LEBANON

Republic of Lebanon

Al-Jumhuriyah al-Lubnaniyah

CAPITAL: Beirut (Bayrut)

FLAG: The national flag, introduced in 1943, consists of two horizontal red stripes separated by a white stripe which is twice as wide; at the center, in green, is a cedar tree.

ANTHEM: Kulluna lil watan lil'ula lil'alam (All of Us for the Country, Glory, Flag).

MONETARY UNIT: The Lebanese pound, or livre libanaise (ll), is a paper currency of 100 piasters. there are coins of 1, 2½, 5, 10, 25, and 50 piasters and 1 Lebanese pound, and notes of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, 1,000 and 10,000 Lebanese pounds. ll1 = $0.00066 (or $1 = ll1,507.5) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but traditional weights and measures are still used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Arab League Day, 22 March; Independence Day, 22 November; Evacuation Day, 31 December. Christian religious holidays include Feast of St. Maron, 9 February; Good Friday; Easter Monday; Ascension; Assumption, 15 August; All Saints' Day, 1 November; and Christmas, 25 December. Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', and Milad an-Nabi.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon has an area of 10,400 sq km (4,015 sq mi), extending 217 km (135 mi) ne–sw and 56 km (35 mi) se–nw. It is bordered on the n and e by Syria, on the s by Israel, and on the w by the Mediterranean Sea, with a total boundary length of 679 km (422 mi), of which 225 km (140 mi) is coastline. Comparatively, the area occupied by Lebanon is about three-fourths the size of the state of Connecticut.

The Lebanon of today is the Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban) created by France in September 1920, which includes the traditional area of Mount Lebanon—the hinterland of the coastal strip from Şaydā (Sidon) to Tarābulus (Tripoli)—some coastal cities and districts such as Beirut and Tarābulus (Tripoli), and the Bekaa (Biqā') Valley in the east. Since January 1988, more than two-thirds of the territory was under foreign military occupation. In May 2000, Israeli troops withdrew from a 1,000 sq km (400 sq mi) strip along the Israeli border. Syrian forces, which had held northern Lebanon and the Bekaa Valley since 1976 and West Beirut and the Beirut-Şaydā coastal strip since February 1987, withdrew in April 2005.

Lebanon's capital city, Beirut, is located on the Mediterranean coast.

TOPOGRAPHY

The name of the country comes from the name Djebel Libnan, which is the Arabic name for the Mount Lebanon range stretching from northeast to southwest through the center of the country. This area is rugged; there is a rise from sea level to a parallel mountain range of about 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) in less than 40 km (25 mi), and heavy downpour of winter rains has formed many deep clefts and valleys in the soft rock. the terrain has profoundly affected the country's history, in that virtually the whole landscape is a series of superb natural fortresses from which guerrilla activities can render the maintenance of control by a centralized government an intermittent and costly affair.

East of the Mount Lebanon Range is the Bekaa Valley, an extremely fertile flatland about 16 km (10 mi) wide and 129 km (80 mi) long from north to south. At the eastern flank of the Bekaa rise the Anti-Lebanon Range and the Hermon extension, in which stands Mount Hermon straddling the border with Syria. Lebanon contains few rivers, and its harbors are mostly shallow and small. Abundant springs, found to a height of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) on the western slopes of the Lebanon Mountains, provide water for cultivation up to this height.

CLIMATE

Lebanon's extraordinarily varied climate is due mainly to the wide range of elevation and the westerly winds that make the Mediterranean coast much wetter than the eastern hills, mountainsides, and valleys. Within a 16-km (10-mi) radius of many villages, apples, olives, and bananas are grown; within 45 minutes' drive in winter, spring, and fall, both skiing and swimming are possible. Rainfall is abundant by Middle Eastern standards, with about 89 cm (35 in) yearly along the coast, about 127 cm (50 in) on the western slopes of the mountains, and less than 38 cm (15 in) in the Bekaa. About 80% of the rain falls from November to March, mostly in December, January, and February. Summer is a dry season, but it is humid along the coast. The average annual temperature in Beirut is 21°c (70°f), with a range from 13°c (55°f) in winter to 28°c (82°f) in summer.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Lebanon is rich in flora, with over 3,000 species. Olive and fig trees and grapevines are abundant on lower ground, while cedar, maple, juniper, fir, cypress, valonia oak, and Aleppo pine trees occupy higher altitudes. Vegetation types range from subtropical and desert to alpine. Although hunting has killed off most wild mammals, jackals are still found in the wilder rural regions, and gazelles and rabbits are numerous in the south. Many varieties of rodents, including mice, squirrels, and gerbils, and many types of reptiles, including lizards and snakes (some of them poisonous), may be found. Thrushes, nightingales, and other songbirds are native to Lebanon; there are also partridges, pigeons, vultures, and eagles. As of 2002, there were at least 57 species of mammals and 116 species of birds.

ENVIRONMENT

Lebanon's forests and water supplies suffered significant damage in the 1975–76 war and subsequent fighting. Rapid urbanization has also left its mark on the environment. Coastal waters show the effects of untreated sewage disposal, particularly near Beirut, and of tanker oil discharges and oil spills. The water pollution problem in Lebanon is in part due to the lack of an internal system to consistently regulate water purification. The nation has about 5 cu km of renewable water resources.

Air pollution is a serious problem in Beirut because of vehicular exhaust and the burning of industrial wastes. In 2000, the total of carbon dioxide emissions was at 15.2 million metric tons. Control efforts have been nonexistent or ineffective because of political fragmentation and recurrent warfare since 1975.

The effects of war and the growth of the nation's cities have combined to threaten animal and plant life in Lebanon. In 1986, the National Preservation Park of Bte'nayel was created in the region of Byblos to preserve wooded areas and wildlife. In 2003, less than 1% of the total land area was protected, including four Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included five types of mammals, ten species of birds, one type of reptile, nine species of fish, and one species of invertebrate. The Mediterranean monk seal, African softshell turtle, and dogfish shark are on the endangered list. the Arabian gazelle and Anatolian leopard are extinct.

POPULATION

The population of Lebanon in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 3,779,000, which placed it at number 126 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 6% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 28% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 96 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 4,581,000. The population density was 363 per sq km (941 per sq mi), with most of the population living on the coastal plains where the major cities are located.

The UN estimated that 87% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.49%. The capital city, Beirut (Bayrut), had a population of 1,792,000 in that year, and Tarābulus (Tripoli), the largest city, had an estimated population of 2,093,000.

MIGRATION

The economic roots of emigration may be traced to the increase of crop specialization during the 19th century and to the subsequent setbacks of the silk market toward the end of the century. Political incentives also existed, and many Lebanese left their country for Egypt (then under British rule) or the Americas at the turn of the century. After the mid-1960s, skilled Lebanese were attracted by economic opportunities in the Persian Gulf countries. Large numbers fled abroad, many of them to France, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and the Gulf countries, during the civil war in 1975–76. In 1986, the Lebanese World Cultural Union estimated that some 13,300,000 persons of Lebanese extraction were living abroad, the largest numbers in Brazil, the United States, and Argentina. In 2003 remittances were $977 million.

Since the outbreak of war in 1975, internal migration has largely followed the pattern of hostilities, peaking in 1975/76 and again after the Israeli invasion of 1982. In 1993, the number of refugees in various parts of the country was estimated at over 600,000.

In 2004 there were 2,434 persons of concern to UNHCR in Lebanon, 1,753 refugees and 681 asylum seekers. By years' end, 17,302 Lebanese sought refuge in Germany. In that same year Lebanese sought asylum in Germany, Sweden, Belgium, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 2005, the net migration rate was an estimated zero per 1,000 population, down from 12.1 per thousand in 1990. The government views the migration levels as too high.

As of 2004 there were 300,000 internally displaced persons.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Ethnic mixtures dating back to various periods of immigration and invasion are represented, as are peoples of almost all Middle Eastern countries. A confusing factor is the religious basis of ethnic differentiation. Thus, while most Lebanese are Arabs, they are divided into Muslims and Christians, each in turn subdivided into a number of faiths or sects, most of them formed by historical development into separate ethnic groups. The Muslims are divided into Sunnis and Shias. The Druzes, whose religion derives from Islam, are a significant minority. The Christians are divided mainly among Maronites, Greek Orthodox, and Greek Catholics. All the major groups have their own political organizations, paramilitary units, and territorial strongholds. Other ethnic groups include Armenians (most of them Armenian Orthodox, with some Armenian Catholics) and small numbers of Jews, Syrians, Kurds, and others. The number of Palestinian refugees is estimated at 390,000. As of 2005, population estimates stood at 95% Arab, 4% Armenian, and 1% other.

LANGUAGES

Arabic is the official language and is spoken throughout the country. Much of the population is bilingual, with French as the main second language. There are also significant numbers of English, Armenian, and Turkish speakers. The distinctive Lebanese Arabic dialect contains various relics of pre-Arabic languages and also shows considerable European influence in vocabulary.

RELIGIONS

Religious communities in the Ottoman Empire were largely autonomous in matters of personal status law and were at times treated as corporations for tax and public security matters. Membership in a millet, as these religious communities were called in Ottoman law, gave the individual citizenship, and this position, although somewhat modified, has given Lebanese politics its confessional nature. Religion is closely connected with civic affairs, and the size and competing influence of the various religious groups are matters of overriding political importance. The imbalance of power between Christians and Muslims, aggravated by the presence of large numbers of Palestinians, was a major factor contributing to the bitter civil war in 1975–76.

As of 2004, it was estimated that about 70% of the population practice Islam; there were five legally recognized groups—Alawite or Nusayri, Druze, Isma'ilite, Shia, and Sunni. Muslims have come to outnumber Christians as the result of long-term demographic trends and population displacements during and after the civil war. The main branches of Islam are Shia and Sunni. Christians made up 23% of the population; there were eleven legally recognized groups—four Orthodox Christian, six Catholic, and one Protestant). The Maronites are the largest Christian group, with Greek Orthodox being the second-largest. There were also small numbers practicing Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, or Baha'ism.

Under an unwritten agreement made at the time of the National Covenant of 1943, the president of Lebanon must be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of parliament a Shia Muslim, with a ratio of six Christians to every five Muslims in the legislature. But this arrangement has subsequently ceased to reflect the strength of competing religious groups in the population and is widely criticized. Religious groups must be officially recognized by the government in order for the group or its members to participate in certain activities. For instance, members of unrecognized faiths cannot run for parliament. Proselytizing is generally discouraged. Public blasphemy is prohibited under the law. Certain Christian and Muslim holidays are officially observed.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2002, Lebanon had 7,300 km (4,536 mi) of roads, of which 6,198 km (3,855 mi) were paved. Construction of new roads has been frequently delayed by recurrent hostilities. Many roads were badly in need of repair; since 1982, fully one-third of the country's roads have been rehabilitated. Some new mileage was also added. In 2003 there were 406,920 registered passenger autos and 85,125 commercial vehicles.

In 2004, Lebanon had 401 km (249 mi) of standard and narrow gauge railroad lines, of which 319 km (198 mi) were standard gauge. However, due to the civil war in the 1980s, only short sections are operable due to damage.

Beirut, a major Mediterranean port, was closed during the 1975–76 war and intermittently thereafter, reopening by March 1991. When the Beirut port was closed, Şaydā (Sidon) became the principal port for Muslims and Jūniyah for Christians. Other ports include Tarābulus (Tripoli) and Tyre. The rehabilitation and modernization of Beirut port was underway as of 2005, and the rehabilitation and development of Tarābulus (Tripoli) port was completed in 2001. As of 2005, Lebanon had a merchant fleet of 44 ships of 1,000 GRT or more, with a capacity of 198,602 GRT.

There were an estimated eight airports in 2004, five of which had paved runways as of 2005. Beirut International, Lebanon's principal airport, remained generally open until bombing during the Israeli invasion forced its closure in June–October 1982. It had handled 1,660,000 passengers in 1980; by 1985, the number was down to 599,000. In 2003, about 935,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international flights. Lebanon's two airlines, Middle East Airlines (MEA) and Trans-Mediterranean Airways (TMA), suffered heavy losses during the 1975–76 war and the Israeli invasion.

HISTORY

The geographical features of Lebanon have had a major effect on its history. Its mountains enabled the minority communities to survive the despotisms that submerged the surrounding areas. The sea provided trade routes in ancient times for exports from Lebanese cedar and spruce forests, and for commerce in copper and iron during the time of the Ptolemies and the Romans. Both Lebanon and Syria were historically associated from early times as part of Phoenicia (c.1600–c.800 bc), and both were later swept up into the Roman Empire. In the 7th century ad, the Arabs conquered part of Lebanon. Maronite Christians had long been established there; Islam gradually spread by conversion and migration, although the country remained predominantly Christian. In the 11th century, the Druzes established themselves in the south of the Mount Lebanon area as well as in Syria. Parts of Lebanon fell temporarily to the Crusaders; invasions by Mongols and others followed, and trade declined until the reunification of the Middle East under the Ottoman Empire.

For the most part, Ottoman officials of the surrounding areas left the Mount Lebanon districts to their own emirs and sheikhs. Fakhr ad-Din (1586–1635) of the Ma'an family set out to create an autonomous Lebanon, opened the country to Western Europe through commercial and military pacts, and encouraged Christian missionary activity. In 1697, the Shihab family acquired dominance, and from 1788 to 1840, except for a few intervals, Mount Lebanon was ruled by Bashir II of the Shihab family, who extended his power and was partly successful in building a strong state. The Egyptian occupation of Syria (1832–40) opened the Levant to large-scale European penetration and tied Lebanese affairs to international politics. It also heightened the antipathy between Christians and Druzes, with the occupiers from time to time using armed groups of one against the other. The British invasion of 1840–41 served to deliver Lebanon from Egyptian rule and forced Bashir II into exile, but it also involved France and the United Kingdom in the problem of finding a modus vivendi for the religious factions. A partition of government did not work. Economic discontent was inflamed by religious antagonisms, and the Druzes, feeling their power dwindling, organized a major onslaught against the Christians in 1860. When the latter, fearing annihilation, requested European intervention, major powers sent fleets into Syrian waters and the French sent an army into Mount Lebanon. Under European pressure, the Ottoman government agreed to the establishment of an international commission to set up a new, pro-Christian government; an autonomous province of Mount Lebanon was created in 1864, with a Christian governor who, though the servant of the Ottoman state, relied upon European backing in disputes with his sovereign.

The entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I led to an Allied blockade, widespread hunger, and the destruction of Lebanese prosperity. An Anglo-French force took the country in 1918, and in 1920, an Allied conference gave France a mandate over Syria, in which Mount Lebanon was included. the French separated from Syria the area they called Greater Lebanon (Grand Liban), which was four times as large as the traditional Mount Lebanon and included a Muslim population almost as large as the Christian. The mandate years were a time of material growth and little political development.

Lebanon came under Vichy control in 1940, but in 1941, Lebanon and Syria were taken by a combined Anglo–Free French force. The Free French proclaimed Lebanese independence in November 1941, but when a strongly nationalistic government was created in 1943, the French intervened and arrested the new president, Bishara al-Khuri. An insurrection followed, prompting UK intervention and the restoration of the government. In 1945 agreement was achieved for the withdrawal of both UK and French forces, and in 1946 Lebanon assumed complete independence.

The 1950s and 1960s were generally characterized by economic and political stability. Beginning in 1952, Lebanon received increased US aid and also benefited from an influx of Western commercial personnel and from growing oil royalties. It also seemed the calmest center of the Middle East, taking little part in the ArabIsraeli war of 1948 and no action in the wars of 1967 and 1973. In 1958, however, a reported attempt by President Camille Chamoun (Sha'mun) to seek a second term precipitated a civil war, and in July the United States sent forces to help quell the insurrection; this move was in keeping with the Eisenhower Doctrine, which pledged US military and economic aid to any country requesting it in order to counter a Communist threat. The crisis was settled when Gen. Fu'ad Shihab (Chehab), who was supported by both government and opposition groups, was elected president in July. By October US forces were withdrawn, and public security was reestablished.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s Lebanon's economy was disrupted by conflict in the Middle East, vividly brought home by the presence, near the border with Israel, of thousands of wellarmed Palestinian guerrillas, many of whom had come from Jordan following the "Black September" fighting there in 1970–71. Serious clashes between them and the Lebanese army occurred in 1969. Fearing civil war, the government that year signed the so-called Cairo Accord with the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), which virtually made it a state within the state. the PLO gained the right to establish military bases and launch cross-border raids into Israel. This inevitably led to Israeli reprisals, and PLO interference in Lebanese affairs accelerated a slide toward anarchy. In April and May 1974, a series of Palestinian attacks on Lebanese villages killed scores of persons and injured hundreds. Government efforts to deal with the problem were denounced as insufficient by Christian rightists, while Muslim leftists defended the Palestinians, and both factions formed private militias.

During the early months of 1975, sporadic violence between the two factions gradually erupted into a full-scale civil war that pitted Maronite Christians against Muslims and against other Christian sects, and rightist militants against Palestinian guerrillas and other leftist Arab forces. At least 100,000 people on all sides were killed and some 600,000 persons displaced during the 18 months of fighting. In April 1976 Syrian forces entered Lebanon in an apparent effort to prevent an all-out victory by left-wing Muslims and Palestinians; by the fall, some 20,000 Syrian troops controlled the Bekaa Valley. A cease-fire arranged through the mediation of Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries enabled a peacekeeping force (including Syrian troops) to separate the combatants and end the war in October. the conflict not only devastated Lebanon economically, but so weakened the central government that effective power lay with the Syrians, the Palestinians, and some 30 sectarian militias. In general, the Christian Phalangists held sway over east-central Lebanon; fighters loyal to Maj. Sa'ad Haddad, a right-wing Lebanese army officer, controlled the southern border area, in a security zone set up by Israel; and the PLO, other Muslim leftists, and Syrian forces occupied northern and eastern Lebanon.

Intermittent fighting between the armed factions continued, and raids by Palestinian guerrillas based in southern Lebanon drew Israel into the conflict. In March 1978 the Israeli army invaded southern Lebanon, destroyed PLO bases, and then withdrew when the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) was established to keep the peace. Continuing PLO rocket attacks on northern Israel and Syria's installation of antiaircraft missiles in the Bekaa Valley prompted Israel to launch a full-scale invasion of Lebanon in June 1982. Israeli forces quickly destroyed PLO bases in the south and in Tyre and Şaydā (Sidon), penetrated to the outskirts of Beirut, and disabled the Syrian missile bases. Several cease-fires arranged by US envoy Philip Habib broke down, but following a two-month Israeli siege of West Beirut, where the Palestinians were encamped, a truce was agreed to by Israel, the PLO, and Syria; by 1 September, more than 14,000 Palestinian and Syrian fighters had been evacuated. The Lebanese estimated their war casualties at more than 19,000 dead and 30,000 wounded (figures disputed by Israel). A multinational peacekeeping force, comprising British, French, and Italian soldiers and US marines, was stationed in the Beirut area in early September.

Despite the truce, the violence continued. On 14 September Bashir Gemayel, a Phalangist leader who in August had been elected president by the Lebanese parliament, was assassinated. Almost immediately, Israeli troops moved into West Beirut to wipe out pockets of Palestinian resistance causing tens of thousands of casualties. Phalangist forces were allowed into the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps, and at least 600 Palestinians, many of them civilians, were massacred; a subsequent Israeli government inquiry was critical of senior officials for indirect responsibility for the killings. In 1983 Israeli and Syrian troops still occupied large portions of Lebanon, and they became targets of attack by Muslim and Druze forces. In May 1983 Lebanon, Israel, and the United States signed an agreement by which Lebanon and Israel agreed to end their state of war. Israel agreed to withdraw all its forces, and both countries agreed to establish a security zone in southern Lebanon patrolled by Lebanese forces and joint Israeli-Lebanese teams. However, Syria opposed it and the agreement, never implemented, was repudiated by Lebanon in 1984.

The American embassy in Beirut was bombed in April 1983, and US marines were harassed by sniper fire. On 23 October, 241 American servicemen, including 220 marines, were killed by a truck-bomb explosion in their barracks at Beirut airport; on the same day, a similar bombing caused at least 58 deaths at a French paratroop barracks. Shortly before, Lebanon and Syria had agreed to a cease-fire pending a reconciliation conference, which began in Switzerland in November, with all major Lebanese political factions participating. Meanwhile, fighting broke out between a radical Syrian-supported PLO faction and guerrillas loyal to Yasser Arafat, chairman of the PLO; defeated at Tarābulus (Tripoli), Arafat withdrew from Lebanon in December.

As 1984 began, the position of the government headed by Amin Gemayel, who had been elected president to succeed his brother, was deteriorating. In February the United States, the United Kingdom, and Italy pulled their ground troops and nonessential personnel out of the Beirut area. In March, the Lebanese reconciliation conference dissolved without reaching substantial agreement. The following month a "national unity" government was formed, bringing together the leaders of all the major warring factions. But it almost never met and could not pacify the country; intermittent clashes between factions continued. Israel's withdrawal of its troops from Lebanon (except the south) in early 1985 left in its wake renewed fighting for the evacuated territory. In December a Syrian-sponsored cease-fire agreement that included constitutional reforms was signed by the Druze, Amal (Shia), and Christian factions, but its terms were never implemented. the general lawlessness encouraged terrorist groups of all kinds to promote their own ends by assassinations, kidnappings, and bombings. Among the most feared was the Hezbollah, or Party of God, which was aligned with fundamentalist Iranian Revolutionary Guards.

In 1985–86 there was sporadic fierce fighting between Palestinian and Shia Amal militia. Syria pushed for political reform and, when opposed by Gemayel and militant Christians, influenced Muslim ministers not to deal with the president, thus paralyzing the government. With the economy in serious decline, Prime Minister Rashid Karami was assassinated, to be succeeded by Salim alHuss. The badly divided factions could not agree on a successor to Gemayel when his term expired in September 1988. Christian Army Commander Michel Aoun asserted himself as prime minister, giving Lebanon two governments—a Muslim one in West Beirut and a Christian one in East Beirut. Aoun was opposed by the Syrians and Muslims and by rival Christian factions.

In January 1989 the Arab League appointed a committee on Lebanon which, in September, arranged for a seven-point ceasefire and convened a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in Taif, Saudi Arabia. The Taif Accord that resulted in November led to the election of Elias Hrawi, a Maronite Christian, as president. He named al-Huss prime minister. When forces of General Aoun (who was technically deposed by Hrawi) attacked Christian and Syrian positions, they retaliated in strength and finally obliged him to take exile in France in 1991.

In 1991–92 the government gradually began to reassert its authority. Militias, except notably Hezbollah and the Israeli-backed army of South Lebanon, were dissolved in May 1991. Palestinian militants were repressed in Şaydā (Sidon) in July. In May 1992 the last Western hostages were released after years of confinement. Lebanon joined the Israeli-Arab peace talks in Madrid in October 1991. Internally, the poor economy aggravated political instability, but parliamentary elections, the first in 20 years, were scheduled for 1992. Poor preparations, widespread irregularities, and Christian abstention produced results that did not prepare Lebanon for an assured future. Yet, the appointment of Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri in November 1992 promised a serious effort at reconstruction.

Al-Hariri, a self-made billionaire who made his fortune in Saudi Arabia, was perceived by many to be a savior of sorts for the war-torn country. He had a long history of philanthropic giving, donating large sums to rebuild Beirut, for instance. As prime minister, he was frequently accused of corruption and of making sure government rebuilding efforts were directed toward companies under his control. Still most Lebanese approved of his efforts to stabilize the country and unite its many long-warring factions. In 1996, al-Hariri was reelected prime minister in a unanimous vote of parliament.

In 1996 Lebanon was still subject to political violence, especially in the Israeli-occupied south, where that year 255 people were killed (27 Israeli soldiers) in violence. Some 54 of the dead were members of Hezbollah, and 19 were militiamen in the Israeli-controlled South Lebanon Army (SLA). The violence continued into 1997.

President Ilyas Hrawi had been elected to the six-year post in 1989. In 1995 when his term was set to expire in accordance with the constitution, parliament extended his term for an additional three years. Hrawi proved to be a weak leader and his standing with the Maronites was low. Emile Lahoud, of a prominent Maronite family, had been promoted to major-general in 1985 and general and army commander in 1989. In 1998 his name surfaced as a potential successor to Hrawi. In October 1998 the assembly introduced an amendment to the constitutional clause requiring senior public officials to leave office before running for president. Within two days Lahoud was elected president of the National Assembly. Lahoud was sworn in on 24 November 1998 as Lebanon's 11th president. On 4 December 1998 Salim al-Huss began his fifth term as prime minister after Hariri's sudden resignation.

In early 1999 fighting in southern Lebanon escalated as the Hezbollah staged attacks on Israeli forces and the Israeli-backed SLA. Israel retaliated on Hezbollah strongholds, and by February, expanded air strikes beyond the "security zone" to southern and northern Lebanon. The al-Huss government's fiscal austerity aimed at reducing the deficit, which had grown to 15% of gross domestic product, met with resistance from the trade unions. On 24 June 1999 Israel destroyed bridges and power stations with its heaviest air raids in three years. In July 1999 the UN Security Council renewed for six months the mandate for UNIFIL, and restated its support of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Lebanon.

At the end of 1999 in anticipation of elections in August 2000, the government passed a law creating 14 constituencies of suspiciously varying sizes, based on rewarding or punishing political foes or friends. A bill to curb the media—limiting all elections news, advertisements, and coverage to the state-run Tele-Liban and Radio Liban—and limiting campaign spending was also drafted. On 24 May 2000 Israel made a quick withdrawal from southern Lebanon. With the Israeli withdrawal the SLA disintegrated. The exact border between Lebanon and Israel remained unsettled as they disputed ownership of the Shabaa Farms. the Lebanese government sent police and intelligence officers to the newly liberated area, but refused to deploy troops until there was evidence of stability or a comprehensive peace treaty with Israel.

In March 2001, Lebanon began to divert waters from the Wazzani River to supply villages in southern Lebanon. the Wazzani feeds into the Hatzbani, which in turn flows into the Jordan River watershed and Lake Kinneret (Lake Tiberias or the Sea of Galilee), a major source of Israel's water supply. In September 2002, Israel's prime minister Ariel Sharon identified measures to divert water from Israel as a cause for war.

Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut in June 2001 to redeploy in other parts of Lebanon, in response to greater Lebanese criticism of Syria's presence there. In February 2003, the Syrian army completed its redeployment out of north Lebanon. The majority of the Syrian army remaining in Lebanon was assembled in a stretch of the Bekaa Valley on the Syrian border. As of early 2003, there were approximately 350,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanon. Hezbollah and Israeli forces continued to exchange fire over the Shabaa Farms.

Parliamentary elections held 27 August and 3 September 2000 resulted in the appointment on 23 October of Rafiq al-Hariri as prime minister once again. In October 2004, Hariri stood down as prime minister in protest over the continued presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon. On 14 February 2005, Hariri and 19 others were killed in a massive bomb blast in central Beirut. the UN Security Council unanimously authorized an international investigation into the assassination. In the wake of Hariri's murder, numerous public demonstrations took place, both for and against the presence of Syrian troops and security agents in Lebanon. the cabinet of then-prime minister Omar Karami resigned two weeks after the first wave of anti-Syrian rallies. After Karami resigned, a moderate pro-Syrian member of parliament, Najib Mikati, was named prime minister. Syria pulled all of its military forces (15,000 troops) out of Lebanon by the end of April 2005, in what was dubbed the "Cedar Revolution." In June, journalist Samir Qasir, another critic of Syrian influence in Lebanon, was killed in a car bomb attack.

Parliamentary elections were held in May and June 2005 (they had been postponed for one year). An anti-Syrian alliance led by Saad Hariri, son of the late Rafiq Hariri, won control of parliament, and parliament chose an ally of Rafiq Hariri, Fouad Siniora, to become prime minister. The anti-Syrian alliance won 72 of 128 seats in parliament. Also in June, George Hawi, anti-Syrian former leader of the Lebanese Communist Party, was killed when his car blew up. In September 2005, four pro-Syrian generals were charged in connection with Rafiq Hariri's assassination.

GOVERNMENT

As defined by the constitution of 1926 and subsequent amendments, Lebanon is an independent republic. Executive power is vested in a president (elected by the legislature for six years) and a prime minister and cabinet, chosen by the president but responsible to the legislature. On 3 September 2004, the National Assembly voted 96–29 to extend President Emile Lahoud's six-year term by three years. Under an agreement dating back to the French mandate, the president must be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the president of the National Assembly a Shia Muslim. Decisions by the president must be countersigned by the prime minister and concerned minister(s) after approval by the National Assembly.

Legislative power is exercised by a 128-member National Assembly (formerly the Chamber of Deputies), elected for a fouryear term by universal adult suffrage (compulsory for males age 21 or over, permitted for women age 21 or over with elementary education). The electoral reform law of 1960 determined the denominational composition of the legislature as follows: 30 Maronites; 20 Sunni, 19 Shia; 11 Greek Orthodox; 6 Greek Catholics; 6 Druzes; 4 Armenian Orthodox; 1 Armenian Catholic; 1 Protestant; and 1 other. Deputies were elected to the legislature in 1972, but elections scheduled for 1976 were postponed because of the war, and the legislature extended its term every two years until 1992. The Taif Accord of 1989 set the Christian-Muslim balance in parliament at 50-50, but the failure of Christians to participate in the elections of 1992 and 1996 gave Muslim groups the largest number of seats in the legislature. There has been no official census in the country since 1932, but most observers believe Muslims now form the majority with the Shia as the largest single group. The denominational composition of the legislature following the 1989 Taif Accord is: 34 Maronites, 27 Sunni, 27 Shia, 14 Greek Orthodox, 8 Greek Catholics, 8 Druzes, 5 Armenian Orthodox, 2 Alaouites, 1 Armenian Catholic, 1 Protestant, and 1 Christian Minorities.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Political life in Lebanon is affected by the diversity of religious sects and the religious basis of social organization. the mainly Christian groups, especially the Maronites, favor an independent course for Lebanon, stressing its ties to Europe and opposing the appeals of Islam and pan-Arabism. The Muslim groups favor closer ties with Arab states and are opposed to confessionalism (political division along religious lines). Principal political groups, with mainly Christian membership, have been the National Liberal Party and the Phalangist Party. There are various parties of the left, including the Progressive Socialist Party (of mostly Druze membership), the Ba'ath Party, and the Lebanese Communist Party. The various Palestinian groups, allied under the umbrella of the Palestine Liberation Organization, have played an important role in the political life of Lebanon from the late 1960s. Amal, a conservative group, and Hezbollah, more militant, represent the Shia community. The former gained 18 seats and the latter 12 seats in the elections of 1992. The Christian community, which was supposed to have half the seats, largely boycotted the elections and, as a result, won only 59 seats.

In 1996, parliamentary elections were again held, and again certain Christian sects called for a boycott. Still, turnout was much higher than in the 1992 elections, reflecting the country's increasing political stability (turnout was about 45%). International observers found the elections substantially fair, but noted some irregularities, including Syrian interference, vote buying and ballot stuffing. The government itself acknowledges these shortcomings and has instituted some reforms.

The 1996 elections took place in five stages between August and September. The balloting gave a strong majority to a coalition of pro-Syrian parties, notably the Hezbollah-Amal coalition. there were 49 newcomers elected—3 of whom were female—and 19 seats were contested on charges of voter fraud. Following the election, Prime Minister al-Hariri stepped down, as is tradition, so that President Hrawi and the new parliament could chose a new prime minister. In late October, the parliament, with presidential backing, nominated al-Hariri for his second term, as was expected. The vote in parliament was 121-0 with four abstentions.

Al-Hariri, a billionaire, was one of the richest men in the world: in 1996 there were 3 billionaires and 35 millionaires in parliament. Asked by Lahoud to be prime minister in 1998, Salim al-Huss became prime minister after al-Hariri abruptly resigned office. AlHariri was asked by President Lahoud to become prime minister once again in October 2000; he received 107 parliamentary votes backing him.

In the aftermath of al-Hariri's assassination on 14 February 2005, Hariri's son, Saad Hariri, led an anti-Syrian alliance spearheaded by his Future Movement Bloc to victory in parliamentary elections held between 29 May and 19 June of that year. Saad Hariri's bloc took 72 of the 128 seats in the National Assembly. Syrian military forces pulled out of Lebanon in April 2005, following massive street demonstrations. The 2005 election results, broken down by seats, were as follows: Future Movement Bloc 36; Democratic Gathering 15; Development and Resistance Bloc 15; Loyalty to the Resistance 14; Free Patriotic Movement 14; Lebanese Forces 6; Qornet Shewan 5; Popular Bloc 4; Tripoli Independent Bloc 3; Syrian National Socialist Party 2; Kataeb Reform Movement 2; Tachnaq Party 2; Democratic Renewal Movement 1; Democratic Left 1; Nasserite Popular Movement 1; Ba'th Party 1; Kataeb Party 1; and independents 5.

Palestinian refugees have no right to vote, despite numbering approximately 350,000.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Lebanon is divided into the six provinces (muhafazat ) of Beirut, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Bekaa, Mount Lebanon, and Nabatiye, each with its district administration. The muhafazat are subdivided into districts (aqdiya ), municipalities, and villages. Provincial governors and district chiefs are appointed by presidential decree. In most villages, councils of village elders or heads of families or clans still play a considerable role.

Municipal elections had not been held since 1963, despite widespread civil desire for such elections. In 1995, parliament passed a law extending the term of municipal officers until 31 December 1996, after which elections were slated to be held. Municipal elections were held in May and June 1998, and in May 2004. the number of municipal councilors and mukhtar or mayors elected in 2004 was 15,300. The voter turnout tended to be low, reaching only 20% of the voters in Beirut and the turnout was not much higher in Tarābulus (Tripoli). Only in Mount Lebanon and in the south, where Hezbollah won 87 out of 142 contested municipalities, was the turnout high. In 2001, municipal elections took place in the newly liberated areas of South Lebanon after the Israeli withdrawal of May 2000.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Ultimate supervisory power rests with the minister of justice, who appoints the magistrates. Courts of first instance are presided over by a single judge and deal with both civil and criminal cases. Appeals may be taken to the courts of appeal, each made up of three judges. Of the four courts of cassation, three hear civil cases and one hears criminal cases. A six-person Council of State handles administrative cases. A Constitutional Council, called for in the Taif Accord, rules on the constitutionality of laws upon the request of 10 members of parliament. Religious courts—Islamic, Christian, and Jewish—deal with marriages, deaths, inheritances, and other matters of personal status in their respective faiths. There is also a separate military court system dealing with cases involving military personnel and military related issues.

The law provides for the right to a fair public trial and an independent and impartial judiciary. In practice, politically influential elements succeed in intervening to obtain desired results.

Matters of state security are dealt with by a five-member Judicial Council. The Judicial Council is a permanent tribunal, and the cabinet, on the recommendation of the Ministry of Justice, decides whether to bring a case before the Judicial Council.

In the refugee camps, the Palestinian elements implement an autonomous system of justice in which rival factions try opponents without any semblance of due process. Hezbollah applies Islamic law in the area under its control.

ARMED FORCES

The conflict of 1975–90 split the regular Lebanese army along Christian-Muslim lines. The force was later reformed, first by the United States, then by Syria. In 2005, the armed forces totaled 72,100 active personnel, of which the Army had 70,000 active members. Equipment included 310 main battle tanks, 60 reconnaissance vehicles, 1,257 armored personnel carriers, and 541 artillery pieces. Active Navy personnel that year totaled 1,100. Major naval units included 32 patrol/coastal vessels and 2 amphibious landing craft. Lebanon's Air Force had 1,000 personnel. Equipment included six fighter ground attack aircraft and two attack helicopters. Paramilitary forces consist of an Internal Security Force with an estimated 13,000 active personnel under the Ministry of Interior.

Much of the opposition militia has disbanded, and the Muslim Hezbollah (3,000 active) is the only significant communal army remaining. The defense budget was $530 million in 2005. Also stationed in Lebanon were a number of UN peacekeeping troops. Some 16,000 Syrian troops, in the country as part of the UN peacekeeping force, were removed in April 2005.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Lebanon is a charter member of the United Nations, having joined 24 October 1945, and belongs to ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, the World Bank, the ICAO, ILO, UNESCO, UNHCR, and WHO. Lebanon was one of the founding members of the Arab League. It also serves as a member of the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, the Arab Monetary Fund, G-24, G-77, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). The country has observer status in the OAS and the WTO.

Lebanon is part of the Nonaligned Movement. It is the home site of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA, est. 1949). Lebanon and Israel have a longstanding unresolved dispute concerning boundaries in the Golan Heights region. In 2000, the United Nations mapped out a Lebanese-Israeli line of separation known as the Blue Line, pending negotiations to determine a final international border. Israeli forces withdrew from their occupation across the Blue Line; however, the UN monitors have reported violations of the agreement from both countries. The United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNFIL), which was originally established in 1978, continues to monitor the area and to assist in reestablishing Lebanese authority in the region.

In environmental cooperation, Lebanon is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Lebanon is traditionally a trading country, with a relatively large agricultural sector and small but well-developed industry. Until the civil war, it had always figured prominently as a center of tourist trade. The 1975–76 war caused an estimated $5 billion in property damage and reduced economic activities to about 50% of the prewar level. The cost of reconstruction after the Israeli Palestinian-Syrian war of 1982 was estimated at $12–15 billion. Lebanon has been able to survive economically because of remittances from abroad by Lebanese workers and companies, external aid by the United States, France, Germany, and Arab countries, and foreign subsidies to various political groups. A residual effect of the 1982 war was political uncertainty, which poisoned the economic climate in the following years. In 1984 and after, there was a pronounced deterioration in the economy. In 1987 inflation peaked at 487%. After the 1989 Taif Accord for National Reconciliation ended hostilities, the economy began to recover. Economic activity surged in 1991, and in 1993 the Hariri government was able to stabilize the economy, and launch a program to reconstruct the economy's infrastructure. Real GDP grew 4.2% in 1992, after growing by about 40% in 1991.

After 1988, the economy posted growth rates averaging 7.5%, although a rising budget deficit threatens to hamper economic reforms. Israel's Operation Grapes of Wrath in April 1996 cut economic development short, but in the same year, the stock market had reopened, and investment had made significant returns. In 1997, unemployment remained high at about 18% although inflation had been reduced to around 5% by 1998. Gross domestic product grew by 3% in 1998. Growth in 1999 was 1% and flat in 2000. Inflation was 1% in 1999 and zero in 2000, and did not exceed 3% in 2001. High unemployment remained a persistent problem, at 20–25% in 1999 and 2000, and 15–20% in 2001. Among Lebanese youth unemployment is estimated to be 30%.

In 2002, the government met with international donors to seek bilateral assistance in restructuring its massive domestic debt at lower rates of interest. Receipts from donor nations helped to stabilize government finances in 2003, but did little to reduce the debt, which stood at approximately 200% of GDP in 2005. In 2004, the Hariri government issued eurobonds to try to manage maturing debt. Hariri stepped down as prime minister later in 2004, and was assassinated in February 2005, which led to a downturn in the economy. Prime Minister Fuad Siniora pledged to push forward with economic reforms, including privatization and more efficient government. In 2005, the GDP growth rate was estimated at a mere 0.5%, and the inflation rate was estimated at 2.4%.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2005 Lebanon's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $19.5 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $5,100. the annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 0.5%. the average inflation rate in 2005 was 2.4%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 12% of GDP, industry 21%, and services 67%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $2.7 billion or about $600 per capita and accounted for approximately 13.6% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $228 million or about $51 per capita and accounted for approximately 1.3% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Lebanon totaled $18.27 billion or about $4,062 per capita based on a GDP of $19.9 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990–2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 2.3%. In 2001 it was estimated that approximately 31% of household consumption was spent on food, 10% on fuel, 7% on health care, and 9% on education. It was estimated that in 1999 about 28% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

The labor force in 2001 was approximately 2.6 million workers, with as many as one million additional foreign laborers in Lebanon. The estimated unemployment rate in 1997 (the latest year for which data was available) was 18%. There is no data on the workforce by occupation.

There are some 160 labor unions and organizations enrolling about 42% of the workforce as of 2001. the General Confederation of Workers is composed of 22 unions with about 200,000 members. Organized labor has grown slowly, partly because of the small number of industrial workers, but also because of the availability of a large pool of unemployed. Agricultural and most trade workers are not organized. Palestinians in Lebanon are free to organize their own unions. While Lebanese workers have the right to strike, there are limitations on public demonstrations which somewhat undermine this right. Lebanese workers have the right to organize and bargain collectively and this is the standard practice in employment situations.

Workers as young as eight may legally work with restrictions as to working hours and conditions. However, in reality, age limitations are not effectively enforced. In 2002, a monthly minimum wage of $200 was in effect. The standard workweek is set at 48 hours, with a 24-hour rest period. In practice, most laborers average around 35 hours of work per week.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, an estimated 4% of the working population was engaged in agricultural activity, and agriculture accounted for about 12% of GDP. Less than 30% of Lebanon's land is arable, and expansion of cultivated areas is limited by the arid and rugged nature of the land. About 33% of the arable land was irrigated in 2003.

Agricultural production was severely disrupted by the 1975–76 war, and production of citrus fruits, the main crop, was reduced to low levels in the fertile Bekaa Valley by Israeli-Syrian fighting during 1982. Principal crops and estimated 2004 production (in thousand tons) were potatoes, 350; oranges, 190; olives, 180; apples, 140; wheat, 120; lemons and limes, 83; bananas, 66; grapefruit, 14; and peanuts, 7. In 2004, Lebanon exported $252.3 million in agricultural products (14% of total exports) and imported $1.3 billion (14% of all imports). Two profitable, albeit illegal, crops produced are opium poppy (for heroin) and cannabis (for hashish). A joint Lebanese-Syrian eradication effort has practically wiped out the opium crop and significantly reduced the cannabis crop.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Much of Lebanon's livestock was lost during the protracted hostilities since the 1975–76 war and the Israeli invasion in 1982. In 2005 there were an estimated 430,000 goats, 346,000 sheep, 90,000 head of cattle, and 35,000,000 poultry. As Lebanon's own meat and milk production is below consumption needs, animal and milk products are imported.

FISHING

The fishing industry has not progressed significantly, despite a government-sponsored effort to reduce fish imports and provide employment in the canned-fish industry. The catch in 2003 was 4,688 tons.

FORESTRY

Forests comprised about 36,000 hectares (89,000 acres), or nearly 3.5% of the total area, in 2000. Most of the forests are in the central part of the country, with pine and oak predominant. Few of the ancient cedars have survived; small cedar forests have been planted at high altitudes. Roundwood production in 2004 was 88,700 cu m (3,131,000 cu ft).

MINING

Lebanon's mineral industry continued its historically small contribution to the economy. Mining activity was limited to the production of salt and the quarrying of raw materials for the construction industry, particularly limestone and silica for cement manufacture. In 2004, hydraulic cement production was estimated at 2.9 million metric tons, unchanged from an estimated 2.9 million metric tons in 2003. Gypsum production in 2004 was estimated at 1,700 metric tons, while lime production in that same year was estimated at 14,000 metric tons; and salt output estimated at 3,500 metric tons. In 2004, Lebanon also produced phosphatic fertilizers, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid. Modest deposits of asphalt, coal, and iron ore existed, and the country had no petroleum or gas reserves. The success of Lebanon's minerals industry depended on the long-term restoration of peace and stability in the country.

ENERGY AND POWER

Lebanon, as of 1 January 2005, has no known proven reserves of oil or natural gas. As a result, the country must import all the oil and natural gas it consumes. Although Lebanon had two coastal refineries, Tarābulus (Tripoli) in the north and Zahrani in the south, neither is operational, with the refinery in Tarābulus (Tripoli) closed since 1982.

In 2004, imports and demand for oil each averaged an estimated 108 barrels per day. There were no recorded imports or consumption of natural gas in 2003.

Lebanon's electric power generating sector is controlled by a state-owned public utility, Electricite du Liban (EdL). EdL is in charge of power generation, distribution and transmission. In 2003, total installed electrical capacity was estimated at 2 GW, with production in that year estimated at 10.7 billion kWh. Demand is estimated to have equaled output in 2003, but Lebanon's seven power plants are known to be operating below capacity and the country must import power. In 2002, Lebanon imported 1.09 billion kWh. Of the electric power produced, 97.2% came from conventional thermal sources, while hydropower accounted for 2.8%.

INDUSTRY

The 16-year civil war that ended in 1991 caused tremendous damage to the industrial sector. By 1993, it was estimated that the Lebanese industry suffered losses of $1.5 billion. Inadequate infrastructure and shortage of skilled labor are major obstacles in the process of rehabilitation. By 1995, the industrial sector was showing signs of improvement. Industrial exports in the first quarter of 1995 were up 76% (to $79.5 million) compared with the same period in 1994. Major industrial products are clothing, metal, food, marble, sanitary equipment, cement, jewelry, furniture, paper, beverages, and plastic. In 2002, manufacturing contributed 17% to GDP and accounted for 40% of total exports. Industrial activity is concentrated in construction material; food and beverages; textiles and ready-made garments; and furniture. the industrial sector remains weak due to obsolete equipment, high operating costs, low productivity, and limited access to financing.

Lebanon's two main oil refineries at Zahrani and Tarābulus (Tripoli) suspended operations for most of the 1990s after 1992 and were inoperative as of 2006.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Lebanon's advanced technology is limited to oil refining, the facilities for which were installed by international oil companies. the National Council for Scientific Research, established in Beirut in 1962, draws up national science policies and fosters research in fundamental and applied research. The council operates a marine research center at Al-Batrun. Seven colleges and universities in Beirut offer degrees in basic and applied sciences.

In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 30% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, high technology exports totaled $16 million, or 3% of all manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Trade is by far the most important sector of the Lebanese economy. Before the 1975–91 civil war, Beirut was an important commercial center of the Middle East. During the first year of civil violence alone, 3,600 commercial establishments were destroyed, burned, or looted. Reconstruction and returning confidence have improved commercial activities since 1995.

The main trading activity is related to the importation of goods and their distribution in the local market. Distribution is generally handled by traders who acquire sole right of import and sale of specific trademarks, and although competition is keen, the markup tends to be high. Distribution of local products is more widely spread among traders. Franchising has become popular, with major firms representing the restaurant, hotel, and clothing industries.

Prices are generally controlled by the Consumer Protection Department of the Ministry of Economy and Trade. Retail credit is

common, and advertising has developed rapidly in motion picture theaters, television, radio, and the press.

Government offices are generally open from 8 am to 2 pm Monday through Thursday, from 8 to 11 am on Friday, and from 8 am to 1 pm on Saturday. Most banks are open with similar hours, occasionally with a half-day on Saturday as well. Private businesses and shops have varying hours, sometimes exceeding a 40-hour workweek.

FOREIGN TRADE

Foreign trade has been important in the economic life of Lebanon as a source of both income and employment. Some 40% of total exports are actually reexports, principally machinery, metal products, foods, wood products, textiles, and chemicals.

The most expensive products that Lebanon exports are gold, silverware, jewelry, and precious stones. Other exports include fruits, nuts and vegetables, scrap metal, and printed matter. Major imports include food, machinery and transport equipment, consumer goods, and chemicals.

Lebanon's major exporting partners in 2004 were: Syria, the UAE, Turkey, Switzerland, and Saudi Arabia. Lebanon's primary suppliers were: Italy, France, Syria, Germany, China, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Lebanon traditionally maintained a favorable balance of payments, with rising trade deficits more than offset by net earnings from services, transfers of foreign capital, and remittances from Lebanese workers abroad. Although the trade deficit increased substantially between 1977 and 1984, a balance of payments deficit was recorded only for the last two years of the period. By 1985, a surplus of $249 million was again achieved, with a modest trade recovery following in 1986–87. Hostilities in the industrial and prosperous areas of Lebanon in 1989–90 triggered a substantial outflow of capital and a deficit in the balance of payments. Order was restored in 1991 and a resumption of capital inflows averted larger deficits in the following years. In 1995, net capital inflows offset a large trade deficit to produce a $256 million surplus in the balance of payments. A large portion of the trade imbalance consists of imports of machinery that should ultimately increase productivity. In 2000, the balance of payments registered a deficit of $289 million, which compared to a $267.7 million surplus in 1999.

In 2003, exports of goods and services totaled $2.9 billion, and imports totaled $7.6 billion. The trade deficit widened in 2005 that year, Lebanon's exports totaled $1.782 billion, and imports were valued at $8.855 billion. The current-account balance in 2005 was estimated at -$4.09 billion.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

The Bank of Lebanon, established on 1 April 1964, is now the sole bank of issue. Its powers to regulate and control commercial banks and other institutions and to implement monetary policy were expanded by amendments to the Code of Money and Credit promulgated in October 1973. To encourage the movement and deposit of foreign capital in Lebanon, a bank secrecy law of 1956 forbids banks to disclose details of a client's business even to judicial authorities. There are no restrictions on currency conversions and transfers, and no foreign exchange controls effect trading.

In the late 1990s, the banking sector was undergoing a period of expansion and consolidation with a number of banks listed on the Beirut Stock Exchange. In 1998, over 70 banks were operating in Lebanon with total assets of around $31 billion. the International Monetary Fund reported that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $1.6 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $35.1 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 20%.

The Beirut Stock Exchange was officially opened in 1952 as a center in which the few available company shares could be traded. The exchange closed during the civil war but reopened in 1979. However, there was little trading in stock during 1980–81. In

1982, Beirut was chosen as the headquarters of the Arab Stock Exchange Union, reflecting Lebanon's continuing importance as financial center of the Middle East.

In September 1995, the Beirut Stock Exchange reopened after a 12-year closure. Trading began in January 1996, but with just three companies listed, all of them producers of cement or construction material. A fourth company joined in mid-1996. A secondary market was opened to trade shares in the private property company, Solidere. Solidere is developing the destroyed business heart of Beirut. With the secondary market considerably more successful than the stock exchange, plans to list Solidere on the latter have, for the moment, been shelved. In 1997, however, Solidere moved its shares from the secondary market to the Beirut Stock Exchange. An important reason for the move was a plan to cross-list Solidere shares on the Kuwait Stock Exchange. Kuwait said it would do so only if shares were traded on the official bourse rather than on the secondary market. The Lebanese Stock Exchange authority signed an agreement to cross-list shares not only with Kuwait but also withe gypt from early in 1997. Solidere has a 115 million-125 million GDR (global depository receipt) to be listed on the London Stock Exchange.

In 2001, the stock market remained sluggish, with only 12 companies, including Solidere, listed. Market capitalization was at around $1.2 billion. As of 2004, the Beirut Stock Exchange listed only 13 companies, and had a total market capitalization that year of $2.322 billion. In 2004, the BLOM index rose 39.3% from the previous year to 636.8.

INSURANCE

Activities of insurance companies are regulated by the National Insurance Council. All insurance companies must deposit a specific amount of money or real investments in an approved bank and must retain in Lebanon reserves commensurate with their volume of business. There are at least 85 insurance companies operating in Lebanon, most of them national insurance companies. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $520 million, of which nonlife premiums accounted for $381 billion. In 2002, Lebanon's top nonlife insurer was Medgulf, with gross written nonlife premiums (including healthcare) of $46.7 million. In 2004, the country's leading life insurer was Alico, which had gross written life premiums of $69.8 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The annual budget of the central government must be approved by the National Assembly. The Lebanese government annually faces the formidable problem of financing a massive deficit resulting from heavy financial obligations and huge shortfalls in revenues. To reduce the deficit, the government has tried to increase revenues by raising taxes and tightening the budget. the government relies heavily on grants and loans from multilateral agencies, Arab governments, and the French to cover the deficit. As a result, the country's total debt reached $28 billion in 2001, about 150% of total GDP.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Lebanon's central government took in revenues of approximately $4.9 billion and had expenditures of $6.5 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$1.6 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 200.7% of GDP. Total external debt was $25.92 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, budgetary central government revenues were ll5,385 billion and expenditures were ll9,056 billion. The value of revenues was us$4 million and expenditures us$6 million, based on a market exchange rate for 2002 of us$1 = ll1,507.5 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 61.6%; defense, 10.3%; public order and safety, 4.4%; economic affairs, 8.9%; environmental protection, 0.1%; housing and community amenities, 0.8%; health, 3.3%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.7%; education, 8.0%; and social protection, 2.0%.

