two of these air masses are the cP and cA systems that originate in Alaska and central Canada and sweep down over the northern United States during the winter months. These air masses bring with them cold temperatures, strong winds, and heavy precipitation , such as the snowstorms commonly experienced in the Great Lakes states and New England. The name "Siberian Express" is sometimes used to describe some of the most severe storms originating from these cP and cA air masses.
From the south, mT air masses based in the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and western Atlantic Ocean move northward across the southern states, bringing hot, humid weather that is often accompanied by thunderstorms in the summer.
Weather along the western coast of North America is strongly influenced by mP air masses that flow across the region from the north Pacific Ocean. These masses actually originate as cP air over Siberia, but are modified to mP masses as they move over the broad expanse of the Pacific, where they often pick up moisture. When an mP mass strikes the west coast of North America, it releases its moisture in the form of showers and, in northern regions, snow.
The term front was suggested by the Bjerkneses because the collisions of two air masses reminded them of a battlefront during a military operation. That collision often results in warlike weather phenomena between the two air masses.
Fronts develop when two air masses with different temperatures and, usually, different moisture content come into contact with each other. When that happens, the two bodies of air act almost as if they are made of two different materials, such as oil and water. Imagine what happens, for example, when oil is dribbled into a glass of water. The oil seems to push the water out of its way and, in return, the water pushes back on the oil. A similar shoving match takes place between warm and cold air masses along a front. The exact nature of that shoving match depends on the relative temperature and moisture content of the two air masses and the relative movement of the two masses.
One possible situation is that in which a mass of cold air moving across the earth's surface comes into contact with a warm air mass. When that happens, the cold air mass may force its way under the warm air mass like a snow shovel wedging its way under a pile of snow. The cold air moves under the warm air because the former is denser. The boundary formed between these two air masses is a cold front.
Cold fronts are usually accompanied by a falling barometer and the development of large cumulonimbus clouds that bring rain showers and thunderstorms. During the warmer seasons , the clouds form as moisture-rich air inside the warm air mass, which is cooled as it rises; water subsequently condenses out as precipitation. Cold fronts are represented on weather maps by means of solid lines that contain solid triangles at regular distances along them. The direction in which the triangles point shows the direction in which the cold front is moving.
A situation opposite to the preceding is one in which a warm air mass approaches and then slides up and over a cold air mass. The boundary formed in this case is a warm front. As the warm air mass meets the cold air mass, it is cooled and some of the moisture held within it condenses to form clouds. In most cases, the first clouds to appear are high cirrus clouds, followed sometime later by stratus and nimbostratus clouds.
Warm fronts are designated on weather maps by means of solid lines to which are attached solid half circles. The direction in which the half circles point shows the direction in which the warm front is moving.
A more complex type of front is one in which a cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front. When that happens, the cold air mass behind the cold front eventually catches up and comes into contact with the cold air mass underneath the warm front. The boundary between these two cold air masses is an occluded front. A distinction can be made depending on whether the approaching cold air mass is colder or warmer than the second air mass beneath the warm front. The former is called a cold-type occluded front, while the latter is a warm-type occluded front. Once again, the development of an occluded front is accompanied by the formation of clouds and, in most cases, by steady and moderate precipitation. An occluded front is represented on a weather map by means of a solid line that contains, alternatively, both triangles and half circles on the same side of the line.
In some instances, the collision of two air masses results in a stand-off. Neither mass is strong enough to displace the other, and essentially no movement occurs. The boundary between the air masses in this case is known as a stationary air mass and is designated on a weather map by a solid line with triangles and half circles on opposite sides of the line. Stationary fronts are often accompanied by fair, clear weather, although some light precipitation may occur.
See also Atmospheric circulation; Atmospheric composition and structure; Atmospheric pressure; Clouds and cloud types; Weather forecasting methods; Weather forecasting
Air Masses and Fronts
Air masses and fronts
An air mass is a large body of air that, at any one height, has a relatively steady temperature and moisture content throughout. Air masses typically cover areas ranging from hundreds of thousands to millions of square miles. A front is the boundary at which two air masses of different temperature and moisture content meet. The role of air masses and fronts in the development of weather systems was first recognized by the Norwegian father and son team of Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes in the 1920s. These two phenomena are still studied intensively as predictors of future weather patterns.
Source regions
Air masses form when a body of air comes to rest over an area that has an unvarying topography, or consistent surface features. Deserts, plains, and oceans typically cover very wide areas with relatively few topographical variations. In such areas, called source regions, large masses of air can accumulate without being broken apart by mountains, land/water intersections, or other surface features. A stable atmosphere, in which high winds are absent, is also necessary for the formation of an air mass.
Classification. Air masses are classified according to a two-letter system. The first letter, written in lower case, indicates whether the air mass
forms over land or sea and therefore suggests, the relative amount of moisture in the mass. The two designations are c for continental (land) air mass and m for maritime (water) air mass. A second letter, written in upper case, indicates the approximate latitude (and, therefore, temperature) of the region: A for arctic; P for polar; E for equatorial; T for tropical.
The two letters are then combined to designate both humidity and temperature of an air mass. An air mass that developed in a source region over a large body of tropical water would be labeled mT (water, warm). An air mass that developed in a source region over an arctic land-mass would be labeled cA (land, cold).
Fronts
Air masses create weather as they are moved by winds around the globe. Fronts develop at the boundary where two air masses with different temperatures—and, usually, different humidities—come into contact with each other. The term front was suggested by the Bjerkneses because the collision of two air masses reminded them of a battlefront during a military operation.
Words to Know
Continental: Referring to very large land masses.
Humidity: The amount of moisture in the air.
Maritime: Referring to the oceans.
Topographical: Referring to the surface features of an area.
Cold fronts. A cold front develops when a cold air mass moves into an area occupied by a warm air mass. Because cold air is heavier or more dense than warm air, the cold air mass moves under the warm air mass. Cold fronts are usually accompanied by a decrease in air pressure and the development of large cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds that bring rain showers and thunderstorms. Rainfall and winds are most severe along the boundary between the two air masses. Cold fronts are represented on weather maps by solid lines with solid triangles. The direction in which the triangles point shows the direction in which the cold front is moving.
Warm fronts. A warm front develops when a warm air mass approaches and then slides up and over a cold air mass. As the warm air mass comes into contact with the cold air mass, it is cooled and some of the moisture held within it condenses to form clouds. In most cases, the first clouds to appear are high cirrus clouds. Some time later, lower-level stratus and nimbostratus clouds form, usually bringing widespread rainfall. Warm fronts are designated on weather maps by solid lines with solid half circles. The direction in which the half circles point shows the direction in which the warm front is moving.
Occluded fronts. A more complex type of front is one in which a cold front overtakes a slower-moving warm front. When that happens, the cold air mass behind the cold front eventually catches up and comes into contact with the cold air mass underneath the warm front. The boundary between these two cold air masses is an occluded front. Clouds form along this boundary, usually resulting in steady and moderate rainfall. An occluded front is represented on a weather map by means of a solid line that contains alternating triangles and half circles on the same side of the line.
Stationary fronts. In some instances, the collision of two air masses results in a stand-off. Neither mass is strong enough to displace the other, and essentially no movement occurs. The boundary between the air masses in this case is known as a stationary front and is designated on a weather map by a solid line with triangles and half circles on opposite sides of the line. Stationary fronts are often accompanied by fair, clear weather, although some light precipitation may occur.
[See also Atmosphere, composition and structure; Storm; Weather forecasting ]