TAXATION

A graduated tax is imposed on individual salaries, real profits, and real estate income. Corporations and joint stock companies generally are taxed on net real profits derived in Lebanon at a flat rate of 15%. Dividends, interest and royalties are generally subject to a 10% withholding tax. Bank interest is subject to a 5% rate. Also levied are inheritance and gift taxes, social security payroll taxes, flat and graduated property taxes, and a stamp duty.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Customs duties, based on the Harmonized System of tariffs, depend on the type of product and range from 0–70%, averaging 15%. Lebanon acceded to Arab League's Arab Free Trade Area agreement in 1997 and also has bilateral free trade agreements with egypt, Kuwait, Syria, and the United Arab Emirates. It also adheres to the Arab League boycott of Israel. Lebanon has applied for World Trade Organization membership and is in negotiations for accession.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Lebanon's liberal investment policies are designed to attract foreign direct investment to foster economic recovery and rebuild its war damaged infrastructure. Some analysts estimated that the rebuilding costs would exceed $18 billion with construction accounting for a large part of foreign investment. By 2006, French, Italian, German, British, Korean, and Finnish companies were the predominant investors in Lebanon. Their presence is most strongly felt in the fields of electricity, water, and telecommunications. US-based investment was only $7 million in 1996, though this had climbed to $65 million by 1999. The movement of funds in and out of Lebanon is free from taxes, fees, or restrictions. the top corporate tax rate is 15%. Lebanon also has bilateral trade investment agreements with China and a number of European and Arab countries.

To conserve cash, the government uses "build, operate, transfer" (BOT) agreements to finance major projects. In 1997 total foreign direct investment (FDI) totaled $150 million. By 2000 this had nearly doubled to $297.8 million. In 2001, the annual FDI inflow fell to $249.3 million. In 2003, net FDI inflow amounted to $246.5 million. Construction and real estate account for the largest share of FDI. Other forms of capital inflow—remittances, repatriated capital and placements in treasury bills—far outweigh inward FDI.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Since World War II, Lebanon has followed free-enterprise and free-trade policies. The country's favorable geographical position as a transit point and the traditional importance of the trading and banking sectors of the economy helped make Lebanon prosperous by the early 1970s. Lebanon became a center of trade, finance, and tourism by means of a stable currency backed largely with gold, by a conservative fiscal policy, by various incentives for foreign investors, and by minimization of banking regulations.

Lebanon's development went awry in the mid-1970s, as factional conflict, always present in Lebanese society, erupted into open warfare. The loss to the economy was enormous, particularly in Beirut. In November 1979, Saudi Arabia and six other oil-producing Arab countries promised to contribute $2 billion for Lebanon's reconstruction effort over a five-year period, but only $381 million had been provided by October 1987. (After Israel invaded Lebanon in June 1982, the Arab countries decided to withhold future funds until Israeli forces had withdrawn completely.)

Under the leadership of Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri, Lebanon embarked on the Horizon 2000 program in 1993. Areas of major activity targeted by the plan were the rehabilitation of telecommunications, electricity grids, highways, sewage, waste management, water networks, the renovation of the Beirut International Airport, harbor, the education system, and housing. the plan also called for investment in commercial facilities to reestablish Beirut as an international business center in competition with Hong Kong and Singapore. The government established a private company, Solidere, to carry out the reconstruction and development of downtown Beirut. Under the Horizon 2000 guidelines, no single investor would be permitted to hold more than a 10% share in the company. The parliament also established a public company, Elyssar, for developing southwest Beirut. Under the government's five-year program (2001–05) the "three pillars" of reform were affirmed by the Hariri government to be 1) economic revival and sustained growth with the private sector as the engine of growth; 2) fiscal consolidation and administrative reform; and 3) monetary, financial, and price stability.

By 2006, the Lebanese government was continuing its plans for economic reforms. These included an improvement in the management of the national debt (in 2005, it stood at over 200% of GDP); an expansion of state revenues by widening the tax base, improving the collection of revenues, and rationalizing expenditure; and strengthening financial management. As of December 2005, the government was formulating a new five-year plan with the aim of helping the government reduce its $37 billion public debt. The World Bank, the United States, and European nations declared they would only aid Lebanon if the government submitted to an "implementable program."

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

A government social security plan is intended to provide sickness and maternity insurance, accident and disability insurance, family allowances, and end-of-service indemnity payments. the employer contributes 8.5% of payroll, while the employee and government make no contribution. The system provides lump sum payments only for retirement, disability, and survivor benefits. Foreigners employed in Lebanon are entitled to benefits if similar rights are available for Lebanese in their home countries. Family allowances are provided for workers' families with children and nonworking wives. Voluntary social work societies also conduct relief and welfare activities.

Careers in government, the professions, and, less commonly, business are open to women. However, in some segments of society, social pressure prevents them from taking full advantage of employment opportunities. Lebanese citizenship is passed on only by fathers to their children. The children of Lebanese women married to foreigners are unable to secure citizenship. Many of the religious laws governing family and personal status discriminate against women. Despite these circumstances, there are a growing number of women in business and in government. Domestic abuse and violence affects a significant percentage of women. the absence of economic independence and the fear of losing custody of children prevent women from leaving abusive spouses. Foreign domestic servants are frequently abused.

Human rights abuses include arbitrary arrest and detention and the use of excessive force and torture. Prison conditions are substandard and include severe overcrowding. Human rights organizations are allowed to operate freely.

HEALTH

As of 2004, there were an estimated 325 physicians, 118 nurses, 121 dentists, and 95 pharmacists per 100,000 people. the Lebanese Ministry of Health's review of hospital use identified major health problems to be hypertension, diabetes, and asthma, in addition to eye and ear diseases, cardiac conditions, and dermatological problems. In 2000, 100% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 99% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 8.2 and 14.7 per 1,000 people. About 61% of married women (ages 15–49) used contraception. Life expectancy in 2005 was 72.63 years and the infant mortality rate was 24.54 per 1,000 live births. The fertility rate was 2.3 births per childbearing woman. The maternal mortality rate was 100 per 100,000 live births. Immunization rates for children up to one year old included diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 94%, and measles, 88%. Vitamin deficiencies are a problem; an estimated 25% of all school-age children have goiter.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 2,800 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Despite substantial construction activity since World War II and a boom in construction during the 1960s, which increased the number of housing units to 484,000 in 1970, there was a housing shortage, especially of low-cost residential units, in the early 1970s. The situation was aggravated by the civil war (ending in 1990) and subsequent factional strife in which half of the country's real estate was severely damaged or destroyed. About 750,000 people were displaced. Under the CDR 1983–91 plan, nearly 30% of total expenditures were allocated to build new dwellings and to restore war-damaged houses. According to the last available information for 1980-88, total housing units numbered 820,000 with 3.3 people per dwelling. Housing needs until the year 2000 have been estimated at 400,000 units.

EDUCATION

Free primary education was introduced in 1960, but about two-thirds of all students attend private schools. Primary school covers six years of study, followed by three years of complementary (intermediate) courses. Based on their performance at the basic levels of education, students are assigned to general secondary school (studying economics, life sciences, humanities, and science) or a technical secondary school (with about 55 different field options). The academic year runs from October to June.

In 2001, about 74% of children between the ages of three and five were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 91% of age-eligible students. In 2001, secondary school enrollment was about 77% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 68% of all students complete their primary education. the student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 17:1 in 2003.

Leading universities include the American University in Beirut; St. Joseph University; the Lebanese (State) University; the University of the Holy Spirit; and the Arab University of Beirut. In 2003, about 44% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program. The adult literacy rate for 2003 was estimated at about 87.4%, with 93.1% for men and 82.2% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 2.7% of GDP, or 12.3% of total government expenditures.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

Lebanon has about a dozen sizable libraries with specialized collections of books, manuscripts, and documents. Most libraries are in Beirut, but there are also collections at Şaydā (Sidon) and Harissa. The National Library of Lebanon, founded in 1921, had more than 100,000 volumes when it was destroyed at the beginning of the war in 1975. By 2002, it had restored that collection to 150,000 volumes. The Arab University Library has 200,000 volumes, but the largest library is that of the American University in Beirut, with 546,000 volumes. St. Joseph University has several specialized libraries, including the Bibliothèque Orientale, with 400,000 volumes. The library of the St. John Monastery in Khonchara, founded in 1696, contains the first known printing press in the Middle East. The Université Saint-Esprit de Koslik in Jounieh has the largest provincial collection with 200,000 volumes. the Municipal Public Library of Beirut has two branches; the Bachoura branch, opened in 2004, maintains a collection that includes 20,000 books in Arabic, French, English, Armenian, Spanish, and German, plus audio books, CD-ROMs, videos, and DVDs. there are at least 25 other public and municipal libraries throughout the country that are organized through the Assabil library network, a nongovernmental organization established in 1997; these branches include National Library of Baakline, Cultural Center for Francophone Activities, Public Library of the Cultural League in Tarābulus (Tripoli), and the Library for the Blind (in Beirut).

The National Museum of Lebanon (1920) in Beirut has a collection of historical documents and many notable antiquities, including the sarcophagus of King Ahiram (13th century bc), with the first known alphabetical inscriptions. The American University Museum also has an extensive collection of ancient artifacts. Beirut also houses the Museum of Fine Arts and the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory of St. Joseph University. the Gibran Museum in Bsharri, celebrating the life and work of the prophet Kahil Gibran, is a popular site. The Planet Discovery Children's Science Museum is located in Beirut.

MEDIA

Before the civil war, Beirut was an international communications center with an earth satellite station and two oceanic cables linking it to Marseille, France, and Alexandria, Egypt. As of 1999, the rebuilding of Lebanon's telecommunications system was well underway. In 2003, there were an estimated 199 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately 227 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Government-controlled Radio Lebanon broadcasts in Arabic, and Tele-Liban broadcasts on three channels in Arabic, French, and English. All other radio and television stations are privately owned. In 2001 there were 36 radio stations and 7 television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 182 radios and 357 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 29.9 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 80.5 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 117 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were 29 secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

Historically, Lebanon has had the freest press in the Arab world. Even during the civil war some 25 newspapers and magazines were published without restriction. Newspapers freely criticize the government but refrain from criticizing political groups that have the power to retaliate forcibly. As of 2002, the largest Arabic dailies and their circulations included An-Nahar (the Day, 77,600), Al-Anwar (Lights, 58,675), As-Safir (the Ambassador, 50,000), Al-Amal (Hope, 35,000), Al Hayat (Life, 31,030), Al-Sharq (36,000), and Al-Liwa (the Standard, 15,000). Also influential are the French-language papers L'Orient–Le Jour (23,000), Le Soir (16,500), and Le Réveil (10,000).

Though the constitution provides for freedom of the press, the government uses several means short of censorship to control freedom of expression. The Surete Generale is authorized to approve all foreign materials, including magazines, plays, books, and films. The law prohibits attacks on the dignity of the head of state or foreign leaders, prosecuting through a special Publications Court.

ORGANIZATIONS

There are chambers of commerce and industry in Beirut, Tarābulus (Tripoli), Şaydā (Sidon), and Zahlah. The Chamber of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture of Beirut and Mount Lebanon promotes tourism as well as international trade. the International Labour Organization Regional Office for the Arab States is in Beirut. Lebanon has a French Chamber of Commerce, and an Association of Lebanese Industries.

The Amel Association is a major social welfare organization providing emergency relief and social, medical, and educational services. The National Council for Scientific Research offers major support for promoting scientific study and research. A smaller organization, the Nadim Andraos Foundation, also provides financial support for medical and scientific studies.

National youth organizations include the Lebanese Scout Federation, Lebanese Youth and Student Movement for the United Nations, the Progressive Youth Organization, the Democratic Youth Union, and YMCA/YWCA. There are several sports associations representing a variety of pastimes, such as squash, aikido, badminton, yachting, tennis, and track and field. There are active branches of the Paralympic Committee and the Special Olympics.

There are Rotary and Lion's Clubs in Beirut. there are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Defence for Children, and Habitat for Humanity.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Before 1975, Lebanon's antiquities—notably at Şaydā (Sidon), Tyre, Byblos, and Baalbek—combined with a pleasant climate and scenery to attract many tourists (more than two million in 1974), especially from other Arab countries. During the civil war that began that year, however, fighting and bombing destroyed or heavily damaged major hotels in Beirut and reduced the number of tourists to practically zero. With the rebuilding of the country, the tourism industry has steadily grown. The luxury hotels have attracted tourists along with the famous Pigeon Rocks in Raouche. Many attractions are historical sites in Tyre and Tarābulus (Tripoli). The temple complex in Baalbek, which includes the remains of the temples of Jupiter, Bacchus, and Venus, is one of the largest in the world. Horse racing is also popular in Lebanon, with races held every Sunday.

Visas are required to enter Lebanon, along with passports valid for six months when applying for the visa. In 2003, foreign visitors totaled 1,015,793 in Lebanon, a 6% increase from 2002. Hotels numbered 16,202 with 28,246 beds. Tourism expenditure receipts totaled $1 billion that same year.

According to the US Department of State, in 2004 the estimated daily cost of travel in Lebanon was $193.

FAMOUS LEBANESE

Khalil Gibran (Jibran, 1883–1931), a native of Lebanon, achieved international renown through his paintings and literary works. He is best known for his long poem the Prophet. Charles Habib Malik (1906–87), for many years Lebanon's leading diplomat, was president of the 13th UN General Assembly in 1958/59. Rafik Hariri (1944–2005), twice prime minister of Lebanon, was assassinated in February 2005; massive demonstrations held after his death led to the eventual withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon in April 2005.

DEPENDENCIES

Lebanon has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

AbuKhalil, As'ad. Historical Dictionary of Lebanon. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 1998.

El-Khazen, Farid. The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000.

Hamzeh, Ahmad Nizar. In the Path of Hizbullah. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2004.

Harris, William W. Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions. Princeton, N.J.: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1997.

Khalaf, Samir. Civil and Uncivil Violence in Lebanon: A History of the Internationalization of Communal Contact. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.

Khater, Akram Fouad. Inventing Home: Emigration, Gender, and the Middle Class in Lebanon, 1870–1920. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.

Lattouf, Mirna. Women, Education, and Socialization in Modern Lebanon: 19th and 20th Centuries Social History. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2004.

Makdisi, Samir A. The Lessons of Lebanon: The Economics of War and Development. New York: I.B. Tauris, 2004.

Najem, Tom. Lebanon: The Politics of a Penetrated Society. London: Routledge, 2002.

Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004.

Lebanon

History & Background

Al-Jumhuriyah al-Lubnaniyah (the Republic of Lebanon) is a very small Arab country (slightly smaller than the state of Connecticut). It is predominantly a mountainous terrain of great scenic beauty, situated in western Asia on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the east and north, by Israel to the south, and by the Mediterranean Sea to the west. As a country, Lebanon was created by accident rather than by design by virtue of becoming a French zone of influence after World War I. Thus, these borders were established during the French Mandate in 1918.

Culturally, economically, and geographically, Lebanon is considered an important part of the Arab world and the Middle East. It is the birthplace of the alphabet and has always played the role of cultural junction between East and West beginning with the Roman School of Law of Berytus or old Beirut, up to the American and French schools and universities in 1820 and beyond. Lebanon enjoyed a privileged status in the Ottoman Empire and thus managed to import European trends to the Middle East. For instance, the printing press was imported to Lebanon in 1702 and the production of books printed in Arabic started in the beginning of the nineteenth century promoting an Arab identity in the midst of a collapsing Ottoman Empire. Therefore, Lebanon, which represents one one-fortieth of the total area of Arabia, produced 70 percent of Arabic publications.

Arabic is the official language, but Armenian, English, and French are widely spoken and taught in schools. Education is free at government schools and universities, and students pay at private schools; Lebanon is said to have the best private school system in the entire Middle East. French and American styles of education are readily available and competing with each other in the country. Lebanon's strong and diverse educational opportunities assured the nation one of the highest literacy rates in the Middle East (75-80 percent). Also prior to the civil war (1975 to 1990), Lebanon had the highest standard of living in the Middle East.

The population of Lebanon is difficult to estimate since no official census has been conducted after Lebanon's independence in 1943, and many people also left the country during the 1975 to 1990 civil war. The 1996 estimate was that there were about 3.6 million Lebanese living in the country, and more than 3.0 million living abroad. Main cities include Beirut (capital city), Tripoli, Sidon, Zahle, and Tyre. The population growth rate is about 3.4 percent. The Lebanese population is very diverse and contains a mosaic of religions and ethnic groups. Seventeen of these groups are recognized by law and are represented in the parliament with proportional power sharing in the government. Christian sects include Maronites, Greek Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Armenian Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Protestants, Syriacs, Chaldeans, Nestorians, Protestants, and Evangelicals. Moslems include Shiites, Sunnites, Alawites, and Druzes. There is also a small Jewish community.

The territory known today as Lebanon witnessed many occupants and invaders throughout history, starting with the Phoenicians as long as 5,000 years ago, Babylonians, Greeks, Egyptians, Hittites, Assryans, Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantinians, Muslim Arabs, European Crusaders, Seljuk Turks, Ottomans, and French. Phoenicians were the most important Semitic migrants from Canaan who founded a maritime civilization that dominated the Mediterranean region with regard to trading in general, especially the transmission of cultural artifacts for about 2,000 years (2700 to 450 B.C.).

Another important point in Lebanon's history concerns the Romans and Byzantinians who converted many people to Christianity and left their marks in great castles around the country. After this, the Islamic invasion of Lebanon took place in the seventh century, while the Crusaders followed in the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. It was not until 1516 when Lebanon came under the Ottoman Empire rule, which remained until the end of World War I. At the beginning, the French authority ruled only some districts, and during that initial period, important political, social, educational, and economic reforms took place. For example, the new educational system encouraged the use of the Arabic language as a prime cultural resource. Arabic nationalism was fed by the recent trend of education in Arabic, which had caused the Arabs to demand independence from the Ottoman rule. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was completely destroyed and the control of Lebanon as a whole nation fell into the hands of the French authorities in the form of a mandate approved by the League of Nations. During the French domination period, a very effective health, education, and judiciary system was established.

In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and a Lebanese constitution was written under the supervision of the French and a local Lebanese committee. However, foreign control of the country did not end with this declaration. Thus, Lebanon gained its independence from the French authorities on November 22, 1943, and soon became the commercial and financial center of the Middle East, as well as a major banking and trade center between the Eastern and Western worlds because of its strategic location and west-leaning stand. Many multinational companies established their Middle Eastern headquarters in Beirut and the Lebanese people witnessed their best and most prosperous days until the mid-1970s.

Until the mid-1970s, the power was mainly in the hands of the Christian half of Lebanon. The other half, mainly Muslim citizens, was excluded from real power. The escalating tensions in various parts of the Middle East, dislocated Palestinians, and the Suez crisis caused the national unity in Lebanon to break apart. Since then the power struggle between various religious and political groups (mainly Christians and Muslims) took a new turn, and Syrian as well as Israeli involvement added to the worsening Lebanese situation.

The 1958 civil war or Muslim rebellion started as a result of Lebanon's refusal to join the union that was formed between Syria and Egypt. It took the intervention of U.S. forces to calm all parties in the conflict. Also, the Arab-Israeli war in 1967 added fuel to the overall situation in Lebanon, which did not enter the conflict, and the 1975-1990 civil war tore the nation apart and destroyed the economy. The Lebanese pound, which used to equal about US$3.00 in 1980, collapsed in 1984. In February 2001, US$1.00 equaled 1,507 Lebanese pounds. Human casualties of the latest civil war and the two Israeli invasions were extremely high (more than 100,000 people). In addition, that civil war jeopardized the entire educational system because of massive destruction of school buildings, as well as other facilities, and the closure of schools for long periods of times, sometimes for months.

Because of the Lebanese social structure, which consists of many different ethnic and religious minorities, the Lebanese people conducted their communal affairs in accordance with their own religious, cultural, and legal traditions under the Ottoman Empire. Education was one of those affairs assumed by each minority (especially religious minorities). Towards the end of the eighteenth century, a western missionary activity took place in Lebanon. American, British, Danish, French, German, Italian, and Russian missionaries came to Lebanon and opened schools and universities to further their religious goals. Since the Ottoman rulers did not play a major role in education and provided only some training of state bureaucrats, private schooling flourished and became entrenched in the Lebanese educational system and social structure.

The French Jesuits were the first to establish two schools in 1770, followed by the first national school of Ain Waraqa in 1782. Then in 1830 the American Protestant missionaries opened the American School for Girls and started to compete with the French Jesuits. Al-Makassid Institution was established in 1877 as a charitable association providing for the education of Muslim children. In 1866, the American missionaries established the Syrian Protestant College, which is known today as the American University of Beirut (AUB). This led the French Jesuits to open the Saint Joseph University (SJU) in 1875. By the end of the nineteenth century hundreds of various missionary private schools opened, which laid the foundation of primary and secondary education in the country. Prior to the French mandate, secondary education was provided by private schools only.

After placing Lebanon under the French mandate, the League of Nations along with the mandatory authorities approved a constitution for the nation that provided for the freedom and encouragement of public education. Thus, the Lebanese government adopted a policy designed to lay the foundation for a public system of education that was similar to the French system in many respects. Based on that policy, the Lebanese government took the following specific measures: 1) Primary and higher primary schools were established in big cities and towns. 2) Two training centers were established to prepare primary school teachers. 3) A primary education program, which was similar to the French system, was introduced. The basic difference between the two systems was that, in Lebanon, half of the curriculum was taught in Arabic and the other half in French. 4) All private and public schools were required to teach French as a primary foreign language. 5) French was recognized as another official language besides Arabic. 6) French teachers were appointed in private and public schools to teach and supervise the teaching of the French language. 7) A system of official public examinations similar to the French system was introduced and adopted. The official certificates awarded included the primary certificate, the brevet, and the two-part baccalaureate. 8) A French government commission administered examinations in Lebanon for the French baccalaureate, which was equivalent to the Lebanese baccalaureate.

After Lebanon gained independence in 1943, the Lebanese authorities adopted the French system of education with minor modification. Arabic became the only official language in the country, and the teaching of Arabic became compulsory. In addition, English was placed on a par with French as a primary foreign language, and in 1951 the Lebanese government established two public secondary schools in Beirut and Tripoli, officially marking the start of secondary public education in the nation.

Constitutional & Legal Foundations

The Lebanese constitution, which was written under the French mandate, has not changed with regard to guaranteeing freedom of teaching and education in Lebanon, as long as educational institutions do not transgress upon public order and are not disrespectful of any religion. Therefore, any qualified organization or individual can establish an educational institution, provided that they adhere to the general guidelines concerning education decreed by the government and their curriculum does not incite religious bias. These guidelines are usually promulgated by ministerial decrees without parliamentary approval.

The Ministry of Education for Youth and Sport rulings governing primary and secondary education as well as the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education rulings governing post secondary education (decrees 7001-7004 of October 1946, modified by decrees in January 1968 and November 1971, as well as the 1994 educational reform and the 1995 new framework for education in Lebanon) express the aims of public education in Lebanon as follows:

1. Primary education in Lebanon aims at providing children with needed basic skills to develop their moral, intellectual, and physical character as well as to assist them in assuming the responsibilities of citizenship.
2. Intermediate education aims at helping students to discover their interests and potentialities as well as to guide them toward a branch of knowledge or vocation that may be compatible with their interests and potentials.
3. Secondary education aims at providing training to a select group of students for advanced study at the university level or for subprofessional positions requiring a certain amount of mental development.
4. The new reforms of the 1990s (projets de restructuration du system educatif ) have aimed at consolidating the links between the pre-university teaching and higher education and at realizing an equilibrium between general education and technical or professional education.

These reforms set by the National Center for Educational Research and Development and approved by the Council of Ministers in August 1994 seem to have modernized the Lebanese educational system in accordance with the world's progressive education and technology. In addition, these reforms established in clear terms the principles and guidelines for new curricula, which draw on known international and local experiences. They also limit the different pillars possible for educational formation, the relationship between general education and technical or professional education, as well as that relationship between all forms and levels of education and the work market or the needs and aspirations of the Lebanese society. For instance, teaching two foreign languages was one of the established principles. The emphasis was on creating a citizen who is proficient in at least one foreign language in order to promote openness to and interaction with other cultures. Thus, teaching the first foreign language starts at the beginning of schooling, and the second starts in the seventh grade. The major guidelines underlying the language curriculum are: language learning is learning to communicate; language varies; learning a new language is becoming familiar with a new culture; language learning is most effective when it takes place through meaningful, interactive tasks; and language skills are interdependent.

However, after three years of implementing the new curricula, the Lebanese Minister of Education for Youth and Sport (Mr. Abdel-Rahim Mourad) appeared on the Lebanese Broadcasting Company International (LBCI) on January 18, 2001, and complained about some of the gaps that resulted from implementing these new curricula. It was very difficult for that ministry to fund the most up-to-date technologies to carry out the new educational responsibilities. Also, there was a lack in human resources, for materials in the new curricula have almost doubled and there are not enough teachers to train them for the new responsibilities.

Educational System—Overview

The Lebanese educational system is divided in two sectors: private schools and universities, for which there is a charge for admission, and public (government) schools and universities that are practically free of charge. This system is well developed and reaches all levels of the population. Lebanon maintained this advanced educational system structure by well-training its teachers before the conflict. Beirut, the Lebanese capital, served as an educational center for the region; however, this system suffered heavy damage during the civil war, but has still survived.

Education was once almost exclusively the responsibility of religious communities or foreign groups, but because the number of students in public schools has risen to more than two-fifths of the total school enrollment, the government was pressured to open more public schools to meet the demands of the general public. Public and private schools differ concerning the elementary phase of the educational system. While public schools have not paid much attention to the preschool phase and have required students to be five-years-old to be accepted in kindergarten until the 1990s, private schools have always had a preschool phase and have accepted students as young as three-years-old. Hence, students in private schools spend one year at the nursery school, another year at kindergarten one, and a third year at kindergarten two. This may help explain the difference in academic performance, which is usually higher among those attending private schools than among those attending public schools.

The Lebanese educational system has usually relied heavily on private schooling to accommodate the evergrowing demand for learning in the country. Private schools, which are in their overwhelming majority dependent on various religious communities, have a long and strong tradition in Lebanon. This fact has led to a great variety of educational institutions in the country, which may be considered as a reflection of the openness of the government to the international community. Aside from private schools established by western clerics (French, Anglo-Saxons, Germans, and Italians), there are many and diverse local and foreign religious and secular schools. The majority of these schools are funded by private religious groups—mainly Jesuits (Catholics who came in 1625 and, with the Maronites, established the first religious schools in Lebanon); Presbyterian missionaries who came to the Lebanese capital, Beirut, in 1866 and started a rivalry with Catholics by establishing the American University of Beirut and high schools; and Makasids or Muslim schools started in many mosques in big cities and supported by wealthy Islamic nations such as Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States. These religious schools led to and fostered some divisions and barriers among the Lebanese people, which have been very hard to break and, in turn, fueled the civil war for many years in Lebanon.

Even though the Lebanese educational system has depended heavily on private schools, the Lebanese Ministry of Education for Youth and Sport has been able to control the system through its licensing of private schools and its requirements for their graduates to pass the government baccalaureate examination at the end of the secondary cycle. These requirements and regulations have forced private schools not to deviate too far from the government curricula in pre-university education.

The new school curricula was launched in September 1998, and the Educational Center for Research and Development had trained 16,000 teachers in public schools and 6,000 teachers in private schools on the new uses and principles of the new program. The new system took into account economic, social, and national perspectives. The principle characteristics of this new system consist of the following:

1. The total duration in school remains intact, 12 years.
2. The primary cycle of general education has been increased by one year, and is divided into two modules of three years each, while the intermediary cycle was reduced to three years instead of four.
3. The first year of general education's secondary cycle must be considered common for all four different series of instruction, and the second year is common to only two out of four series.
4. Lebanese students are not allowed to enter formal technical education before age 12, which is the age limit of obligatory education.
5. The scholastic year was changed to 36 weeks, and 4 supplementary hours per week were added at the intermediary and secondary cycles.

Thus, the organization of instructional cycles reflects positively on career choices in all sectors of production. Also the ties between instruction and the work market have become consolidated, which guarantees professional opportunities for those who desire them. In addition, the reform of the educational system included elaborate scholastic programs that were inspired from the principles of the new constitution emanated from the Taef Accord. It took into account the future of the Lebanese citizens and their sacred values (tolerance, liberty, and democracy).

In short, the new formal educational system of Lebanon, like in many other countries, divides the years of instruction as follows: 6-3-3 (six years for the primary cycle, three years for the intermediate cycle, and three years for the secondary cycle), followed by the higher education cycle. Primary school education is followed either by a six-year intermediary and secondary program, leading to the official Lebanese baccalaureate certificate, which was originally based on the equivalent French school diploma, or by a three- to six-year technical or vocational training program.

Lebanese vocational education started in the late 1940s. It is mostly available in the private sector rather than in the public domain, and it is offered mainly at the secondary level as well as at the Lebanese University or other institutions of higher education. There are 1508 public and private intermediary and secondary schools for the general instruction program in Lebanon, while there are only 262 schools for the technical and professional instruction program divided between the public sector (29 schools) and the private sector (233 schools). So, the number of schools designated to professionally and technically teach students constitutes less than 12 percent, and the number of students oriented toward the formal technical and professional program represents less than 9 percent of the overall total number of students. A definite equilibrium between the two types of instruction is, therefore, needed in the country. In addition, this percentage becomes even weaker when considering the intermediary level alone (1.3 percent). Formal schools have not concerned themselves much with professional instruction at this level, leaving it for the secondary level in general.

Education is compulsory until the end of the intermediate cycle, is available to all Lebanese students, and is attended by nearly 95 percent of school-age children. However, compulsory education has not been fully implemented by Lebanese authorities, especially in urban slums and remote rural areas. Low cost government schools are available to all but are of generally low quality compared to private schools. Therefore, those who can afford to pay the cost of sending their kids to private schools would do so and end up paying for their primary as well as their secondary schooling because of the high quality education they receive. When it is time to enter college, students are usually faced with a required competency entry test before they can be accepted.

The school year starts in early October and ends in late June. The school day consists of six hours starting at 8:00 a.m. with two hour lunch break and ends at 4:00 p.m. The length of class periods ranges from 50 to 55 minutes. Both public and private schools are supposed to observe official holidays, which are decided by the government; however, Christian-administered, religious private schools take Saturday and Sunday off every week, while Moslem-run religious private schools take Friday and Sunday, and Jewish-run private schools take off all of Saturday and Sunday afternoon only.

As to special education concerning handicapped students, there were about 10,000 handicapped people in 1975 (prior to the Lebanese civil war). During the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982, this number reached 13,000; it is more than 15,000 in 2001. About 2,500 handicapped people were being educated and made ready to enter the work market. In addition, there was a pedagogic plan affirming the necessity of organizing the schooling of gifted students and devoting specific pedagogic programs to them that may address and respond to their fundamental needs. One of these programs is called al-Makfoufine (Blind Program), which consists of mixing blind students with other students in the same classrooms; this has proved to be an effective program.

The number of students going to schools and universities was expanding each year until the beginning of the civil war; it then began to decline because of unstable political and security conditions, substantial damage of school facilities, the mass exodus of people fleeing the war, and the scarcity of qualified teachers. This decline, however, changed after the civil war and took an upswing. For instance, the total student enrollment increased for four consecutive academic years after the civil war ended and people returned to their areas or houses. There was a steady increase from 770,599 students in 1993-1994 to 799,905 students in 1994-1995 to 829,338 students in 1995-1996 and, finally, to 878,102 students in 1996-1997. In addition, females appeared to have a slightly higher percentage than males with regard to attending schools and universities. After age 25 male attendance becomes almost double that of female attendance. Females get married at an earlier age than males in Lebanon and, when married, they mostly assume the traditional role of taking care of housekeeping responsibilities. They, therefore, have little time to go to schools and universities in order to further their education.

According to the CAS Survey, the literacy rate was 88.4 percent in 1997, as compared to 68.2 percent in 1970. The Lebanese Republic traditionally had an advanced educational structure and well-trained technicians and engineers. Prior to the conflict, Beirut served as an educational center for the region. However, a substantial part of its human capital was reduced during the conflict, and the educational system suffered damage and lack of investment. In spite of the turmoil, however, the educational system has survived and still retains high standards.

The Lebanese schools are unevenly distributed among the five mohafazats (provinces). The Greater Beirut area has the highest concentration of all schools and universities. The large population concentration in and around Beirut accounts for its schools' high enrollments. The Lebanese government provides facilities for public schools, but these facilities are poorly equipped in general. Few of them have libraries, laboratories, and playgrounds. Private school facilities are mostly better equipped than public school buildings.

Due to the Lebanese people's negative attitude toward manual work, especially in industry and agriculture, students of lower socioeconomic status enroll mostly in vocational and technical schools. Therefore, there is a big difference between the two major types of instruction, as well as the relative numbers of schools and students enrolled in each of these types. For example, in the academic year 1993-1994, the total number of public and private schools for the general instruction program was 1,508 (878 were public and 630 were private). However, the total number of schools for the technical and professional instruction program was 262 (29 were public and 233 were private). Fields of training in vocational schools include automotive and airplane mechanics, communication, electricity and electronics, printing, watch making, and welding.

Progression from one level to another depends generally upon passing official external examinations administered by the government at the end of each school cycle. The primary certificate (first official examination), which used to take place at the end of the primary school cycle, is now eliminated from the new educational system. The brevet certificate (intermediate studies examination) takes place at the end of the ninth grade, and the baccalaureate exams (part I and II) are given at the end of the second and third years of the secondary cycle. The brevet certificate is only required by public schools, vocational schools, and teacher training institutes. The baccalaureate part I exam has two main tracks: literary and scientific. The baccalaureate part II has four main tracks: literature and humanities, which includes language, literature, history, philosophy, education, arts, and religion; sociology and economy, which includes economic sciences, politics, business and management, law, and sociology; general sciences, which includes mathematics, physics, chemistry, and their applications at the level of engineering; and life sciences, which includes biology and life sciences, chemistry and their applications in the area of medicine, health, agriculture, and other related subjects.

Most institutions of higher education require entrance examinations besides the baccalaureate part II, which is required by law. These exams vary from one institution to another, but they usually cover language competency (native and foreign), science, and mathematics.

The grading system is generally based on scales of 0 to 20 or 0 to 100, with 10 or 60, respectively, as passing grades. This system also differs between French-oriented and English/American-oriented private schools. The French-oriented private schools, as well as the Lebanese public schools, grade on a scale of 0 to 20, with 10 as a passing grade. The English/American-oriented private schools use either a letter grade system, with A, B, C, and D as passing grades, or a scale of 0 to 100, with 60 as a minimum passing grade.

The curriculum in Lebanese schools is somewhat rigid, for all students must pursue the same programs in all three cycles (primary, intermediate, and secondary) except in the second year of the secondary cycle when students begin to branch out to one of the emphasis areas and continue to branch out further in the third year of the secondary cycle, which eventually prepares them to more easily pursue their higher education. The syllabi are usually set by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport. The textbooks are commercially produced in order to meet certain specifications of the syllabi. Both private and public schools are free to choose their textbooks; however, after the creation of the Center for Educational Research and Development (CERD) in the early 1970s, the government began to adopt (for the public schools only) books that were produced by the research unit of this center. Private schools can choose textbooks that meet their syllabi, except in the civics area where the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport requires them to use the center's textbooks.

Arabic and either French or English are the languages of instruction in the Lebanese schools. The subjects taught in Arabic have been limited to Arabic language and literature, history, geography, and civics. All of the other subjects have been taught in either French or English, depending on the school orientation or affiliation. While Arabic language dominates in public schools as a major language of instruction and French or English are taught as subjects at the primary cycle, in private schools, however, French or English dominates since all the subjects except Arabic language and civics are taught in a foreign language. In addition, the type of language that a person uses to communicate with others is usually related to politics, loyalty, religion, and social status.

The methods of instruction used in Lebanese classrooms are mostly traditional. Teachers spend a great deal of time lecturing, giving homework and reading assignments to students, and correcting exercises completed in the classroom. Students play a generally passive role in the instruction process. They listen quietly to their teacher, rarely question what is presented, and copy material dictated by the teacher, who uses textbooks as major sources of instruction. Later on, oral recitation by students is used for grading purposes. Memorization of facts and events is greatly emphasized in Lebanese schools, especially for the purpose of passing external formal exams. Therefore, it is not unusual to see standard answers given to questions on official examinations because certain teachers require their students to memorize model answers for certain topics. Implementation of new ideas and methods has been hampered by the lack of adequate educational facilities and well-trained professionals in that regard. However, private fee-charging schools practice more progressive and advanced methods of instruction, which are geared toward the increasing involvement of students in the instructional process. These interactive methods made some private fee-charging schools more famous in the Middle East region and attracted many students from other Arab or Near East nations.

Because of their quality education and high tuition fees, these private schools attracted students from the richest families, while poor families, who cannot afford to pay tuition fees for their children's education, have been somewhat satisfied, but not happy, to send them to either public or private tuition-free schools, which are usually subsidized by the government. Private schools are mostly sectarian and controlled by different religious denominations. Other types of private schools are owned by individuals or run by associations or committees, like al-Makassid.

The United Nations Reliefs and Works Agency (UNRWA) provides funds supporting a private nonsectarian school system for Palestinian Refugees in the Middle East. This type of private schooling has been very effective in offering education and social services for children of Palestinian Refugees residing in Lebanon. Besides the many primary, intermediary, and secondary schools, the UNRWA runs a two-year secondary teacher education program, which prepares primary and intermediate school teachers who serve their schools. In addition, the agency sponsors a technical training center for students who intend to pursue a vocational or technical career.

Preprimary & Primary Education

Preschool or preprimary education did not receive serious attention in Lebanon until the 1940s. Since then, it remained in the private sector till the beginning of the 1970s. Actually, in 1968 the Ministry of Education had defined in decree number 9099 the four stages of preuniversity education: le jardin d'enfants (kindergarten), le primaire (primary), le moyen (intermediary), and le secondaire (secondary), without mentioning the la prematernelle (pre-maternal). In addition, the decree 9099 was not put into effect till the end of 1971. Thus, the age of acceptance at this phase of this cycle remained uncertain, changing between three and four years of age, making this phase of the cycle two years in the public schools and three years in the private schools (decree 295 of August 1974 and decree 720 of September 1993).

The new educational system recognizes the fact that preschool education starts at conception and continues until the age of four, so the preschool phase is divided into two stages, before and after birth. First, before birth, parents are prepared to form a sane family through the help of different administrations of the ministries of Education, Health, and Social Affairs, and other municipalities as well as special international agencies. Second, after birth and until the age of four, the prior-mentioned administrations continue to help and advise the parents so the infants grow in an atmosphere conducive to their physical, cognitive, psychological, and social development.

At the age of four, children are admitted into a pre-school education program wherein they spend four hours daily for a minimum of five days a week. The preschool curriculum consists of four types of activities. First, children are greeted, their health situation is put under control, and they are given the opportunity to express themselves (free individual activities) and, thus, be prepared to participate in their other daily activities. Second, children get engaged in collective activities in class or outside of class on the playground, such as playing, singing, drawing, and other activities aiming at providing an appropriate educational climate, which can help the progressive development of the children's physical, intellectual, psychological, social, and emotional abilities so as to enable a smooth transition for them from the home environment to the school one without any major difficulties. Third, there are guided activities, which aim at giving children coherent and complementary experiences to the previous activities. Finally, the fourth type of activity consists of free plays in the presence of kindergarten teachers and under the control of a psycho-sociologist. This last type of activity is usually interrupted by certain breaks reserved for nutrition and rest. The role of teachers consists of helping children adjust and like school through playing with them, telling them stories, and teaching them to recognize differences between colors, between shapes of objects, or between letters and how to pronounce them.

The primary cycle of education lasts for six years instead of five as it was in the old system. It starts at the age of 6 and expands till the age of 12. It is obligatory for all citizens and can be considered as the primary phase of compulsory education, which progressively becomes an investment until the age of 15. This cycle is divided into two modules of three years each. The first module comprises the first, second, and third grades, and the second module comprises the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. Students are admitted in the first grade when they are six years old by December 31 of the year of registration in school.

The number of periods in each year of this cycle is 30 per week and 6 per day. The duration of each period is a minimum of 45 minutes in the first module and can be augmented in the second module. This cycle is considered as the preparatory one for the other following cycles. The major objectives of it are to master the language and communication with others; to comprehend the basics of sciences and mathematics; to scientifically understand the social environment; to get attached to the national identity, country, and moral values; to practice sports, artistic, and manual activities; and to stimulate confidence in themselves, autonomy, and cooperative work in school as well as outside of school.

The curriculum in the primary cycle consists of teaching Arabic language (six to seven hours per week, depending on whether students are in the first or second module), French or English language (six to seven hours per week, depending on whether students are in the first or second module), and mathematics (five hours per week in each of the two modules). The remaining of the 30 hours per week are reserved to teach civics, history, and geography (one hour each per week); sciences (two to five hours per week depending on the module and year); arts (three to four hours per week depending on the module and year); physical education (two hours per week); and other activities. Certain schools reserve at least one hour a week for teaching religion, even though religion is not an obligatory subject in the curriculum. The new educational system allows Lebanese students to progress from the primary cycle to the intermediate cycle without having to take any external official examinations as was the case in the past.

According to the new educational system, the intermediate cycle consists of three years and is designed for students aged 12 to 15. However, since independence it was approached in two different directions. On one hand, it has been considered an integral part of secondary education aimed at training or educating the national elite who are gifted, as decree number 7001 of October 1946 defines it. On the other hand, it is considered as an extension of the primary cycle that aims at preparing students to either enter into the technical schools or the active life of work, as delineated by decree number 6999 of the same year (1946).

At the end of this cycle, students take an intermediate certificate examination (brevet certificate ), which is administered by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport. Public schools require students to pass this exam before they can be admitted to public secondary schools or to the teacher training schools. Private school students can take this exam, but they are required to pass their private school exams or entrance exams before they can be allowed to enroll at the secondary level.

The intermediate cycle curriculum includes teaching Arabic language and literature (six hours per week), foreign language (six hours per week), a second foreign language (two hours per week), sciences (six hours per week), and mathematics (five hours per week). The remaining of an overall 34-hour total is divided among civics, history, and geography (one hour each per week); information technology (two hours per week); arts (two hours per week); and sports or physical education (two hours per week). The number of weekly periods for all the classes in this cycle are 34 total, with a minimum of 50 minutes per period. These periods are divided over five days a week.

Major objectives of this cycle are introducing students to information technology; instructing them a second foreign language; increasing the time allotted for sciences; increasing diverse artistic, manual, and sport activities; familiarizing students with professional activities as well as the new technology and its multiple uses; helping students become civilized citizens; permitting them to discover their individual capacities to pursue their academic careers or integrate into an active life; developing their fundamental competencies to communicate and express themselves in a creative manner; establishing a positive attitude in them toward manual professions; and developing their confidence in themselves as free, cooperative, and responsible individuals.

The intermediate cycle, along with the primary cycle, constitute what may be called a fundamental education. The weekly periods for all the classes of this cycle are 34, with a minimum of 50 minutes for each period.

Secondary Education

The secondary cycle of education is divided into two major fields of study: general education and technical education. The general field consists of three years and is known as the general baccalaureate. Students have to pass a comprehensive official examination in order to be offered that certificate. The first year is considered as common year, offering the majority of the necessary disciplines that help students choose what may suit them in the following classes. In the second year, there are two options (humanities and sciences) available to students. In addition to these two options, there are four other choices starting in the third year (literature and humanities, sociology and economy, general sciences, and life sciences).

The number of weekly periods are 35 for all 3 secondary years and options, with 7 periods a day and a minimum of 50 minutes each. However, in the second and third years where students branch off into different options, the studied materials differ in emphasis according to the option students choose to study. The periods of instruction are divided into three modules for all three secondary years. There is a great emphasis on teaching languages (2 to 6 hours a week depending on three important elements: the module, the school year, and students' option). Also the same is true for all other topics of study such as, mathematics, all types of sciences, sociology, economy, management, civilization, civics, history, geography, physical education, arts, and information technology.

The technical field of education comprises the initial formation and continues to the technical and professional years. It is known by two diplomas: first, the technical baccalaureate, which permits students to practice the profession they studied; second, the professional certificate of a master permitting students to attain the work market. The secondary technical cycle consists of three years, and the brevet certificate is a necessary condition to attain this cycle. There are three domains in this cycle: the services, such as finance, commerce, management, tourism, information, hotels, health; agriculture; and industry.

The first year is common to all choices in the services sector, and diversification starts in the second year. With regard to agriculture and industry, diversification takes place in the first year. The total scholastic periods for the services sector varies between 2,800 and 3,000 periods, which constitute an average of 950 periods per year. Also, the total periods concerning the agriculture or industry varies between 3,000 and 3,300 periods, which is the equivalent of 1,050 periods per year. The periods are distributed throughout 30 effective weeks per year (without counting the holidays). There are 35 periods per week, with a minimum of 50 minutes each.

The periods of instruction in all specialties are divided into four modules. The first module consists of teaching general materials, such as Arabic language, first and second foreign languages, mathematics, sciences, and sociology (40 to 50 percent in the first year and 35 to 40 percent in the second and third years). The second module is a specialty domain and consists of teaching specialty materials as well as sciences that are associated with one's specialty (45 to 50 percent in the first year and 55 to 60 percent in the second and third years). The third module concerns sports and various other activities (10 percent in the first year and only 5 percent in the second and third years). The fourth module is reserved for field studies and practice/hands on experiences (35 to 40 percent in the first year and 40 to 45 percent in the second and third years).

Students who succeed in three modules of this technical cycle are permitted to take the official examinations for the technical or professional baccalaureate certificate. The structures of this new model, especially concerning the superior professional formation, constitute an effective operational approach for continuing the initial development of students. They also consolidate the links between learning and practice in accordance with the needs and characteristics of the work market in Lebanon. The aims of the new curriculum are to prepare students for effective social interaction, academic achievement, and cultural enrichment. The best way to achieve these aims is through the adoption of a thematic, integrated, content-based approach to teaching and learning. The same concepts and skills are taught at various times across the grades but with increasing levels of complexity and sophistication as children get older. Unlike the old curriculum, the new one highlights the role of group work and stresses the need for the creation of an interactive classroom environment.

Many of the objectives and performance tasks included in the new curriculum call for pair and group work in line with the cooperative learning model of classroom interaction. In addition, the new curriculum emphasizes the development of the proper study skills, which helps students to develop into independent learners. In short, the new curriculum moves from a system of education based on rote learning and cramming of information to a system that promotes autonomous learning, thinking skills, and communicative competence.

Higher Education

According to Carla Semaan at the Lebanese Embassy in Washington, DC, there are 13 universities in Lebanon. These universities had a total of 79,141 students during the academic year 1994-1995. Nearly 23 percent were foreign students, compared with approximately 75 percent in 1974-1975 prior to the start of the civil war in the country. Lebanon's universities also had a total of 84,446 students during the academic year 1995-1996 and a total of 87,957 students during the academic year 1996-1997. The principle universities in Lebanon consist of the Lebanese University, with five branches (approximately 40,000 enrollments). It is the only one operated by the government; the others are owned and run by private entities. It had the highest enrollment in the academic year 1996-1997 (40,000 students); followed by Beirut Arab University (BAU), which is sponsored by the Egyptian University of Alexandria (14,000 students); Saint Joseph University, which is founded and run by French Jesuits (6,145 students); American University of Beirut (5,500 students); Lebanese American University (4,432 students); and Kaslik University (3,100 students). The other universities have less than 3,000 students enrolled. The Lebanese University (LBU), University Saint Joseph (USJ), and American University of Beirut (AUB) have medical schools.

The Lebanese University is a public (governmentrun) institution, with five campuses around the country (East and West Beirut campuses, Tripoli campus, Sidon campus, and Zahle campus). It was founded in 1951 with a major aim to train teachers for secondary schools. Since that time, its program has been expanded to include training for other professions as well. Instruction is relatively free, for students pay only nominal fees for registration, and those enrolled for teacher training purposes receive stipends. It was the first university to introduce an education major to Lebanon. It began with 68 students and, in 1959, it was given the license by the Lebanese government to teach all of its schools of study. Due to the civil war in the country, in 1976 the Lebanese University opened branches in Mount Lebanon (East Beirut), South Lebanon, North Lebanon, and the Bekaa, which was located in West Beirut. This was done to assure that students' educations would not be postponed. The Lebanese University has a nondiscriminatory policy due to religion, race, sex, nationality, or physical handicaps.

The Lebanese University offers academic programs in agriculture, communication (advertising and journalism), business administration, education, engineering, fine arts, law, literature and humanities, medicine, management, political science, and social sciences. Graduates can be awarded bachelor's, master's, and Ph.D. degrees.

The university follows the French model of higher education in most of its colleges and institutes and the U.S. credit system in a few of them. The grading system is based on a 0-20 or 0-100 scale, with 10 or 60, respectively, being recognized as the passing grade. To be admitted to the Lebanese University, Lebanese students are required to have the baccalaureate degree and pass an entrance exam in many programs, but foreign students are required to have an equivalent official secondary certificate.

The Beirut Arab University (BAU) is a private institution of higher education that was established in 1960. It is financially supported by Alexandria University of Egypt and operates under the auspices of the Moslem Philanthropic and Benevolent Society of Beirut. Accordingly, Alexandria University provides many of BAU's faculty members, controls its academics, and awards degrees to its graduates upon the recommendation of the BAU Council. BAU is a founding member of the Union of Arab Universities established in 1964 and a member of the International Union of Universities. It does not discriminate on the basis of religion, race, sex, nationality, or physical handicaps.

BAU's academic programs include architecture, arts, business administration, engineering, law, and life and health sciences. This university grants bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in certain specialties. Arabic is the language of instruction, but English is used in programs like architecture, engineering, and sciences. Admission requirements and the grading system are mostly similar to those of the Lebanese University.

St. Joseph's University (USJ) was founded in 1875 by a group of monks. The Jesuit order administers it and has strong ties with the University of Lyons in France. Seventeen institutions joined together to form St. Joseph's University. Its main branch is in Beirut, with other branches in Tripoli, Saida, and Zahle. Courses of study are given in French and other languages as well. USJ's goal is to train students to enter all work fields, be it locally or abroad, with the power and knowledge for guaranteed success. Its programs include business administration, economics, engineering, humanities, law, medicine, pharmacy, political sciences, and theology. This university grants two-year diplomas, bachelor's, master's, higher diplomas, and doctoral degrees. Its requirements are similar to those of the Lebanese University, with emphasis on the entrance examination and proficiency in French. Its grading system is based on a scale of 0-20. USJ is directed and financed by the Jesuits. The deans and chairs are Jesuit priests. The French government and private French institutions offer grants and subsidize this university. It is a very influential institution in Lebanon.

The American University of Beirut (AUB) was founded by the Evangelical Mission to Syria in 1866 in Beirut, Lebanon. It was named the Syrian Protestant College then, and its present name was adopted in 1920. The purpose of the AUB, as an institution of higher learning, is to share in the education of the youth of the Middle East, in the service of its peoples, and in the advancement of knowledge. It is a residential institution, and its pattern of organization, administration, and standards are similar to the best educational institutions of the United States. The AUB is a secular university, financed by an endowment fund that can be supplemented by grants from the U.S. government as well as from private national and international institutions or individuals. Because of its high tuition rates, only well-to-do families can send their children to pursue their higher learning in it.

This university emphasizes scholarships, which enable students to think for themselves. It stresses high academic standards and high principles of character. In its service to students, the university strives to realize the ideals of its motto: "That they [students] may have life and have it more abundantly." The AUB admits students regardless of race, color, religion, gender, disability, or national origin to all the rights, privileges, programs, and activities generally accorded or made available to students at the school. To be admitted to this university, students must be competent in English (have received a minimum score of 500 on the entrance exam or a minimum score of 575 on the test of English as a foreign language, known as the TOEFL). The grading system is based on a scale of 0-100, with 60 as a passing grade.

Its academic programs include colleges of arts and sciences, agriculture and food sciences, architecture and engineering, as well as medicine and health sciences. It grants bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. English is the language of instruction, but Arabic is used in several fields of studies also. The academic year starts in September and is divided into three semesters following the time divisions of the U.S. universities (fall, spring, and summer). The AUB is considered one of the most influential institutions of higher education not just in Lebanon, but also in the entire Middle East region.

The Lebanese American University (LAU), once known as Beirut University College, is a multi-campus, career-oriented institution that prepares students for responsible living, fully aware of the rich heritage and multiple needs of their respective communities. LAU, which was founded by the U.S. Presbyterian Church, is an institution that shares the spiritual concerns of its founders. It is an internationally stimulating community responsive to the dynamics of its environment. It aims at serving the educational needs of Lebanon and the Middle East with its three campuses in Beirut, Byblos, and Saida. LAU is at the crossroads of many interacting educational systems. Lebanon's academic freedom is essential to a climate of intellectual growth and the integrating cultures at LAU and other institutions of higher learning. The country's rich, multi-faceted heritage enhances the student body's international character, representing more than 50 nationalities on its campuses. LAU is very similar to the AUB in its grading system, requirements, and programs of studies, with the exception of medicine and engineering colleges. Thus, its major emphasis lies in the arts and humanities.

There are other institutions and universities of higher education in Lebanon such as Notre Dame University, Balamand University, Haigazian University, Antonine University, Beirut Islamic University, Holy Spirit University, Louaizeh St. Mary University, Sagesse University—College of Law, and the Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts.

Administration, Finance, & Educational Research

Lebanon's emphasis on education is evidenced by the existence of three active ministries relating to educational matters. They are the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport; the Ministry of Vocational Education; and the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education. However, the educational system and its administration are still highly centralized in the country despite continuous efforts to give more control to regional and provincial departments. Instead of only one ministry of education controlling everything, now the government has three ministries that control all important aspects with regard to the educational system in the country and the way it is financed. The three ministers are always members of the Council of Ministers and belong to political parties. The General Director of each ministry is directly responsible to the respective minister concerning everything in the ministry. In addition to these general directors, the Lebanese University and the National Conservatory of Music are controlled by the Ministry of Culture and Higher Education; the Center for Educational Research and Development is controlled by the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport.

The Central Administration, which is located in the capital (Beirut), includes the following departments: Primary, Intermediate, Secondary Education, and Examination. In addition to these, there are the following central offices or sub-departments: Private Education, Teacher Preparation, Educational Research, Cultural Affairs and Fine Arts, and the National Library. Besides these departments in the Central Administration, there are regional sub-administrations composed of the following departments: National Education for North Lebanon, National Education for Mount Lebanon, National Education for South Lebanon, and National Education for the Bekaa. Vocational Education is controlled by the Ministry of Vocational Education and contains the following departments: Administration and Execution, Supervision and Examinations, and Technical Affairs. In each ministry, there is a directorate for administrative affairs who coordinates administrative services among the different sections of each ministry through the offices of Auditing, Personnel, Equipments and Common Affairs, and Legal Studies and Statistical Information.

The Central Inspection Administration, which was established and maintained as a separate entity in 1959, inspects and supervises the Lebanese educational system through inspecting all public offices and agencies according to rules and regulations set out by the ministries of education. This administration is directly and closely supervised by the Council of Ministers. Each of the three ministries regulates its institutions' curricula and administers the official external exams after completion of certain educational levels. Because of these functions, some uniformity in academic programs and levels has been accomplished. Each ministry appoints teachers on a competitive basis, except graduates from the teacher training institutes who are automatically hired and assigned to certain positions or locations as needed. Teachers are considered government employees and, thus, get paid salaries by the government through their respective ministries.

Financially, public schools mostly depend on the central government's budget. A very few local groups or international agencies may provide some support in the form of donations for public schools. An average of 16 percent of the government budget is normally devoted for educational purposes.

The bulk of educational research is conducted by the Center for Educational Research and Development. However, the various colleges at the Lebanese University and teacher training institutions constitute major contributors to educational research. Most of the research is in the applied or experimental areas, which has resulted in improving the quality of textbooks and producing an abundance of theses and dissertations.

Nonformal Education

The new educational system, with regard to nonformal education, established a field of professional studies following the warrants of the job market, notably for the students who finished their first educational cycle and wish to acquire an immediate profession. In the centers of professional modular formation, the student receives a professional formation at three stages and in a way that the initial formation is conducted inside of the modules of autonomous learning, which give the student possibilities to pass vertically (that is, from one determined module of learning to a higher one) or horizontally to another profession at the same level inside of the same series of professions.

After passing every module of learning, trainees receive an official work certificate permitting them to practice the profession for which they were trained so that they may have the possibility to pursue their formation further according to the specific module of learning following the Lebanese ladder of adopted qualifications. In every module of formation, trainees receive between 600 to 900 hours of formation (25 percent theoretical and 75 percent practical work). That ladder of information is an echelon of qualifications starting with a novice worker, who knows about 10 percent but knows how to do things about 90 percent, and who can be granted a degree of formation attestation. Second, there is a qualified worker, who knows about 25 percent but knows how to do things about 75 percent, and who can be granted a formation attestation degree like the novice worker. Third, there is a specialist worker, who knows about 40 percent but knows how to do things about 60 percent, and who can be granted a C.P.A. degree. Fourth, there is a technician, who knows 50 percent and also knows how to do things 50 percent, who can be granted a technical or professional baccalaureate degree. Fifth, there is a superior technician, who knows 60 percent and knows how to do things about 40 percent, and who can be granted a technical or professional qualification degree. Sixth, there is the specialist or expert, who knows 70 percent and knows how to do things about 30 percent, and who can be granted a technical license degree.

In terms of the third module of learning, trainees may obtain the C.P.A., which permits them to work at establishments of production, construction, and in the service sector under the title of special workers. They can, if they wish, pursue their formation at the superior formal or nonformal technical level following the proper procedures of the establishment where they have been working and in coordination with the official direction of those who are concerned.

Students who abandon the basic education field or any other field of study can follow available courses in this area of modular learning. These courses are equally open to adults who wish to profit from these programs in order to move to another profession or for promotion purposes in the same professional domain. These programs open very diverse horizons in front of every individual and prepare for the practice of professions needed in the work market. Programs offered by vocational institutions are diverse and vary from one institution to another in terms of courses and training, depending on whether the institution is public or private. These programs include: home economics, secretarial training, needlework, pottery, masonry, and farming.

As to the conditions of admissions into the diverse modules of learning, they are linked to the demands of every specialty and they become precisely regulated when necessary by the Ministry of Technical and Professional Education in collaboration with the Ministry of Labor and through the National Agency for Employment. The General Directorate of Technical and Professional Education is responsible for the concepts and organization of the stages related to all the modules of learning.

Teaching Profession

While there are a small number of private institutions licensed to train teachers for the first two levels of education such as al-Makasid, the British Lebanese Training College, the French École des Lettres, and the French École Libanaise d'Éducatrice, the majority of teacher training institutions are in the public sector where teacher education is conducted at the secondary and university levels. Eligibility to teach at primary and intermediate schools requires training in secondary level institutions, whereas university training is required to teach at secondary schools. Therefore, to teach at primary public schools, teachers should graduate from one of the primary teacher training institutions with a baccalaureate degree in teaching (baccalauréat d'énseignement ).

These teacher training institutions offer three years of academic and professional training for students who enter them and have already the brevet certificate or its equivalent. Student admission to the program requires passing a competency examination in Arabic, English, or French; social studies; math; and sciences, as well as submitting evidence of Lebanese citizenship and good moral character. In addition, students who passed the two first years of the Lebanese baccalaureate are eligible to apply and train for one year at these institutions before they can be allowed to teach in primary schools. The curricula at these institutions have both academic and professional courses. They include natural and social sciences, pedagogy, school administration, and practical teaching. Specialties may include training in fine arts, foreign languages, general academics, physical education, and preschool instruction.

To teach at the intermediate level, teachers must graduate from one of the intermediate teacher training institutions or colleges. Admission of students in these institutions requires passing the three years of secondary school with the Lebanese baccalaureate in hand, passing a competency entrance exam, submitting evidence of Lebanese citizenship as well as good moral character. Subject matter specialties are usually offered in clusters.

Teacher education training for secondary schools can take place at any of the public or private universities in Lebanon. The program of study lasts for four years in any university and leads to a bachelor's degree in education or to a bachelor's degree in a subject area with a teaching diploma.

Lebanese private school teachers have a union with optional membership. Its basic function is to lobby for salary increases and social security benefits. Also, private school owners and directors have an association that represents their interests. Even though the Lebanese government has reconstructed its educational system and started to train teachers to adopt new methods of instruction, still teachers play a mostly traditional and authoritative role in the classroom.

Tuition at public teacher training institutions is free. Trainees receive scholarships that cover their living expenses. After graduation, trainees must teach five years in the public sector or reimburse all the expenses of their education. Research and innovation are emphasized in the process of training all teachers.

Summary

Despite the lack of enough public-funded high schools and more than 15 years of civil war in Lebanon, the literacy rate remains one of the highest in the Middle East region. In a country that has been shattered and almost destroyed by a prolonged civil war, extended family solidarity has become crucial in supporting individual family members and providing funds for the education of the young. Whether working in the country or traveling abroad for better work conditions and income, those extended family members kept sending money to help those who stayed behind. Strong family ties still exist in Lebanon and they are very important to many. Dealing with the peace of the 1990s has been as tough and draining for many Lebanese as had been surviving the fighting of the 1970s and 1980s. Restoring order to thousands of Lebanon's institutions, especially its schools, has been an uphill battle. Because of a high inflation rate, the devaluation of the Lebanese pound, an electric power shortage, a decreased water supply and increased pollution, the destruction of regular phone lines and increasing reliance on cellular phones, divisions between the rich and poor have widened and health as well as educational standards have become mainly restricted to those who can afford them.

The new Lebanese educational system is promising. It integrates, in the new structure, the diversity and equilibrium among the fields of study so that every student can see the multiple horizons open in the domains of general or professional education, as well as at the nonformal level. This fact assures the same chances of learning for all (independent of their age and sociocultural status) the passage from one profession to another without any major problems, the development of a permanent recycling system in the heart of a same profession, and the increase of possibilities for promotion.

It is complementary and balanced because it consolidates the relations among the diverse cycles and domains of learning from the maternal level all the way to the threshold of the university level. It also coordinates with the needs of the Lebanese and Arab labor markets in all of the domains (economic, development, and public services). In addition, it collaborates financially and materially among the establishments of production and scholastic institutions. Furthermore, it assures more diversification starting at the secondary cycle of instruction, which would contribute to the creation of an equilibrium between general and higher education as well as with the labor market.

The new system is flexible, which gives the students a possibility to change their field of study at a minimum cost. It also takes into account the problems of failure, getting behind, and dropping out of school along with reducing their demoralizing effect on the students as well as on their parents. In addition, this new system provides harmony with the majority of the educational systems, which are applied in the developed nations. Furthermore, it introduces progressive methods leading to pedagogical and educational innovation that can be found in a world of perpetual transformation. It also promotes obligatory education till the age of 15, which does not contradict the code of labor for employing children.

This system has become increasingly less centralized because of the large number of the private schools, which have more freedom to teach what they want as long as they do not contradict the laws of the land and can meet the minimum requirements set by the three ministries of education. These private schools have mostly foreign connections and, thus, have exposed the Lebanese to foreign languages and various foreign studies and cultures.

In addition, the Lebanese educational system, even before its reconstruction, has produced one of the highest literacy rates in the Middle East (75 to 88 percent). Enrollment rates at various levels have been considered the highest in the region (with the exception of the civil war period).

As in many other countries, the new Lebanese educational system has its own problems, which could sometimes lead to negative outcomes on the students and the Lebanese community as well. The Lebanese educational system is modeled after the English-American and French systems and, hence, does not adequately prepare students to face the various intellectual, psychological, and societal challenges of the Lebanese society, which is at a crossroads of cultures. Foreign schools affiliated with different cultures have participated in dividing the loyalties of the Lebanese youth and helped to fuel the civil war in the country.

There is an emphasis on religion and languages. Religion runs very deep in Lebanon, as is the case in most of the Middle East nations. This emphasis has led to animosities instead of understanding and appreciating religious diversity. By the same token, emphasis on foreign languages led Lebanese to mix their Arabic with French or English while speaking. This has created major gaps between the rich and poor (the more educated and less educated) as well as between people who are pro-eastern cultures and those who are prowestern cultures.

The classroom remains mostly teacher-oriented, with little attention devoted to individual students to learn at their own pace and according to their own needs. However, there is a great hope that the implementation of the new system is going to slowly change the methods of instruction toward a more cooperative style of learning through in-class problem solving and structured learning activities.

Official public examinations are difficult and cause much stress to students and their families. These exams rely heavily on memorization rather than comprehension of concepts and can lead to a high rate of failure or dropouts. This fact has led many school teachers to waste much time explaining and teaching the content of previous examinations so students may learn how to answer them correctly.

The poorly equipped public schools, along with lack of adequate facilities for many of them coupled with high tuition fees in private schools have been problematic throughout the years. Therefore, public schools are crowded, have high teacher-student ratios, and admission to private schools has become virtually impossible for many students (especially not so well-to-do families). The end result is that wealthy students have a better chance of passing official examinations and pursuing their education than poor students.

The Lebanese economy has been suffering for a long period of time because of the civil war and the currency devaluation. Thus, it cannot absorb a large number of graduates who face unemployment and seek it outside the country. There are few vocational and technical schools in Lebanon, especially in the public sector, and most of these are concentrated in the capital and a very small number of big cities. This has made it difficult for poor students to continue their education beyond the mandatory period.

Although education is mandatory until ages 12 through 15, it is not implemented in all areas of the country because the government lacks adequate facilities and the proper equipment for them in some of those areas. Also, considerable effort, money, and time have been invested after the civil war to modernize education in Lebanon. The new educational system, which is currently implemented, has been the fruit of reconstructing the old educational system and making it comparable to the most modern systems around the world.

In addition to the new educational system, the Lebanese government may take some initial steps to help the less fortunate people by implementing compulsory education in rural regions and by using new technology to providing distance learning to remote areas in the nation, which would alleviate the burden of living in big cities or leaving the rural areas for the sake of studying. Furthermore, Lebanon needs to build more adequate facilities and equip them with the most up-to-date technology for purposes of teaching. The government needs to also build and open more public vocational and technical schools so that the country could admit more students who do not want to pursue their higher education.

Moreover, Lebanese curricula should be unified, become less theoretical and more practical so as to address the needs of the students. More importantly, evaluation of students' work should not be based solely on external official examinations at the end of each level, but on intermittent internal evaluations throughout each year so as to lessen the stress on teachers, students, and their parents and to minimize the number of failures and dropouts.

Finally, students should be the center of attention rather than teachers in the classroom. Therefore, more emphasis should be placed on cooperative and distance learning as well as other new methods of instruction rather than lecturing and memorizing contents for the purpose of passing official tests.

Bibliography

Aljarida Alrasmiya of the Republic of Lebanon. Laws and Decrees Concerning the Pre-University Educational System. Beirut: Sader Publications, 1997.

Embassy of Lebanon. Profile of Lebanon: Statistical Data, 2001.

Fatfat, Mounzer. R. Understanding the Migration of Professionals from Lebanon to the U.S. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1999.

Habib, Camille H. "Social Pluralism, Political Confessionalism, and Cultural Development in the Second Republic." Middle East Quarterly, 2 (7), 1995.

Hashem, M. E. Identifying the Most important Factors Influencing the Phenomenon of At-Risk Student in the Lebanese Culture: A Comparative Study. Paper presented at the National Communication Association (NCA) Annual Convention. Seattle, Washington, 2000.

——. "The Power of Wastah in Lebanese Speech." In Our Voices: Essays in Culture, Ethnicity, and Communication, 3rd ed. Alberto Gonzalez et al., eds. 2000: 150-154.

Massialas, Byron. G., and Samir Jarrar A. Education in the Arab World. New York: Praeger, 1983.

Mesce, Deborah. "American Campuses in Beirut Strive to Restore Quality 8 Years After the End of Civil War, Some U.S. Academics Return." Chronicle of Higher Education, 29 January 1999.

Pipes, Daniel, and Ziad Abdelnour. "Ending Syria's Occupation of Lebanon: The U.S. Role: Report of the Lebanon Study Group." The Middle East Forum, May 2000.

République Libanaise, Ministere de l'Éducation Nationale de la Jeunesse et des Sports, & Centre National de Recherche et de Developpement Pedagogique. La Restructuration du Systeme Educatif Libanais (dossier II). Washington, DC: Embassy of Lebanon, 1995.

U.S. Department of State. Lebanon Country Report on Human Rights Practices for 1997. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 1998.

—Mahboub E. Hashem

LEBANON

Compiled from the November 2003 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Lebanon

PROFILE
PEOPLE
HISTORY
GOVERNMENT
POLITICAL CONDITIONS
ECONOMY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
U.S.-LEBANESE RELATIONS
TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 10,452 sq. km. (4,015 sq. mi.); about half the size of New Jersey.

Cities: Capital—Beirut (pop. 1 million). Other cities—Tripoli (240,000), Sidon (110,000), Tyre (60,000), Zahleh (55,000).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain backed by the Lebanon Mountains, the fertile Bekaa Valley, and the Anti -Lebanon Mountains, which extend to the Syrian border. Land—61% urban, desert, or waste; 21% agricultural; 8% forested.

Climate: Typically Mediterranean, resembling that of southern California.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Lebanese (sing. and pl.).

Population: (est.) 4.4 million.

Annual growth rate: (est) 1.4%.

Ethnic groups: Arab 93%, Armenian 6%.

Religions: Christian (Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, Protestant, Armenian Apostolic, other), Muslim (Sunni, Shi'a, other), and Druze.

Languages: Arabic (official), French, English, Armenian.

Education: Years compulsory—8. Attendance—99%. Literacy—88.4%.

Health: Infant mortality rate—26/1,000 (2003). Life expectancy—male, 71 yrs; female 71.9 yrs.

Work force: (950,000 excluding foreign labor, 1999) Industry, commerce, services—70%; agriculture—20%; government—10%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary republic.

Independence: 1943.

Constitution: May 26, 1926 (amended).

Branches: Executive—president (chief of state, elected by simple majority of parliament for 6-year term), council of ministers (appointed). Legislative—unicameral parliament (128-member National Assembly elected for 4-year and renewable terms; last parliamentary elections in 2000 (with an exceptional term of 4 years and 8 months). Judicial—secular and religious courts; combination of Ottoman, civil, and canon law; limited judicial review of legislative acts.

Administrative subdivisions: Eight provinces, each headed by a governor: Beirut, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, Mount Lebanon, Nabatiyah, Akkar, Ba'labakk-Hirmil, and Bekaa.

Political parties: Organized along sectarian lines around individuals whose followers are motivated primarily by religious, clan, and ethnic considerations.

Suffrage: 21 years.

Economy

GDP: (2002) $17.3 billion.

Annual growth rate: (2002) 2.0%.

GDP per capita: (2002) $3,930 (based on population estimate of 4.4 million).

Natural resources: Limestone, water.

Agriculture: (11.7% of GDP) Products—citrus, potatoes, grapes, olives, apples, sugar beets, tobacco.

Industry: (21.0% of GDP) Types—construction material, food processing, textiles and ready-made garments, furniture, and jewelry.

Services: (67.3% of GDP) Types—banking, tourism.

Trade: (2002) Exports—$1.045 billion (f.o.b.). Major markets—Saudi Arabia, U.A. E., Syria, U.S., and France. Imports—$6.44 billion (c.i.f.). Major suppliers—Italy, Germany, France, U.S., and Switzerland.

PEOPLE

The population of Lebanon comprises Christians and Muslims. No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. The U.S. Government estimate is that more than two-thirds of the resident population is Muslim (Shi'a, Sunni), or Druze, and the rest is Christian (predominantly Maronite, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, and Armenian). Shi'a Muslims make up the single largest sect. Claims since the early 1970s by Muslims that they are in the majority contributed to tensions preceding the 1975-90 civil war and have been the basis of demands for a more powerful Muslim voice in the government.

While 380,000 Palestinian refugees have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948, estimates of those remaining range between 160,000-225,000. They are not accorded the legal rights enjoyed by the rest of the population.

With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000-900,000 persons fled the country during the initial years of civil war (1975-76). Although some returned, continuing instability until 1992 sparked further waves of emigration, casting even more doubt on population figures. Approximately 17,000-20,000 people are still "missing" or unaccounted for from the civil war period.

Many Lebanese still derive their living from agriculture. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe—from North and South America to Europe, the Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor compared with many other Arab countries.

HISTORY

Lebanon is the historic home of the Phoenicians, Semitic traders whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years (c.2700-450 B.C.). In later centuries, Lebanon's mountains were a refuge for Christians, and Crusaders established several strongholds there. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that had comprised present-day Lebanon to France. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power between the various religious groups. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946.

Lebanon's history from independence has been marked by periods of political turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, and U.S. forces were briefly dispatched to Lebanon in response to an appeal by the government. During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm and Beirut -focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Other areas of the country, however, notably the South, North, and Bekaa Valley, experienced increasing impoverishment.

In the early 1970s, difficulties arose over the presence of Palestinian refugees, many of whom arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and "Black September" 1970 hostilities in Jordan. Among the latter were Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). Coupled with the Palestinian problem, Muslim and Christian differences grew more intense.

Beginning of the Civil War—1975-81

Full-scale civil war broke out in April 1975. After shots were fired at a church, gunmen in Christian East Beirut ambushed a busload of Palestinians. Palestinian forces joined predominantly leftist-Muslim factions as the fighting persisted, eventually spreading to most parts of the country and precipitating the President's call for support from Syrian troops in June 1976. In fall of 1976, Arab summits in Riyadh and Cairo set out a plan to end the war. The resulting Arab Deterrent Force, which included Syrian troops already present, moved in to help separate combatants. As an uneasy quiet settled over Beirut, security conditions in the south began to deteriorate.

After a PLO attack on a bus in northern Israel and Israeli retaliation that caused heavy casualties, Israel invaded Lebanon in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for the immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, turning over positions inside Lebanon along the border to a Lebaneseally, the South Lebanon Army (SLA) under the leadership of Maj. Saad Haddad, thus informally setting up a 12-mile wide "security zone" to protect Israeli territory from cross border attack.

U.S. Intervention—1982-84

An interim cease-fire brokered by the U.S. in 1981 between Syria, the PLO, and Israel was respected for almost a year. Several incidents, including PLO rocket attacks on northern Israel, as well as an assassination attempt on the Israeli Ambassador to the United Kingdom, led to the June 6, 1982 Israeli ground attack into Lebanon to remove PLO forces. Operation "Peace for Galilee" aimed at establishing a deeper security zone and pushing Syrian troops out of Lebanon, with a view toward paving the way for an Israeli-Lebanese peace agreement. With these aims in mind, Israeli forces drove 25 miles into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the support of Maronite Christian leaders and militia.

In August 1982, U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a multinational force comprised of U.S. Marines along with French and Italian units. A new President, Bashir Gemayel, was elected with acknowledged Israeli backing. On September 14, however, he was assassinated. The next day, Israeli troops crossed into West Beirut to secure Muslim militia strongholds and stood aside as Lebanese Christian militias massacred almost 800 Palestinian civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps. Then-Israeli Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon was held indirectly responsible for the massacre by the Kahane Commission and later resigned. With U.S. backing, Amin Gemayel, chosen by the Lebanese parliament to succeed his brother as president, focused anew on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. The multinational force returned.

On May 17, 1983, Lebanon, Israel, and the United States signed an agreement on Israeli withdrawal that was conditioned on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress. In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the Shuf (southeast of Beirut), thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting. By September, the Druze had gained control over most of the Shuf, and Israeli forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone, where they remained until May 2000. The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in February 1984, following the defection of many Muslim and Druze units to militias, was a major blow to the government. With the U.S. Marines looking ready to withdraw, Syria and Muslim groups stepped up pressure on Gemayal. On March 5, 1984 the Lebanese Government canceled the May 17 agreement; the Marines departed a few weeks later.

This period of chaos witnessed the beginning of terrorist attacks launched against U.S. and Western interests. These included the April 18, 1983 suicide attack at the U.S. Embassy in West Beirut (63 dead), the bombing of the headquarters of U.S. and French forces on October 23, 1983 (298 dead), the assassination of American University of Beirut President Malcolm Kerr on January 18, 1984, and the bombing of the U.S. Embassy annex in East Beirut on September 20, 1984 (9 dead).

It also saw the rise of radicalism among a small number of Lebanese Muslim factions who believed that the successive Israeli and U.S. interventions in Lebanon were serving primarily Christian interests. It was from these factions that Hizballah emerged from a loose coalition of Shi'a groups. Hizballah employed terrorist tactics and was supported by Syria and Iran.

Worsening Conflict and Political Crisis—1985-89

Between 1985 and 1989, factional conflict worsened as various efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting took place in the "War of the Camps" in 1985 and 1986 as the Shi'a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. The Amal movement had been organized in mid-1975, at the beginning of the civil war, to confront what were seen as Israeli plans to displace the Lebanese population with Palestinians. (Its charismatic founder Imam Musa Sadr disappeared in Libya 3 years later. Its current leader, Nabih Berri, is the speaker of the National Assembly.) The combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hizballah.

Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel 'Awn, as acting Prime Minister, contravening Lebanon's unwritten "National Pact," which required the Prime Minister to be Sunni Muslim. Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Salimal -Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no President.

In February 1989 'Awn attacked the rival Lebanese Forces militia. By March he turned his attention to other militias, launching what he termed a "War of Liberation" against the Syrians and their Lebanese militia allies. In the months that followed, 'Awn rejected both the agreement that ultimately ended the civil war and the election of another Christian leader as president. A Lebanese-Syrian military operation in October 1990 forced him to take cover in the French Embassy in Beirut and later into exile in Paris, where he remains.

End of the Civil War—1989-91

The Ta'if Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, had begun to formulate solutions to the conflict, leading to a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in Ta'if, Saudi Arabia, where they agreed to the national reconciliation accord in October. Returning to Lebanon, they ratified the agreement on November 4 and elected Rene Moawad as President the following day. Assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese Independence Day ceremonies, Moawad was succeeded by Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998.

In August 1990, parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Ta'if. The National Assembly expanded to 108 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its enactment. The amnesty was not extended to crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild itself as Lebanon's only major nonsectarian institution.

In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 left handicapped, during Lebanon's 16 year civil war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently. The last of the Western hostages taken during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992.

Postwar Reconstruction—1992 to Present

Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karamiin May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. He was replaced by former Prime Minister Rashid al Sulh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years.

By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Emile Lahoud in 1998, following Hrawi's extended term as President, Salimal-Hoss again served as Prime Minister. Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned.

If Lebanon has in part recovered over the past decade from the catastrophic damage to infrastructure of its long civil war, the social and political divisions that gave rise to and sustained that conflict remain largely unresolved. Parliamentary and municipal elections have been held with fewer irregularities and more popular participation than in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, and Lebanese civil society generally enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world. However, there are continuing sectarian tensions and unease about Syrian and other external influences. Lebanese Forces (LF) leader Samir Ja'ja, convicted in 1994 on civil war-related charges, remains imprisoned, and the LF is still banned, although Ja'ja supporters carry out periodic demonstrations and participate in local elections.

In January 2000 the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to act against groups such as Asbat al -Ansar, which has been linked to Usama bin Laden's al-Qaida network, and other extremists. On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, a former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatila massacres who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut. An estimated 16,000 Syrian troops remain in position in many areas of Lebanon, notwithstanding Ta'if stipulations that called for agreement between the Syrian and Lebanese Governments on their redeployment by September 1992. Syrian troops did not leave greater Beirut until mid-2001. Israel withdrew its troops from south Lebanon in May 2000, where armed elements of Hizballah are still present.

GOVERNMENT

Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy in which the people constitutionally have the right to change their government. However, from the mid- 1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years. Parliament, in turn, elects a president every 6 years. The last presidential election was in 1998. The president and parliament choose the prime minister. Political parties may be formed. However, most are based on sectarian interests.

Since the emergence of the post-1943 state, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 national pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Until 1990, seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims, when the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. Indeed, gaining political office is virtually impossible without the firm backing of a particular religious or confessional group. The pact also allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling "troika" distributed as follows:

• The presidency is reserved for a Maronite Christian;
• The Prime Minister, a Sunni Muslim, and
• The president of the National Assembly, a Shi'a Muslim.

Efforts to alter or abolish the confes-sional system of all ocating power have been at the center of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favored by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Ta'if Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.

Although moderated somewhat under Ta'if, constitutionally, the president has a strong and influential position. The president has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the National Assembly, to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.

The National Assembly is elected by adult suffrage (majority age is 21) based on a system of proportional representation for the various confessional groups. Most deputies do not represent political parties as they are known in the West, nor do they form Western-style groups in the assembly. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities.

The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate.

Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Principal Government Officials
Last Updated: 9/9/03

President: Lahud, Emile

Prime Minister: Hariri, Rafiq

Dep. Prime Min.: Fares, Issam

Min. of Admin. Development: Pakradouni, Karim

Min. of Agriculture: Khalil, Ali Hassan

Min. of Culture: Aridi, Ghazi

Min. of Defense: Hammoud, Mahmoud

Min. of Displaced: Farhat, Abdullah

Min. of Economy: Hamadeh, Marwan

Min. of Education: Al-Jisr, Samir

Min. of Energy & Water: Humayyed, Ayoub

Min. of Environment: Boueiz, Fares

Min. of Finance: Siniora, Fuad

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Obeid, Jean

Min. of Health: Franjiyeh, Suleiman

Min. of Industry: Skaff, Ily

Min. of Information: Samaha, Michel

Min. of Interior: Murr, Elias

Min. of Justice: Tabbarah, Bahej

Min. of Labor: Hardan, Asaad

Min. of Public Works: Mikati, Najib

Min. of Social Affairs: Diab, Asad

Min. of Telecommunications: Qordahi, Jean Louis

Min. of Tourism: Abdullah, Ali Hussein

Min. of Youth & Sports: Hovnanian, Sebouh

Min. of State: Arslan, Talal

Min. of State: Murad, Abdel-Rahim

Min. of State: Hrawi, Khalil

Min. of State: Qanso, Assem

Min. of State: Karam, Karam

Min. of State: Musa, Michel

Governor, Central Bank: Salimi, Riyad

Ambassador to the US: Abboud, Farid

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Qaranful, Sami Lebanon maintains an embassy in the United States at 2560 28th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. There also are three consulates general in the United States: 1959 East Jefferson, Suite 4A, Detroit, MI 48207, tel. (313) 567-0233/0234; 7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510, Los Angeles, CA 90028, tel. (213) 467-1253/1254; and 9 East 76th Street, New York, N.Y. l0021, tel. (212) 744-7905/7906 and 744-7985.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, still exists. The largest are all confessional based. The Phalange, National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces (now outlawed), and Free Patriotic Movement are the Christian parties with the largest popular following. Amal and Hizballah are the main rivals for the organized Shi'a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party. While Shi'a and Druze parties command fierce loyalty to their leaderships, there is more factional infighting among many of the Christian parties. Sunni parties have not been the standard vehicle for launching political candidates, and tend to focus across Lebanon's borders on issues that are important to the community at large. Lebanon's Sunni parties include the Independent Nasserite Movement (INM), the Tawhid, and Ahbash. In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba'ath parties, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war.

There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.

In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. Events over the last decade and long-term demographic trends, however, have upset the delicate Muslim-Christian-Druze balance and resulted in greater segregation across the social spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. All factions have called for a reform of the political system.

Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The reforms of the Ta'if agreement moved in this direction but have not been fully realized.

Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, whose numbers are estimated at between 160, 000-225,000, are not active on the domestic political scene. Nonetheless, they constitute an important minority whose naturalization/settlement in Lebanon is vigorously opposed by most Lebanese, who see them as a threat to Lebanon's delicate confessional balance. During 2002, parliament enacted legislation banning Palestinians from owning property in Lebanon.

ECONOMY

Lebanon has a free-market economy and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment; however, the investment climate suffers from red tape, corruption, arbitrary licensing decisions, high taxes and fees, archaic legislation, and a lack of adequate protection of intellectual property. There are no country-specific U.S. trade sanctions against Lebanon.

Lebanon embarked on a massive reconstruction program in 1992 to rebuild the country's physical and social infrastructure devastated by both the long civil war (1975-90) and the Israeli occupation of the south (1978-2000). In addition, the delicate social balance and the near-dissolution of central government institutions during the civil war handicapped the state as it sought to capture revenues to fund the recovery effort. Monetary stabilization coupled with high interest rate policies aggravated the debt service burden, leading to a substantial rise in budget deficits. Thus, the government accumulated significant debt, which by 2003 had reached $32 billion, or 180% of GDP, with the budget deficit to GDP ratio reaching 16.6%. Unemployment is estimated at 12-13% for 2002, but in the absence of reliable statistics, some estimate it could be as high as 20-25%.

After negative growth of -0.5% in 2000, the economy picked up slightly in 2001 and posted 2% growth, following measures taken by the government before the end of 2000 and during the first half of 2001 to boost economic activity, reform the administration, and move towards privatization. In February 2001, Prime Minister Hariri presented the government's reform program and economic policies to the World Bank and the European Union (EU) Presidents at a Paris-hosted conference (Paris I). The program focused on economic revival and sustain able growth, privatization, fiscal consolidation and structural reform, and monetary and financial stability.

The government also has maintained a firm commitment to the Lebanese pound, which has been pegged to the dollar since September 1999. The government passed an Investment Development Law as well as laws for the privatization of the telecom and the electricity sector, signed the Euro-Med Partnership Agreement with the EU in March 2003, and anticipates accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) by 2005. In order to increase revenues, the government introduced a 10% value added tax (VAT) that became applicable in February 2002 and a 5% tax that became applicable in February 2003.

In November 2002, Lebanon submitted a comprehensive program on its financing needs at the Paris II Donors Conference and succeeded in attracting pledges totaling $4.4 billion, including $3.1 billion to support fiscal adjustment and $1.2 billion to support economic development projects. To date, the government has received $2.5 billion, mostly used to retire or replace maturing debt, which carried an average cost of 13.5%. In return, the government issued donors 15-year dollar-denominated Eurobonds carrying a 5% coupon, with a 5-year grace period for repayment.

On the domestic front, the Central Bank of Lebanon (CBL) and commercial banks also contributed to the reduction of debt servicing costs. In December 2002, the CBL wrote off $1.8 billion in public debt it held and re-subscribed $1.8 billion in 15-year Eurobonds carrying a 4% coupon. Commercial banks subscribed 10% of their deposit base as of October 31, 2002 (about $4 billion) in 2-year treasury bills at zero percent interest rates. As a result of these combined efforts, about $10 billion was mobilized from local and international sources and used to replace high cost, short-term debt with lower cost and longer maturity debt. Paris II positively impacted financial markets and lowered interest rates.

On the fiscal front, the government continued to improve fiscal imbalances and succeeded in achieving a 27% improvement in the overall (budget and Treasury) primary surplus in the first half of 2003 over the corresponding period in 2002. In July 2003, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) publicly commended the government's efforts on fiscal reform and debt restructuring, while expressing concern over delays in privatization and securitization, and urging fiscal consolidation, economic reform, and improvement in the overall domestic political climate. The government continues to face difficulties securing political consensus to move forward on privatization. Tension between the President and Prime Minister that effectively blocks progress on reform is likely to remain until the presidential elections in the fall of 2004.

The U.S. enjoys a strong exporter position with Lebanon, generally ranking as Lebanon's fourth or fifthlargest source of imported goods. More than 160 offices representing U.S. businesses currently operate in Lebanon. Since the lifting of the passport restriction in 1997 (see below), a number of large U.S. companies have opened branch or regional offices, including Microsoft, American Airlines, Arthur Andersen, Coca-Cola, FedEx, UPS, General Electric, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Cisco, Eli Lilly, and Pepsi Cola.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Lebanon's foreign policy is heavily influenced by Syria. The framework for relations was first codified in May 1991, when Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of mutual cooperation. This treaty came out of the Ta'if Agreement, which stipulated that "Lebanon is linked to Syria by distinctiveties deriving strength from kinship, history, and common interests." The Lebanese-Syria treaty calls for "coordination and cooperation between the two countries" that would serve the "interests of the two countries within the framework of sovereignty and independence of each." Numerous agreements on political, economic, security, and judicial affairs have followed over the years.

Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is in the process of accession to the World Trade Organization. Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of its Arab neighbors (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi'a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002.

Lebanon did not participate in the 1967 or 1973 Arab-Israeli war or in the 1991 Gulf War. The success of the latter created new opportunities for Middle East peacemaking. In October 1991, under the sponsorship of the United States and the then-Soviet Union, Middle East peace talks were held in Madrid, Spain, where Israel and a majority of its Arab neighbors conducted direct bilateral negotiations to seek a just, lasting, and comprehensive peace based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 (and 425 on Lebanon) and the concept of "land for peace." Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and representatives of the Palestinians continued negotiating until the Oslo interim peace accords were concluded between Israel and the Palestinians in September 1993 and Jordan and Israel signed an agreement in October 1994. In March 1996, Syria and Israel held another round of Madrid talks; the Lebanon track did not convene.

In early April 1996, Israel conducted a military operation dubbed "Grapes of Wrath" in response to Hizballah's continued launching of rockets at villages in northern Israel. The 16-day operation caused hundreds of thousands of civilians in south Lebanon to flee their homes. On April 18, Hizballah fired mortars at an Israeli military unit from a position near the UN compound at Qana, and the Israeli Army responded with artillery fire. Several Israeli shells struck the compound, killing 102 civilians sheltered there. In the "April Understanding" concluded on April 26, Israel and Hizballah committed to avoid targeting civilians and using populated areas to launch attacks. The Israel-Lebanon Monitoring Group (ILMG), co-chaired by France and the United States, with Syria also represented, was set up to implement the Understanding and assess reports of violations. ILMG ceased operations following the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from south Lebanon.

On May 23, 2000, the Israeli military carried out a total withdrawal of Israeli troops from the south and the Bekaa Valley, effectively ending 22 years of occupation. The SLA collapsed and about 6,000 SLA members and their families fled the country, although more than 3,000 had returned by November 2003. The military court tried all of the SLA operatives who remained in the country and the average sentence handed down was 1-year imprisonment. With the withdrawal of Israeli forces, many in Lebanon began calling for a review of the continued presence of Syrian troops, estimated in late 2003 at approximately 16,000.

On June 16, 2000, the UN Security Council adopted the report of the Secretary General verifying Israeli compliance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 and the withdrawal of Israeli troops to their side of the demarcated Lebanese-Israeli line of separation (the "Blue Line") mapped out by UN cartographers. (The international border between Lebanon and Israel is still to be determined in the framework of a peace agreement.) In August 2000, the Government of Lebanon deployed over 1,000 police and soldiers to the former security zone, but Hizballah also maintained observation posts and conducted patrols along the Blue Line. While Lebanon and Syria initially agreed to respect the Blue Line, both since have registered objections and continue to argue that Israel has not fully withdrawn from Lebanese soil. As regional tension escalated with the Palestinian intifada in September 2000, Hizballah cited Blue Line discrepancies when it reengaged Israel on October 7, taking three Israeli soldiers captive in an area known as Sheba Farms. (In 2001, the Israeli government declared the three soldiers were believed to be dead.) Sheba Farms is a largely unpopulated area of the Golan Heights, just south of the Blue Line, that was captured by Israel from Syria in 1967. Hizballah also holds in captivity an Israeli reservist, Elhanan Tannenbaum, abducted in late 2000. Hizballah has sought to use the captives to leverage the release of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel.

Hizballah forces have continued to launch sporadic military strikes on Israeli forces, drawing responses that produced casualties on both sides and, on two occasions in 2001, Israeli air strikes on Syrian radar sites in Lebanon. UNIFIL has recorded numerous violations of the Blue Line by both sides since the Israeli withdrawal. In general, however, the level of violence along the Israeli-Lebanon front has decreased dramatically since May 2000.

U.S.-LEBANESE RELATIONS

The United States seeks to maintain its traditionally close ties with Lebanon, and to help preserve its independence, sovereignty, national unity, and territorial integrity. The United States also supports the withdrawal of all non-Lebanese forces from Lebanon, including Syrian forces, and the disarming and disbanding of all armed militias. The United States believes that a peaceful, prosperous, and stable Lebanon can make an important contribution to comprehensive peace in the Middle East.

One measure of U.S. concern and involvement has been a program of relief, rehabilitation, and recovery which, since 1975, has totaled more than $400 million. This support reflects not only humanitarian concerns and historical ties but also the importance the United States attaches to sustainable development and the restoration of an independent, sovereign, unified Lebanon. Current funding is used to support the activities of U.S. and Lebanese private voluntary organizations engaged in rural and municipal development programs nationwide, improve the economic climate for global trade and investment, and enhance security and resettlement in south Lebanon. The U.S. also supports humanitarian demining and victims' assistance programs.

Over the years, the United States also has assisted the American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Lebanese American University (LAU) with budget support and student scholarships. Assistance al so has been provided to the Lebanese-American Community School (ACS) and the International College (IC).

In 1993, the U.S. resumed the International Military Education and Training program in Lebanon to help bolster the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF)—the country's only nonsectarian federal institution—and reinforce the importance of civilian control of the military. Sales of excess defense articles (EDA) resumed in 1991 and have allowed the LAF to enhance both its transportation and communications capabilities, which were severely degraded during the civil war.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Beirut (E), Antelias • P.O. Box 70-840, Beirut; or 6070 Beirut Place, Washington, D.C. 20521-6070 Tel [961] (4) 542-600, 542-600, 544-137, 544-688, 544-133; Fax: Switchboard: 544-136; EXEC Fax 544-318; ADM Fax 544-604; CON Fax 544-209 or 544-037; COM Fax 544-794; PAS Fax 544-861. E-mail address: [email protected]

Last Modified: Wednesday, September 24, 2003

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet
July 30, 2003

Country Description: The Republic of Lebanon is a parliamentary republic. The country is still dealing with the economic challenge of recovery from its long civil war. Political power is concentrated in the office of the President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament, each representing one of Lebanon's three largest religious sects (Maronite Christians, Sunni, and Shi'a Muslims). About 20,000 Syrian troops are stationed in the country, and Syria retains a significant political influence, especially in foreign policy. Since 1973, Lebanon has been in a state of war with Israel.

Entry and Exit Requirements: Passports and visas are required. Travelers holding passports that contain visas or entry/exit stamps for Israel may be refused entry into Lebanon. Travelers whose passports contain Israeli stamps or visas and who also hold an "Arab nationality" may be subject to arrest and imprisonment. Travelers who have overstayed their entry visa validity in Lebanon have to adjust their status with the Surete General (Department of Passport and Immigration) prior to their departure. Further information on entry requirements can be obtained from the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street N.W., Washington, D.C., 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. Additional information can be found on the Embassy of Lebanon's website http:///www.lebanonembassyus.org/. Travelers may also contact one of the Consulates General of Lebanon:

7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510
Los Angeles, CA 90028
(323) 467-1253

1959 E. Jefferson, Suite 4A
Detroit, MI 48207
(313) 567-0233

9 E. 76th Street
New York, NY 10021
(212) 744-7905

6600 S.W. 57th Avenue, Suite 200
Miami, FL 33143
(305) 665-3004
(Honorary Consul, for Florida residents only)

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Dual Nationality: In addition to being subject to all Lebanese laws affecting U.S. citizens, dual nationals may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on Lebanese citizens. For additional information, please see the Consular Affairs home page on the Internet at http://travel.state.gov for our Dual Nationality flyer.

Compulsory Military Service: Lebanese males 18 to 30 years old are subject to mandatory military service of one year. Dual nationals who visit Lebanon are not exempt, except as allowed by Lebanese law. Dual nationals should contact the Military Office of the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, or call (202) 265-2335 or fax (202) 667-0063 for details prior to traveling to Lebanon.

Due to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, Syrian-American men who are over the age of 18 who are planning to visit Lebanon are strongly urged to check with the Syrian Embassy in Washington, D.C. concerning compulsory military service. Even American males who have never resided in or visited Syria, but whose fathers are/were Syrian, are required to complete military service or pay to be exempted. Possession of a U.S. passport does not relieve the bearer of this obligation.

Safety and Security: Security incidents have occurred in Lebanon with little warning, including random or planned criminal acts and other disturbances to public order. Travelers should be alert to dangers posed by landmines and unexploded ordnance throughout south Lebanon, and in some mountain areas in north Lebanon. Security conditions in areas along the Israel-Lebanon border are subject to change. Americans have been targets in the past of terrorist attacks in Lebanon. The perpetrators of many of these attacks are still present in Lebanon and retain the ability to act.

The Overseas Citizen Services call center at 1-888-407-4747 can answer general inquiries on safety and security overseas. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. To 8:00 p.m eastern time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Crime Information: While the crime rate in Lebanon is moderate, both car thefts and house break-ins occur. The loss or theft of a U.S. passport abroad should be reported immediately to local police and the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to the local police, please contact the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate for assistance. The embassy/consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of crimes is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State pamphlets A Safe Trip Abroad and Tips for Travelers to the Middle East and North Africa for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlets are available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs homepage at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: In Beirut and the surrounding areas modern medical care and medicines are widely available. Such facilities are not always available in outlying areas, although no location in the country is more than three hours from the capital. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for services and without such payment may deny service even in emergency cases. A list of doctors who speak English is available from the U.S. Embassy.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the United States may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses that you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers within the United States at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747), fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Lebanon is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Good
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Good
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Drivers often maneuver aggressively and pay little regard to traffic lights and stops signs. Lanes are generally unmarked. Pedestrians, especially, should exercise great caution, because parked cars often obstruct the sidewalks, forcing pedestrians to walk in the streets. Inter-city directional signs are improving throughout the country, but side roads and urban neighborhoods are often not signposted at all.

For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html. For specific information concerning Lebanese driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Lebanon.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As the U.S. has not re-authorized direct air service between the U.S. and Lebanon since the end of Lebanon's civil war, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Lebanon's civil aviation authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Lebanon's air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the United States at tel. (800) 322-7873 or visit the FAA Internet home page at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) separately assesses some foreign air carriers for suitability as official providers of air services. For information regarding the DOD policy on specific carriers, travelers may contact the DOD at (618) 229-4801.

Customs Regulations: Lebanese Customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of such items as firearms or antiquities. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Lebanon in Washington, D.C., or one of Lebanon's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protectio ns available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than those in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Lebanon's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession of, use of, or trafficking in illegal drugs are severe in Lebanon, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines. Individuals charged with drug offenses are usually not released on bail and can expect to remain in jail while judicial authorities prepare their cases for prosecution.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone the Overseas Citizens Services call center at 1-888-407-4747. The OCS call center can answer general inquiries regarding international adoptions and will forward calls to the appropriate country officer in the Bureau of Consular Affairs. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. eastern standard time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Lebanese fathers of minor children (under 18 years of age) may legally prevent their children from leaving or being taken from Lebanon. Likewise, a Lebanese husband may take legal action to prevent his wife from leaving the country, regardless of her nationality. During a custody dispute or divorce proceedings, either party can request an injunction to prevent the other's departure from the country. Once such legal orders are in place, the U.S. Embassy cannot assist American citizens to leave Lebanon.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Lebanon are advised to register with the Consular Section at the U.S. Embassy in Beirut and obtain updated information on travel and security within Lebanon. Visitors should forward by fax or by mail their travel itineraries, contact numbers, and copies of the information pages of their passports. Restrictions continue on the movement of U.S. Embassy employees for security reasons. Therefore, assistance in emergency cases such as arrests or deaths may not always be provided in a timely manner.

The U.S. Embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, P.O. Box 70-840, Beirut, Lebanon. The telephone numbers are [961] (4) 542-600, 543-600, 544-310, 544-130, and 544-140. The Consular fax is [961] (4) 544-209. The American Citizen Services office is open to the public Monday through Thursday from 8:00 a.m. until ll:00 a.m. and the Federal Benefits Unit is open from 11:00 a.m. until 2:00 p.m. Monday through Thursday. Public inquiries are answered from 1:30 p.m. to 3:30 p.m. Monday through Friday. Please check the U.S. Embassy home page for up-to-date information on hours and services. Those who wish to receive warden messages by e-mail via a free subscriber service may send a request to join [email protected].

International Parental Child Abduction

The information below has been edited from the report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, American Citizen Services. For more information, please read the Guarding Against International Child Abduction section of this book and review current reports online at travel.state.gov

Note: The information contained in this flyer is intended as an introduction to the basic elements of children's issues in Lebanon. It is not intended as a legal reference. Currently there are no international or bilateral treaties in force between Lebanon and the United States dealing with international parental child abduction. The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction cannot be invoked if a child is taken from the United States to Lebanon, or vice versa, by one parent against the wishes of the other parent or in violation of a U.S. custody order.

Dual Nationality: Under Lebanese law, children born to a Lebanese father inside or outside Lebanon are considered citizens of Lebanon. However, children born to a Lebanese mother may not be considered Lebanese citizens unless the father is naturalized Lebanese either by:

1. Residing in Lebanon for five consecutive years.
2. Marrying a Lebanese woman and residing in Lebanon for one year after marriage.

Enforcement of Foreign Court Orders: As a general rule, enforcement of foreign custody orders is recognized under Lebanese Laws, and is granted by the Appellate Court provided that it is not subject to any litigation nor contravenes any imperative rule of law or violates a rule of public order. Therefore, as a practical matter, foreign custody orders are generally recognized in Lebanon, unless a lawsuit is already pending before a Lebanese court of justice, and the Lebanese court declares otherwise. (Please note the information provided below in the section pertaining to Travel Restrictions.)

Right of Custody and Custody Disputes: 1) In Lebanon, custody issues, like issues of marriage and divorce, remain dependent on the laws of each religious community. In general, however, courts usually award custody to the mother for the boys until the age of seven years and for the girls until the age of nine years, then custody rights are transferred to the father if he so wishes.

The Christian Maronite church theoretically applies a different rule which awards custody to the mother for the child until the age of two. Otherwise custody decisions are taken in the child's best interest.

The above general rule shall apply provided that the custodial parent is deemed fit to raise his/her children by the court.

2) Travel of the children outside of Lebanon is usually settled in the Lebanese custody decree rendered by the court. In the absence of an explicit reference to this matter, the authorities will require the authorization of both parents before issuing a Lebanese passport for the child. Once this is done, there is no travel ban on the children unless a court order mandates otherwise. The courts have discretionary power over custody matters. (Please note the information provided below in the section pertaining to Travel Restrictions.)

3) In cases of civil marriage (which must take place outside of Lebanon) between spouses of different religions or nationalities, Lebanese civil courts rather than religious courts will have jurisdiction over divorce and custody matters. However, spouses or parents may choose to submit voluntarily to the jurisdiction of a religious authority.

4) Finally, custody issues may, at the request of one of the parents, be reviewed by the Lebanese courts at any time and be amended based on a change in the situation, which motivated the initial decision.

Right of Visitation: There are no specific rules pertaining to this issue and it is entirely left to the discretion of the courts. The divorce and custody decrees generally fix the right of visitation depending on each case.

Father's Permission: Children under a certain age (generally, 18 years for boys and girls alike) are not allowed to leave Lebanon without the permission of their custodial parent. Generally, the permission is deemed grant ed with the issuance of the passport.

Travel Restrictions: Lebanese Immigration Officials (Surete General) allow a father to place a travel "hold" on his wife and his minor children (under eighteen). This requires no court order or legal determination. A simple administrative procedure (with Surete General or General Prosecutor), authorizes a "blacklist" entry that expires after six months if not renewed. However, this entry can be extended "indefinitely" by the father or by anyone acting on the father's power of attorney. Often, placing a hold on a child has the effect of stopping the departure of the child's mother.

Visa Stamps: A Lebanese visa entitles its holder to stay within the Lebanese territory for a maximum of 15 days, and can be obtained at any Lebanese embassy abroad, or at any Surete General post at the Lebanese border. Residency visas are given for a maximum period of six months, which can be extended to a total of one year from the entry date. American citizens wishing to reside in Lebanon for over one year are granted one-year residency permits, which can then be renewed for additional three-year periods.

Departure: Immigration officials will prevent departure of any individual whose passport lacks a "valid entry stamp and residency visa." Upon loss or theft of a current passport, a new passport plus a police report of loss or theft are required for obtaining a replacement "entry stamp and/or a residency visa." This process must be followed by an adult bearer of the passport, and by parent(s) for minor children provided that immigration authority's records indicate the bearer's "legal" status in Lebanon.

Issuance of Lebanese Passports: Under Lebanese Law, no child under 18 years of age can obtain a Lebanese passport without the permission of his/her guardian or custodian parent.

Embassy of Lebanon
2560 25th Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20008
Phone: (202) 939-6300
Fax: (202) 939-6324

U.S. Embassy in Lebanon
Awkar
P.O. Box: 70-840 Lebanon
Tel: 961-4-542-600/543-600
Fax: 961-4-544-209

Travel Warning
December 4, 2003

This Travel Warning is being updated to remind U.S. citizens of ongoing safety and security concerns in Lebanon. This supersedes the Travel Warning for Lebanon issued May 6, 2003.

The Department of State continues to warn U.S. citizens to consider carefully the risks of travel to Lebanon. U.S. citizens in Lebanon are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut where they may also obtain updated information on travel and security in Lebanon. See registration details below.

Tensions in the Middle East have prompted public expressions of anti-U.S. rhetoric and public sentiment. Recent events in Lebanon, such as bombings directed at U.S. franchises and the November 2002 murder of a U.S. citizen in Sidon, underscore the need for caution and sound personal security precautions. There have also been demonstrations

and spontaneous protests, sometimes violent, in Lebanon's Palestinian refugee camps, most major cities, and near the U.S. Embassy and United Nations headquarters. Lebanon's southern border has been quieter in recent months, although tensions remain high. Hizballah and Palestinian militant activity there could increase without warning.

In the past, Americans were the targets of numerous terrorist attacks in Lebanon. The perpetrators of many of these attacks are still present and retain the ability to act. American citizens should thus keep a low profile, varying times and routes for all required travel. Americans should also pay close attention to their personal security at locations where Westerners are generally known to congregate, and should avoid demonstrations and large gatherings.

The U.S. Government considers the potential threat to U.S. Government personnel assigned to Beirut sufficiently serious to require them to live and work under a strict security regime. This limits the movement of U.S. Embassy officials in certain areas of the country. This factor, plus limited staffing, prevents the Embassy from performing full consular functions and may hinder timely assistance to Americans in Lebanon. Unofficial travel to Lebanon by U.S. Government employees and their family members requires prior approval by the Department of State.

American air carriers are prohibited from using Beirut International Airport (BI A) due to continuing concern about airport and aircraft security arrangements. For similar reasons, the Lebanese carrier Middle East Airlines (MEA) is not permitted to operate service into the United States. Official U.S. government travelers take extraordinary security measures when using the Beirut International Airport.

U.S. citizens who travel to Lebanon despite this Warning should exercise heightened caution when traveling in parts of the southern suburbs of Beirut, portions of the Bekaa Valley and South Lebanon, and the cities of Sidon and Tripoli. Hizballah has not been disarmed and it maintains a strong presence in many of these areas, and there is potential for action by other extremist groups in the city of Tripoli.

Palestinian groups hostile to both the Lebanese government and the U.S. operate largely autonomously inside refugee camps in different areas of the country. Intra communal violence within the camps has resulted in violent incidents such as shootings and explosions. Travel by U.S. citizens to Palestinian camps should be avoided. Asbat al-Ansar, a terrorist group with apparent links to Al-Qaida, has targeted U.S.-Lebanese, U.S. and other foreign government interests. It has been outlawed by the Lebanese government but continues to maintain a presence in Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp.

Dangers posed by landmines and unexploded ordnance throughout south Lebanon are significant and also exist in other areas where civil war fighting was intense. Travelers should be aware of posted mine warnings and strictly avoid all areas where mines and unexploded ordnance may be present. Security conditions in areas along the Israel-Lebanon border are subject to change. There have been isolated incidents resulting in civilian injuries, including from accidental detonation of mines and confrontations across the border with Israeli forces in the immediate area of the border demarcation.

The Embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, Beirut, Lebanon. Public access hours for American citizens are Monday through Thursday, 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. However, American citizens who require emergency services outside of these hours may contact the Embassy by telephone at any time. The telephone numbers are (961-4) 542-600, 543-600, 544-310, 544-130, 544-140, and fax 544-209. American citizens registering at the Embassy can receive updated information and warden messages via e-mail by subscribing to [email protected]. Information on consular services and registration can also be found at http://www.usembassy.gov.lb or by phone at the above telephone numbers between 1:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., Monday through Friday local time.

Updated information on travel and security in Lebanon may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States, or, from overseas, 1-317-472-2328. Additional details can be found in the Department of State's Consular Information Sheet for Lebanon, the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement and the Travel Publication "A Safe Trip Abroad," all of which are available on the Department's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov.

Lebanon

Compiled from the November 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Lebanese Republic

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 10,400 sq. km. (4,015 sq. km.) about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut.

Cities: Capital—Beirut (pop. 1.5 million). Other cities—Tripoli/Trablus (210,000), Zahle (60,000), Sidon/Sayda (50,000), Tyre/Sur (20,000), Byblos/Jbail (10,000).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain; El Beqaa (Bekaa Valley) separates Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains.

Climate: Mediterranean; mild to cool, wet winters with hot, dry summers; Lebanon mountains experience heavy winter snows.

People

Nationality: noun and adjective—Lebanese (singular and plural).

Population: (2006 est.) 3,874,050.

Growth rate: (2006 est.) 1.23%.

Ethnic groups: Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1% (note: many Christian Lebanese do not identify themselves as Arab but rather as descendents of the ancient Canaanites and prefer to be called Phoenicians).

Religions: Muslim 60% (Shi’a, Sunni, Druze, Isma’ili, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1%.

Languages: Arabic (official), English, French, Armenian.

Education: Years compulsory—8. Attendance—99%. Literacy (2005 est.)—87.4%; 93.1% male, 82.2% female.

Health: (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate—23.7/1,000. Life expectancy—70.41 male, 75.48 female.

Work force: (2001 est.) 2.6 million.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: November 22, 1943.

Constitution: May 23, 1926.

Government branches: Executive—president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), deputy prime minister, cabinet. Legislative—unicameral national assembly. Judicial—four Courts of Cassation, Constitutional Council, Supreme Council.

Political subdivisions: 8 governorates.

Political parties: Amal Movement, Ba’ath Party, Democratic Left, Democratic Renewal Movement, Free Patriotic Movement, Future Movement, Hezbollah, Kataeb Party, Kataeb Reform Movement, Lebanese Forces, National Bloc, Marada Movement, Nasserite Popular Movement, National Liberal Party, Popular Bloc, Progressive Socialist Party, Qornet Shehwan Gathering, Syrian Social National Party, Tachnaq Party. A principal divide in current Lebanese politics is between pro-and anti-Syrian forces, often referred to, respectively, as March 8 and March 14, after major demonstrations they organized in 2005. “March 8” consists principally of the Shi’ite Amal and Hezbollah, now allied with the Free Patriotic Movement (Christian), while March 14 includes the Future Movement (Sunni), Progressive Socialist Party (Druze), and Lebanese Forces and Qornet Shehwan Gathering (both Christian). Suffrage: 21; compulsory for all males; authorized for women at 21 with elementary education.

Economy

GDP: (2006 est.) $21.5 billion.

GDP growth rate: (2006 est.) (-5%).

Per capita GDP: (2006 est.) $5,500.

Natural resources: limestone, iron ore, salt.

Agriculture: Products—citrus, grapes, tomatoes, apples, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco; sheep, goats. Arable land—18%.

Industry: Types—banking, tourism, food processing, jewelry, cement, textiles, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, metal fabricating.

Trade: Exports—$1.88 billion (2005 est., f.o.b.) authentic jewelry, inorganic chemicals, miscellaneous consumer goods, fruit, tobacco, construction minerals, electric power machinery and switchgear, textile fibers, paper. Major markets—Syria, U.A.E., Switzerland, Turkey, Saudi Arabia. Imports—$9.34 billion (2005 est., f.o.b.) petroleum products, cars, medicinal products, clothing, meat and live animals, consumer goods, paper, textile fabrics, tobacco. Major suppliers—Italy, Syria, France, Germany, China, U.S., U.K., Saudi Arabia.

PEOPLE

The population of Lebanon comprises various Christian and Muslim sects as well as Druze. No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. While there is no consensus over the confessional breakdown of the population for this reason, it is safe to say that the Muslim sects as a whole make up a majority, and that Shi'ites, Sunnis, and Maronites are the three largest groups.

About 400,000 Palestinian refugees, some in Lebanon since 1948, are registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). They are not accorded the legal rights enjoyed by the rest of the population.

With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000-900,000 persons fled the country during the initial years of civil war (1975-76). Although some returned, continuing conflict through 1990 as well as after the 2006 war sparked further waves of emigration, casting even more doubt on population figures. As much as 7% of the population was killed during the civil war between 1975 and 1990. Approximately 17,000-20,000 people are still “missing” or unaccounted for from the civil war period.

Many Lebanese still derive their living from agriculture. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe—from North and South America to Europe, the Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor compared with many other Arab countries.

HISTORY

Lebanon is the historic home of the Phoenicians, Semitic traders whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years (c.2700-450 B.C.). In later centuries, Lebanon's mountains were a refuge for Christians, and Crusaders established several strongholds there. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that comprise present-day Lebanon to France. Modern Lebanon's constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power among the various religious groups. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and signed an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949.

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by periods of political turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade. In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, and U.S. forces were briefly dispatched to Lebanon in response to an appeal by the government. During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm and Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Other areas of the country, however, notably the South, North, and Bekaa Valley, remained poor in comparison.

In the early 1970's, difficulties arose over the presence of Palestinian refugees, many of whom arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, the secret 1969 Cairo Agreement permitting the establishment of Palestinian camps in Lebanon, and 1970 “Black September” hostilities in Jordan. Among the 1970 arrivals were Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). Coupled with the Palestinian problem, Muslim and Christian differences grew more intense.

Beginning of the Civil War—1975-81

Full-scale civil war broke out in April 1975. After shots were fired at a church, gunmen in Christian East Beirut ambushed a busload of Palestinians. Palestinian forces joined predominantly leftist-Muslim factions as the fighting persisted, eventually spreading to most parts of the country and precipitating the Lebanese President's call for support from Syrian troops in June 1976. In fall of 1976, Arab summits in Riyadh and Cairo set out a plan to end the war. The resulting Arab Deterrent Force, which included Syrian troops already present, moved in to help separate the combatants. As an uneasy quiet settled over Beirut, security conditions in the south began to deteriorate.

After a PLO attack on a bus in northern Israel and Israeli retaliation that caused heavy casualties, Israel invaded Lebanon in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for the immediate with-drawal of Israeli forces and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, turning over positions inside Lebanon along the border to their Lebanese ally, the South Lebanon Army (SLA) under the leadership of Maj. Sa'ad Haddad, thus informally setting up a 12-mile wide “security zone” to protect Israeli territory from cross border attack

U.S. Intervention—1982-84

An interim cease-fire brokered by the U.S. in 1981 among Syria, the PLO, and Israel was respected for almost a year. Several incidents, including PLO rocket attacks on northern Israel, as well as an assassination

attempt on the Israeli Ambassador to the United Kingdom, led to the June 6, 1982 Israeli ground attack into Lebanon to remove PLO forces. Operation “Peace for Galilee” aimed at establishing a deeper security zone and pushing Syrian troops out of Lebanon, with a view toward paving the way for an Israeli-Lebanese peace agreement. With these aims in mind, Israeli forces drove 25 miles into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the support of Maronite Christian leaders and militia.

In August 1982, U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a multinational force composed of U.S. Marines along with French and Italian units. A new President, Bashir Gemayel, was elected with acknowledged Israeli backing. On September 14, however, he was assassinated. The next day, Israeli troops crossed into West Beirut to secure Muslim militia strongholds and stood aside as Lebanese Christian militias massacred almost 800 Palestinian civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps. Israel's then-Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon was held indirectly responsible for the massacre by the Kahane Commission and later resigned. With U.S. backing, Amin Gemayel, chosen by the Lebanese parliament to succeed his brother as President, focused anew on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. The multinational force returned.

On May 17, 1983, Lebanon, Israel, and the United States signed an agreement on Israeli withdrawal that was conditioned on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress. In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the Shuf (southeast of Beirut), thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting. By September, the Druze had gained control over most of the Shuf, and Israeli forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone, where they remained until May 2000. The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in February 1984, following the defection of many Muslim and Druze units to militias, was a major blow to the government. With the U.S. Marines looking ready to withdraw, Syria and Muslim groups stepped up pressure on Gemayal. On March 5, 1984 the Lebanese Government canceled the May 17 agreement; the Marines departed a few weeks later.

This period of chaos witnessed the beginning of terrorist attacks launched against U.S. and Western interests. These included the April 18, 1983 suicide attack at the U.S. Embassy in West Beirut (63 dead), the bombing of the headquarters of U.S. and French forces on October 23, 1983 (298 dead), the assassination of American University of Beirut President Malcolm Kerr on January 18, 1984, and the bombing of the U.S. Embassy annex in East Beirut on September 20, 1984 (9 dead).

It also saw the rise of radicalism among a small number of Lebanese Muslim factions who believed that the successive Israeli and U.S. interventions in Lebanon were serving primarily Christian interests. It was from these factions that Hezbollah emerged from a loose coalition of Shi’a groups. Hezbollah employed terrorist tactics and was supported by Syria and Iran.

Worsening Conflict and Political Crisis—1985-89

Between 1985 and 1989, factional conflict worsened as various efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting took place in the “War of the Camps” in 1985 and 1986 as the Shi’a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. The Amal movement had been organized in mid-1975, at the beginning of the civil war, to confront what were seen as Israeli plans to displace the Lebanese population with Palestinians. (Its charismatic founder Imam Musa Sadr disappeared in Libya three years later. Its current leader, Nabih Berri, is the Speaker of the National Assembly.) The combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah.

Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, contravening Lebanon's unwritten “National Pact,” which required the prime minister to be Sunni Muslim. Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Salim al-Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no president.

In February 1989 Aoun attacked the rival Lebanese Forces militia. By March he turned his attention to other militias, launching what he termed a “War of Liberation” against the Syrians and their Lebanese militia allies. In the months that followed, Aoun rejected both the agreement that ultimately ended the civil war and the election of another Christian leader as president. A Lebanese-Syrian military operation in October 1990 forced him to take refuge in the French Embassy in Beirut and later to go into a 15-year exile in Paris. After Syrian troop withdrawal, Aoun returned to Lebanon on May 7, 2005 and won a seat in the 2005 parliamentary elections. His Free Patriotic Movement became a principal element of the pro-Syrian opposition bloc.

End of the Civil War—1989-91

The Ta′if Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, had begun to formulate solutions to the conflict, leading to a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in Ta′if, Saudi Arabia, where they agreed to the national reconciliation accord in October. Returning to Lebanon, they ratified the agreement on November 4 and elected Rene Moawad as President the following day. Moawad was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese Independence Day ceremonies. Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998, succeeded him.

In August 1990, parliament and the new President agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Ta'if. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims (with Druze counted as Muslims). In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its enactment. The amnesty was not extended to crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hezbollah and Palestinian militias) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild itself as Lebanon's only major nonsectarian institution.

In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 left handicapped, during Lebanon's 16-year civil war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of which perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently. The last of the Western hostages taken during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992.

Postwar Reconstruction—1992 to 2005

Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. Former Prime Minister Rashid al Sulh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years, replaced him.

By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Emile Lahoud in 1998, following Hrawi's extended term as President, Salim al-Hoss again served as Prime Minister. Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage was repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists returned.

In early April 1996, Israel conducted a military operation dubbed “Grapes of Wrath” in response to Hezbollah's continued launching of rockets at villages in northern Israel. The 16-day operation caused hundreds of thousands of civilians in south Lebanon to flee their homes. On April 18, Hezbollah fired mortars at an Israeli military unit from a position near the UN compound at Qana, and the Israeli Army responded with artillery fire. Several Israeli shells struck the compound, killing 102 civilians sheltered there. In the “April Understanding” concluded on April 26, Israel and Hezbollah committed themselves to avoid targeting civilians and using populated areas to launch attacks. The Israel-Lebanon Monitoring Group (ILMG), co-chaired by France and the United States, with Syria, Lebanon, and Israel all represented, was set up to implement the Understanding and assess reports of violations. ILMG ceased operations following the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from south Lebanon.

On May 23, 2000, the Israeli military carried out a total withdrawal of Israeli troops from the south and the Bekaa Valley, effectively ending 22 years of occupation. The SLA collapsed and about 6,000 SLA members and their families fled the country, although more than 3,000 had returned by November 2003. The military court tried all of the SLA operatives who remained in the country and the average sentence handed down was 1-year imprisonment.

On June 16, 2000, the UN Security Council adopted the report of the Secretary General verifying Israeli compliance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 (1978) and the with-drawal of Israeli troops to their side of the demarcated Lebanese-Israeli line of separation (the “Blue Line”) mapped out by UN cartographers. (The international border between Lebanon and Israel is still to be determined in the framework of a peace agreement.) In August 2000, the Government of Lebanon deployed over 1,000 police and soldiers to the former security zone, but Hezbollah also maintained observation posts and conducted patrols along the Blue Line. While Lebanon and Syria initially agreed to respect the Blue Line, both since have registered objections and continue to argue that Israel has not fully withdrawn from Lebanese soil. As regional tension escalated with the Palestinian intifada in September 2000, Hezbollah cited Blue Line discrepancies when it reengaged Israel on October 7, taking three Israeli soldiers captive in an area known as Sheba'a Farms. (In 2001, the Israeli Government declared the three soldiers were believed to be dead.) Sheba'a Farms, a largely unpopulated area just south of the Blue Line opposite the Lebanese town of Sheba'a, was captured by Israel when it occupied Syria’ Golan Heights in 1967. The Lebanese Government has repeatedly laid claim to the area since shortly before Israel's general withdrawal. Meanwhile, the Syrian Government has verbally stated that the Sheba'a Farms tract is Lebanese, but, as with the rest of the Lebanon-Syria border, has been unwilling to commit to a formal border demarcation in the area. As a result of secret mediation by the German Government, Israel released a number of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel in early 2004 in exchange for Elhanan Tannenbaum, an Israeli reservist abducted by Hezbollah in late 2000.

In January 2000 the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to act against groups such as Asbat al-Ansar, which has been linked to Osama bin Laden's al-Qaida network, and other extremists. On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, a former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatila massacres and who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut.

A September 2004 vote by the Chamber of Deputies to amend the constitution to extend President Lahoud's term in office by 3 years amplified the question of Lebanese sovereignty and the continuing Syrian presence. The vote was clearly taken under Syrian pressure, exercised in part through Syria's military intelligence service, whose chief in Lebanon had acted as a virtual proconsul for many years. Syria, which views Lebanon as part of its own territory, has not signed a boundary agreement with Lebanon and does not have normal diplomatic relations with Lebanon. The UN Security Council expressed its concern over the situation by passing Resolution 1559, also in September 2004, which called for withdrawal of all remaining foreign forces from Lebanon, disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout the country, and a free and fair electoral process in the presidential election.

Syrian Withdrawal—2005

Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who had resisted Syria's effort to secure Lahoud's extension, and 19 others were assassinated in Beirut by a car bomb on February 14, 2005. The assassination spurred massive protests in Beirut and international pressure that led to the withdrawal of the remaining Syrian military troops from Lebanon on April 26. In the months that followed Hariri's assassination, journalist Samir Qassir, Lebanese politician George Hawi, and journalist Gebran Tueni were murdered by car bombs, and Defense Minister Elias Murr and journalist May Chidiac narrowly avoided a similar fate when they were targeted with car bombs. The UN International Independent Investigative Commission (UNIIIC) headed by Detlev Mehlis began an investigation of Hariri's assassination and related crimes, beginning with the October 2004 attempt to assassinate Communications Minister Marwan Hamadeh. Serge Brammertz took over the investigation at the beginning of 2006. In December 2006, the Lebanese Cabinet approved an agreement with the UN Security Council to create a Special Tribunal of international character which will be responsible for trying those who may be indicted as a result of the investigation. President Lahoud, Parliament Speaker Berri, and the Shia ministers who resigned from Lebanon's cabinet in November 2006 do not recognize the cabinet's decision on this matter, however.

Parliamentary elections were held May 29-June 19, 2005 and the anti-Syrian opposition led by Sa'ad Hariri, Rafiq Hariri's son, won a majority of 72 seats (out of 128). Hariri ally and former Finance Minister Fouad Siniora was named Prime Minister and Nabih Berri was reelected as Speaker of Parliament. Parliament approved the first “made-in-Lebano” cabinet in almost 30 years on July 30. The ministerial statement of the new cabinet (which included two Hezbollah ministers), a summary of the new government's agenda and priorities, focused on political and economic reform, but also endorsed Hezbollah's right to possess military weapons to carry out a “national resistance” against the perceived Israeli occupation of Lebanese territory.

Hezbollah forces continued to launch sporadic military strikes on Israeli forces, drawing responses that produced casualties on both sides and, on two occasions in 2001, Israeli air strikes on Syrian radar sites in Lebanon. Israel continues to violate Lebanese sovereignty by conducting overflights of Lebanese territory north of the Blue Line. UNIFIL has recorded numerous violations of the Blue Line by both sides since the Israeli withdrawal. In general, however, the level of violence along the Israeli-Lebanon front decreased dramatically from May 2000 until mid-2006.

War with Israel—2006

On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah guerillas crossed into Israel, killed three Israeli soldiers, and kidnapped two others, precipitating a war with Israel. Israeli air strikes hit Hezbollah positions in the south and strategic targets throughout Lebanon, and Israeli ground forces ground forces moved against Hezbollah in southern Lebanon. Hezbollah resisted the ground attack and fired thousands of rockets at civilian targets in Israel. By the time the war ended, on Aug. 14, an estimated 1200 Lebanese civilians and hundreds of Hezbollah fighters had died, along with 119 Israeli military and 43 Israeli civilians. UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which ended the war, provided for a ceasefire, Israeli withdrawal and lifting of blockades, disarming of Hezbollah and other militias, and a ban on unauthorized weapons transfers into Lebanon. UNSCR 1701 also significantly strengthened UNIFIL's mandate and authorized its enlargement from about 2,000 initially up to a maximum of 15,000. Bolstered by UNIFIL, which by the beginning of 2007 had more than 11,000 personnel, the Lebanese Armed Forces deployed to southern Lebanon and the border with Israel for the first time in almost four decades. The war temporarily or permanently displaced roughly one-fourth of Lebanon's population, and caused enormous damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure. The country, which was already seriously indebted, suffered roughly $5 billion in damages and financial losses. The international community provided massive humanitarian relief, plus substantial aid for economic reconstruction and reform, with $940 million in aid pledged at an August 31, 2006 donors conference in Stockholm and $7.6 billion in pledges announced at a Paris conference January 25, 2007. Aid pledged in Paris was to be coordinated with the Lebanese Government's program for fiscal and economic reform.

Although Syria withdrew its military forces from Lebanon, intelligence assets remained, and Syria continues to have a strong influence in Lebanese politics. In November 2006, as Siniora's cabinet neared approval of the Hariri tribunal, pro-Syrian ministers, including all the Shi′ite ministers, withdrew from the cabinet. Led by Hezbollah, pro-Syrian forces began months of massive demonstrations, sit-ins, and occasional violence with the aim of either paralyzing or bringing down the cabinet. Minister of Industry Pierre Gemayel, son of ex-president Amin Gemayel, was assassinated November 21.

GOVERNMENT

Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy in which the people constitutionally have the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the effective exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years. Parliament, in turn, is tasked to elect a new president every 6 years. A presidential election scheduled for the autumn of 2004 was pre-empted by a parliamentary vote to extend the sitting President's term in office by 3 years. The president and parliament choose the prime minister. Political parties may be formed. However, the political parties that do exist are weak and mostly based on sectarian interests.

Since the emergence of the post-1943 state, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 national pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Until 1990, seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims (with Druze counted as Muslims). With the Ta'if Agreement, the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. Indeed, gaining political office is virtually impossible without the firm backing of a particular religious or confessional group. The pact also allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling “troika” distributed as follows:

• The presidency is reserved for a Maronite Christian;
• The prime minister, a Sunni Muslim; and
• The speaker of parliament, a Shi’a Muslim.

Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the center of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favored by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Ta’if Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.

Although moderated somewhat under Ta’if, constitutionally, the president has a strong and influential position. The president has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies, to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by adult suffrage (majority age is 21) based on a system of proportional representation for the various confessional groups. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on left/right policy orientations. The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate. Lebanon's judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within particular religious communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

President: Emile LAHUD

Prime Minister: Fuad SINIORA

Dep. Prime Min.: Elias MURR

Min. of Agriculture: Talal SAHILI

Min. of Culture: Tareq MITRI

Min. of Defense: Elias MURR

Min. of Displaced People: Nehmeh TOHME

Min. of Economy & Trade: Sami HADDAD

Min. of Education: Khaled QABBANI

Min. of Energy & Water: Mohammed FNEISH

Min. of Environment: Yacoub SARRAF

Min. of Finance: Jihad AZOUR

Min. of Foreign Affairs & Emigrants: Fawzi SALLOUKH

Min. of Health: Mohammad KHALIFEH

Min. of Industry:

Min. of Information: Ghazi ARIDI

Min. of Interior & Municipalities: Hassan SABAA

Min. of Justice: Charles RIZK

Min. of Labor: Trad HAMADEH

Min. of National Education: Ibrahim DAHER

Min. of Public Works & Transport: Mohammed SAFADI

Min. of Social Affairs: Nayla MOUAWAD

Min. of Telecommunications: Marwan HAMADEH

Min. of Tourism: Joseph SARKIS

Min. of Youth & Sports: Ahmad FATFAT

Min. of State for Administrative Development: Jean OGHASSABIAN

Min. of State for Parliamentary Affairs: Michel PHARAON

Governor, Central Bank: Riad SALAMEH

Charge d’Affaires, Embassy, Washington: Antoine CHEDID

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Nawaf SALAM

Lebanon maintains an embassy in the United States at 2560 28th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. There also are three consulates general in the United States: 1959 East Jefferson, Suite 4A, Detroit, MI 48207, tel. (313) 567-0233/0234; 7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510, Los Angeles, CA 90028, tel. (213) 467-1253/1254; and 9 East 76th Street, New York, N.Y. 10021, tel. (212) 744-7905/7906 and 744-7985.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, still exists. The largest are all confessional based. The Phalange, National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces and Free Patriotic Movement (FPM) are overwhelmingly Christian parties. Amal and Hezbollah are the main rivals for the organized Shi’a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party. In the recent parliamentary elections, an anti-Syrian opposition coalition (“March 14”) emerged, led by Sa'ad Hariri's predominantly Sunni Future Movement and allied with Druze leader Jumb-latt, the Qornet Shehwan coalition of center-right Christian politicians, Samir Geagea's mostly Maronite Lebanese Forces, and Elias Attallah's Democratic Left secular movement. In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba'ath, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war.

There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.

In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. The civil war resulted in greater segregation across the confessional spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The trajectory of the Ta'if Agreement points towards a non-confessional system, but there has been no real movement in this direction in the decade and a half since Ta'if.

Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, who numbered 405,525 in 2006 according to UNWRA, are not active on the domestic political scene. Nonetheless, they constitute an important minority whose naturalization/settlement in Lebanon is vigorously opposed by most Lebanese, who see them as a threat to Lebanon's delicate confessional balance. During 2002, parliament enacted legislation banning Palestinians from owning property in Lebanon. The Labor Ministry opened up professions previously closed to Palestinians in June 2005. The number of recent Iraqi refugees numbers in the tens of thousands and is believed to be growing.

ECONOMY

Lebanon has a free-market economy and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. According to the Lebanese Ministry of Economy and Trade, Lebanon posted 5% real growth in 2004, with inflation running at 3%. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment; however, the investment climate suffers from red tape, corruption, arbitrary licensing decisions, high taxes, tariffs, and fees, archaic legislation, and a lack of adequate protection of intellectual property. There are no country-specific U.S. trade sanctions against Lebanon. Lebanon embarked on a massive reconstruction program in 1992 to rebuild the country's physical and social infrastructure devastated by both the long civil war (1975-90) and the Israeli occupation of the south (1978-2000). In addition, the delicate social balance and the near-dissolution of central government institutions during the civil war handicapped the state as it sought to capture revenues to fund the recovery effort. Monetary stabilization coupled with high interest rate policies aggravated the debt service burden, leading to a substantial rise in budget deficits. Thus, the government accumulated significant debt, which by 2005 had reached $36 billion, or 185% of GDP. Unemployment is estimated at 18% officially, but in the absence of reliable statistics, some estimate it could be as high as 20-25%.

The government also has maintained a firm commitment to the Lebanese pound, which has been pegged to the dollar since September 1999. The government passed an Investment Development Law as well as laws for the privatization of the telecom and the electricity sector, signed the Euro-Med Partnership Agreement with the European Union (EU) in March 2003, and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). In order to increase revenues, the government introduced a 10% value added tax (VAT) that became applicable in February 2002 and a 5% tax that became applicable in February 2003.

Plagued by mounting indebtedness, Lebanon submitted a comprehensive program on its financing needs at the Paris II donors conference in November 2002 and succeeded in attracting pledges totaling $4.4 billion, including $3.1 billion to support fiscal adjustment and $1.2 billion to support economic development projects. Despite the substantial aid it had received, the government made little progress on its reform program, and by 2006, even before the war, the debt problem had grown worse. After the war, $940 million in relief and early reconstruction aid was pledged to Lebanon August 31, 2006 at a donors conference in Stockholm, and an additional $7.6 billion in assistance for reconstruction and economic stabilization was pledged January 25, 2007 at the International Conference for Support to Lebanon, “Paris III”. Unlike the Paris II aid, much of the Paris III aid was to be contingent on Lebanon's meeting agreed benchmarks in implementing its proposed five-year economic and social reform program. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to initiate a Post-Conflict Program and to assign a team to Lebanon to provide technical assistance, to monitor the progress of reforms, and to advise donors on the timing of aid delivery.

The U.S. enjoys a strong exporter position with Lebanon, generally ranking as Lebanon's fifth-largest source of imported goods. More than 160 offices representing U.S. businesses currently operate in Lebanon. Since the lifting of the passport restriction in 1997 (see below), a number of large U.S. companies have opened branch or regional offices, including Microsoft, American Airlines, Coca-Cola, FedEx, UPS, General Electric, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Cisco, Eli Lilly, and Pepsi Cola.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Lebanon's foreign policy has been heavily influenced by neighboring Syria, which has also long influenced Lebanon's internal policies as well. Reflecting lingering feelings in Syria that Lebanon was unjustly separated from Syria by European powers, Syria and Lebanon have never formally agreed on their mutual boundaries, and, rather than having normal diplomatic relations, the two countries are linked by a Higher Council for Bilateral Relations. Syria has no embassy or equivalent office in Beirut, while Lebanon has an “Interest Office” in Damascus. The framework for relations was first codified in May 1991, when Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of mutual cooperation. This treaty came out of the Ta'if Agreement, which stipulated “Lebanon is linked to Syria by distinctive ties deriving strength from kinship, history, and common interests.” The Lebanese-Syria treaty calls for “coordination and cooperation between the two countries” that would serve the “interests of the two countries within the framework of sovereignty and independence of each.” Numerous agreements on political, economic, security, and judicial affairs have followed over the years. Syria maintained troops in Lebanon from 1976 until 2005; however, even after the withdrawal of Syria's military troops, it is believed to have maintained intelligence assets in Lebanon. In any case, Syrian influence in Lebanese politics remains strong.

Lebanon, like most Arab states, does not recognize Israel, with which it has been technically at war since Israel's establishment. Lebanon participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and despite the 1948 Lebanon-Israel armistice, Lebanon's lack of control over the border region resulted in repeated border hostilities, initiated mainly by Palestinian exile groups from 1968 to 1982 and later by Hezbollah. These attacks led to Israeli counterattacks, including a 1978 invasion, a 1982 invasion and occupation which ended in 2000, and the 2006 war. Lebanon did not participate in the 1967 or 1973 Arab-Israeli wars, nor in the 1991 Gulf War. The success of the latter created new opportunities for Middle East peacemaking. In October 1991, under the sponsorship of the United States and the then-Soviet Union, Middle East peace talks were held in Madrid, Spain, where Israel and a majority of its Arab neighbors conducted direct bilateral negotiations to seek a just, lasting, and comprehensive peace based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 (and 425 on Lebanon) and the concept of “land for peace.” Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and representatives of the Palestinians continued negotiating until the Oslo interim peace accords were concluded between Israel and the Palestinians in September 1993 and Jordan and Israel signed an agreement in October 1994. In March 1996, Syria and Israel held another round of Madrid talks; the Lebanon track did not convene. Lebanon has repeatedly called for a solution of the Israeli-Palestinian problem as a prerequisite to peace with Israel. Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi’a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002.

U.S.-LEBANESE RELATIONS

The United States seeks to maintain its traditionally close ties with Lebanon, and to help preserve its independence, sovereignty, national unity, and territorial integrity. The United States, along with the international community, supports full implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1559, including the disarming of all militias and the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout Lebanon. The United States believes that a peaceful, prosperous, and stable Lebanon can make an important contribution to comprehensive peace in the Middle East.

One measure of U.S. concern and involvement has been a program of relief, rehabilitation, and recovery that from 1975 through 2005 totaled more than $400 million in aid to Lebanon. For relief, recovery, rebuilding, and security in the wake of the 2006 war, the U.S. Government substantially stepped up this program, pledging well over $1 billion in additional assistance for the 2006 and 2007 fiscal years. This support reflects not only humanitarian concerns and historical ties but also the importance the United States attaches to sustainable development and the restoration of an independent, sovereign, unified Lebanon. Some of current funding is used to support the activities of U.S. and Lebanese private voluntary organizations engaged in rural and municipal development programs nationwide, improve the economic climate for global trade and investment, and enhance security and resettlement in south Lebanon. The U.S. also supports humanitarian demining and victims’ assistance programs. Over the years, the United States also has assisted the American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Lebanese American University (LAU) with budget support and student scholarships. Assistance also has been provided to the Lebanese-American Community School (ACS) and the International College (IC). 1993, the U.S. resumed the International Military Education and Training program in Lebanon to help bolster the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF)—the country's only nonsectarian national institution—and reinforce the importance of civilian control of the military. Sales of excess defense articles (EDA) resumed in 1991 and have allowed the LAF to enhance both its transportation and communications capabilities, which were severely degraded during the civil war. Security assistance to both the LAF and the Internal Security Forces (ISF) increased significantly after the 2006 war, in order to support the democratically elected Government of Lebanon as it carries out the requirements of UNSCR 1701 and asserts its sovereignty over the whole of Lebanese territory.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

BEIRUT (E) P.O.Box70-840 Antelias-Beirut, 961-4-542600/ 543600, Fax 961-4-544604, INMAR-SAT Tel Primary:873-683-825 unsecure: 873-683-131-826 secure/ alternate 761-258-233, Workweek: Monday- Friday/0800-1630, Website: http://lebanon.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

December 27, 2007

Country Description: The Republic of Lebanon is a parliamentary republic. Political power is concentrated in the office of the President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament, each representing one of Lebanon's three largest religious sects (Maronite Christians, Sunni and Shi′a Muslims). Since 1973, Lebanon has been in a state of war with Israel.

Entry Requirements: Passports and visas are required. American citizens coming to Lebanon for tourism can purchase a short-term visa at the border. Travelers holding passports that contain visas or entry/exit stamps for Israel will likely be refused entry into Lebanon. Travelers whose passports contain Israeli stamps or visas and who also hold an

“Arab nationality” may be subject to arrest and imprisonment. Travelers who have overstayed their entry visa validity in Lebanon have to adjust their status with the Central Department of Surete General (Department of Passport and Immigration) prior to their departure.

Further information on entry/exit requirements can be obtained from the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. Travelers may also contact one of the following Lebanese Consulates General:

1959 E. Jefferson, Suite 4A
Detroit, MI 48207
(313) 567-0233

2400 Augusta, Suite 308
Houston, TX 77057
(713) 268-1640

7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510 Los Angeles, CA 90028 (323) 467-1253

6600 S.W. 57th Avenue, Suite 200 Miami, FL 33143 (305) 665-3004

(Honorary Consul, for Florida residents only) 9 E. 76th Street New York, NY 10021 (212) 744-7905

Safety and Security: A Department of State Travel Warning advises U.S. citizens against travel to Lebanon. Recent events underscore the need for caution and sound personal security precautions. U.S. citizens who are in Lebanon despite this Travel Warning should exercise particular caution when traveling in parts of the southern suburbs of Beirut, portions of the Bekaa Valley and areas south of the Litani River in South Lebanon. Hizballah maintains a strong presence in many of these areas, and there is the potential for action by other extremist groups. The situation remains tense and a resumption of sporadic violence remains a possibility.

Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005 in a car bomb attack in which 22 people were killed and many others seriously wounded; the potential for violence remains. Since February 2005, there have been 15 separate bombings in Lebanon, resulting in ten dead and 121 wounded, including the June 13, 2007 car-bombing that killed the anti-Syrian Member of Parliament, Walid Eido, and the September 19, 2007 car bombing that killed the anti-Syrian Member of Parliament, Antoine Ghanem.

Americans have been the targets of numerous terrorist attacks in Lebanon in the past. The perpetrators of many of these attacks are still present and retain the ability to act. American citizens should thus keep a low profile, varying times and routes for all required travel. Americans should also pay close attention to their personal security at locations where Westerners are generally known to congregate, and should avoid demonstrations and large gatherings. Unofficial travel to Lebanon by U.S. Government employees and their family members requires prior approval by the Department of State.

Palestinian groups hostile to both the Lebanese government and the U.S. operate largely autonomously inside refugee camps in different areas of the country. Intra-communal violence within the camps has resulted in violent incidents such as shootings and explosions. Travel by U.S. citizens to Palestinian camps should be avoided. Asbat al-Ansar, a terrorist group with apparent links to Al-Qaida, has targeted Lebanese, U.S. and other foreign government interests. It has been outlawed by the Lebanese government but continues to maintain a presence in Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp.

Americans traveling to Lebanon should also be aware that personnel from the U.S. Embassy are not able to travel in all areas of Lebanon. In the case of an emergency involving a U.S. citizen in areas where it is unsafe for Embassy personnel to travel, the Embassy may not be able to render assistance.

In addition, dangers posed by landmines and unexploded ordnance throughout south Lebanon are significant and also exist in other areas where civil war fighting was intense. For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's web site, where the current World-wide Caution Travel Alert, Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert, Travel Warnings and other Travel Alerts can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada or, for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: The crime rate in Lebanon is moderate, but both car theft and home break-ins occur. Violent crime and sexual assault are rare, although petty theft—such as pick pocketing and purse snatching—is common in crowded public areas. Police are responsive but often unable to effect a positive outcome. There are no special concerns with regard to targeted victimization of Americans or to scams or confidence schemes. There have, however, been recent kidnappings of Lebanese-American women by their Lebanese relatives in an effort to force these women into marriage.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: In Beirut and the surrounding areas, modern medical care and medicines are widely available. Such facilities are not always available in outlying areas, although no location in the country is more than three hours from the capital. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for services and with-out such payment, may deny service even in emergency cases. A list of doctors who speak English and a list of hospitals are available from the U.S. Embassy and at the Embassy's web site: http://lebanon.usembassy.gov

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http//:www.who.int/ith

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Lebanon is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Drivers in Lebanon often maneuver aggressively and pay little regard to traffic lights and stop signs. Lanes are generally unmarked and roads outside of the capital may be poorly lit. Pedestrians, especially, should exercise great caution. Inter-city directional signs are improving throughout the country, but side roads are often not signposted at all. Public transportation is generally safe.

Emergency services in Lebanon are adequate. In case of a road accident, emergency numbers are “140” for the Red Cross and “125” for the emergency civil police.

Visit the web site of Lebanon's national tourist office at http://www.Lebanon-tourism.gov.lb.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Lebanon, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Lebanon's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: In addition to being subject to general Lebanese law, U.S. citizens who also possess Lebanese nationality may be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on them as Lebanese citizens. Lebanese citizens who are discovered to have associated with or traveled through Israel, for example, are subject to arrest and detention.

Military Service: Mandatory military service in Lebanon was abolished on February 4, 2007. However, travelers with questions about prior military service, desertion, or failure to register in the past should contact the Military Office of the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008, call (202) 265-2335 or fax (202) 667-0063 for details prior to traveling to Lebanon. Information about military service can also be found at the Lebanese government web site: www.lebarmy.gov.lb. Lebanese Customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of such items as firearms or antiquities. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Lebanon in Washington, D.C., or one of Lebanon's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Lebanese laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Lebanon are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Lebanon are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Lebanon. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Beirut. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, Beirut, Lebanon. Public access hours for American citizens are Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 am for regular consular services. Consular Report of Birth Abroad are handled Wednesdays only from 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. The telephone numbers are (961-4) 542-600, 543-600, and fax 544-209, and American citizens who require emergency services outside of these hours may contact the Embassy by telephone at any time. American citizens registering at the embassy can receive updated information and warden messages via e-mail by subscribing to join-wardenmessagebeirut@mh. databack.com. Information on consular services and registration can be found at http://lebanon.usembassy.gov or by phone at the above telephone numbers between 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m. Monday through Friday local time.

Travel Warning

October 17, 2007

This Travel Warning updates information on security threats and ongoing political tensions in Lebanon, and advises U.S. citizens of current safety and security concerns. The Department of State continues strongly to urge that Americans defer travel to Lebanon and that American citizens in Lebanon consider carefully the risks of remaining. This Travel Warning supersedes the Travel Warning issued on June 14, 2007.

The U.S. remains concerned about the threat of terrorist attacks against Western and Lebanese government interests in Lebanon. Groups such as Al-Qaeda and Jund al-Sham are present in Lebanon, and they have issued statements calling for attacks against Western interests. The Department of State also is concerned that the clashes between terrorist extremists and the Lebanese Armed Forces that occurred in the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp in northern Lebanon from May to September 2007 could occur in other camps in Lebanon. U.S. citizens who visit refugee camps in Lebanon risk becoming trapped during hostilities.

Two anti-Syria Members of Parliament were assassinated in separate car bombings in Beirut—WWalid Eido on June 13, 2007, and Antoine Ghanem on September 19, 2007. Others were killed and injured in both incidents, including innocent bystanders.

On June 7, 2007, a bomb exploded in the town of Zouk Mousbeh, north of Beirut. This followed the discovery of explosive-laden vehicles in Eastern Lebanon. Since May 20, explosions have occurred in the Beirut neighborhoods of Achrafieh and Verdun, the Beirut suburb of Sad Al-Bouchrieh, and the resort town of Aley. The Department of State urges U.S. citizens to defer travel to Lebanon, and that U.S. citizens already in Lebanon carefully consider the risks of remaining. U.S. citizens who choose to remain in Lebanon are encouraged to maintain a high level of vigilance; confirm and maintain the validity of their passports and other U.S. travel documents for themselves and their family members; monitor the local security situation and be ready to depart quickly in the event of any deterioration in the situation.

U.S. citizens traveling to Lebanon or resident in Lebanon should be aware the U.S. Embassy has limited ability to reach all areas of Lebanon. The Embassy cannot guarantee that Embassy employees can render assistance to U.S. citizens in areas where there is little or no government control, such as the southern part of Lebanon where Hizballah continues to be active.

In a crisis situation, U.S. citizens are responsible for arranging commercial or private means of transportation to depart Lebanon. If evacuation is warranted, only when all other transportation options are unavailable will the U.S. government assist U.S. citizens in leaving a country. This service will be provided on a cost-recovery basis, which means the traveler must reimburse the U.S. government for the cost of the travel. The lack of valid travel documents will slow the U.S. embassy's ability to provide assistance. Further information on the department's role during emergencies is provided at http://www.travel.state.gov/travel/tips/emergencies/emergencies_1212.html.

The Department of State considers the threat to U.S. government personnel in Beirut sufficiently serious to require them to live and work under strict security restrictions. These practices limit, and may occasionally prevent, access by U.S. Embassy officials to certain areas of the country. Unofficial travel to Lebanon by U.S. government employees and their family members requires prior approval by the Department of State. Landmines and unexploded ordnance pose significant dangers throughout southern Lebanon, particularly south of the Litani River, as well as in areas of Lebanon where civil war fighting was intense. More than a dozen civilians have been killed and over 100 injured by unexploded ordnance following the armed conflict in July-August 2006.

Travelers should watch for posted landmine warnings and strictly avoid all areas where landmines and unexploded ordnance may be present. The embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, Beirut, Lebanon. Public access hours for American citizens are Monday through Thursday, 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m.; however, American citizens who require emergency services outside of these hours may contact the embassy by telephone at any time. The telephone numbers are (961-4) 542-600, 543-600, and fax 544-209.

American citizens may register with the embassy online by visiting https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. Information on consular services and registration can also be found at http://lebanon.usembassy.gov or by phone at the above telephone numbers between 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., Monday through Friday local time. Updated information on travel and security in Lebanon may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the U.S. and Canada or, from outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444.

Additional details can be found in the Department of State's Country Specific Information for Lebanon, the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, the Middle East and North Africa Travel Alert and “A Safe Trip Abroad,” all of which are available on the Department's Internet site at http://travel.state.gov.

Lebanon

Compiled from the February 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Lebanese Republic

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.–LEBANESE RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 10,400 sq. km. (4,015 sq. mi.), about the size of Connecticut.

Cities: Capital—Beirut (pop. 1.5 million). Other cities—Tripoli (210,000), Zahleh (60,000), Sidon/Sayda (50,000), Tyre/Sur (20,000), Byblos/Jbeii (10,000).

Terrain: Narrow coastal plain backed by the Lebanon Mountains, the fertile Bekaa Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, which extend to the Syrian border. Land—61% urban, desert, or waste; 21% agricultural; 8% forested.

Climate: Typically Mediterranean, resembling that of southern California.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Lebanese (sing. and pl.).

Population: (2006 est.) 3,874,050.

Annual growth rate: (2006 est.) 1.23%.

Ethnic groups: Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1%. (note: many Christian Lebanese do not identify themselves as Arab but rather as descendents of the ancient Canaan-ites and prefer to be called Phoenicians).

Religions: Muslim 60% (Shi’a, Sunni, Druze, Isma’ili, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 39% (Maronite Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Syrian Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Syrian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Chaldean, Assyrian, Copt, Protestant), other 1%

Languages: Arabic (official), French, English, Armenian.

Education: Years compulsory—8. Attendance—99%. Literacy—87.4%; 93.1% male, 82.2% female.

Health: (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate—23.7/1,000. Life expectancy—male, 70.41 yrs; female 75.48 yrs.

Work force: (2001 est.) 2.6 million

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: November 22, 1943.

Constitution: May 26, 1926.

Government branches: Executive--president (chief of state), prime minister (head of government), deputy prime minister, cabinet. Legislative--unicameral national assembly. Judicial--four Courts of Cassation, Constitutional Council, Supreme Council.

Administrative subdivisions: 8 governorates.

Political parties: Amal Movement, Ba’ath Party, Democratic Left, Democratic Renewal Movement, Free Patriotic Movement, Future Movement, Hezbollah, Kataeb Party, Kataeb Reform Movement, Lebanese Forces, National Bloc, Marada Movement, Nasserite Popular Movement, National Liberal Party, Popular Bloc, Progressive Socialist Party, Qornet Shehwan Gathering, Syrian Social National Party, Tachnaq Party.

A principal divide in current Lebanese politics is between pro-and anti-Syrian forces, often referred to, respectively, as March 8 and March 14, after major demonstrations they organized in 2005. “March 8” consists principally of the Shi’ite Amal and Hezbollah, now allied with the Free Patriotic Movement (Christian), while March 14 includes the Future Movement (Sunni), Progressive Socialist Party (Druze), and Lebanese Forces and Qornet Shehwan Gathering (both Christian).

Suffrage: 21; compulsory for all males; authorized for women at 21 with elementary education.

Economy

GDP: (2006 est.) $21.5 billion.

GDP growth rate: (2006 est.) -5%.

GDP per capita: (2006 est.) $5,500.

Natural resources: Limestone, iron ore, salt

Agriculture: Products—citrus, grapes, tomatoes, apples, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco; sheep, goats. Arable land—18%.

Industry: Types—banking, tourism, food processing, jewelry, cement, textiles, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture products, oil refining, metal fabricating.

Trade: Exports--$1.88 billion (2005 est., f.o.b.): authentic jewelry, inorganic chemicals, miscellaneous consumer goods, fruit, tobacco, construction minerals, electric power machinery and switchgear, textile fibers, paper. Major markets--Syria, U.A.E., Switzerland, Turkey, Saudi Arabia. Imports--$9.34 billion (2005 est., f.o.b.): petroleum products, cars, medicinal products, clothing, meat and live animals, consumer goods, paper, textile fabrics, tobacco. Major suppliers--Italy, Syria, France, Germany, China, U.S., U.K., Saudi Arabia.

PEOPLE

The population of Lebanon comprises various Christian and Muslim sects as well as Druze. No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (religious) balance. While there is no consensus over the confessional breakdown of the population for this reason, it is safe to say that the Muslim sects as a whole make up a majority, and that Shiites, Sunnis, and Maronites are the three largest groups.

About 400,000 Palestinian refugees, some in Lebanon since 1948, are registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA). They are not accorded the legal rights enjoyed by the rest of the population.

With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000-900,000 persons fled the country during the initial years of civil war (1975-76). Although some returned, continuing conflict through 1990 as well as after the 2006 war sparked further waves of emigration, casting even more doubt on population figures. As much as 7% of the population was killed during the civil war between 1975 and 1990. Approximately 17,000-20,000 people are still “missing” or unaccounted for from the civil war period.

Many Lebanese still derive their living from agriculture. The urban population, concentrated mainly in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, is noted for its commercial enterprise. A century and a half of migration and return have produced Lebanese commercial networks around the globe--from North and South America to Europe, the Gulf, and Africa. Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labor compared with many other Arab countries.

HISTORY

Lebanon is the historic home of the Phoenicians, Semitic traders whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 2,000 years (c.2700-450 B.C.). In later centuries, Lebanon’s mountains were a refuge for Christians, and Crusaders established several strongholds there. Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the League of Nations mandated the five provinces that had comprised present-day Lebanon to France. Modern Lebanon’s constitution, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of political power among the various religious groups. The country gained independence in 1943, and French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and signed an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949.

Lebanon’s history from independence has been marked by periods of political turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut’s position as a regional center for finance and trade. In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun’s term, an insurrection broke out, and U.S. forces were briefly dispatched to Lebanon in response to an appeal by the government. During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm and Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Other areas of the country, however, notably the South, North, and Bekaa Valley, remained poor in comparison.

In the early 1970s, difficulties arose over the presence of Palestinian refugees, many of whom arrived after the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and “Black September” 1970 hostilities in Jordan. Among the latter were Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). Coupled with the Palestinian problem, Muslim and Christian differences grew more intense.

Beginning of the Civil War—1975–81

Full-scale civil war broke out in April 1975. After shots were fired at a church, gunmen in Christian East Beirut ambushed a busload of Palestinians. Palestinian forces joined predominantly leftist-Muslim factions as the fighting persisted, eventually spreading to most parts of the country and precipitating the President’s call for support from Syrian troops in June 1976. In fall of 1976, Arab summits in Riyadh and Cairo set out a plan to end the war. The resulting Arab Deterrent Force, which included Syrian troops already present, moved in to help separate the combatants. As an uneasy quiet settled over Beirut, security conditions in the south began to deteriorate. After a PLO attack on a bus in northern Israel and Israeli retaliation that caused heavy casualties, Israel invaded Lebanon in March 1978, occupying most of the area south of the Litani River. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 425 calling for the immediate withdrawal of Israeli forces and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, turning over positions inside Lebanon along the border to their Lebanese ally, the South Lebanon Army (SLA) under the leadership of Maj. Saad Haddad, thus informally setting up a 12-mile wide “security zone” to protect Israeli territory from cross border attack.

U.S. Intervention—1982–84

An interim ceasefire brokered by the U.S. in 1981 among Syria, the PLO, and Israel was respected for almost a year. Several incidents, including PLO rocket attacks on northern Israel, as well as an assassination attempt on the Israeli Ambassador to the United Kingdom, led to the June 6, 1982 Israeli ground attack into

Lebanon to remove PLO forces. Operation “Peace for Galilee” aimed at establishing a deeper security zone and pushing Syrian troops out of Lebanon, with a view toward paving the way for an Israeli-Lebanese peace agreement. With these aims in mind, Israeli forces drove 25 miles into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the support of Maronite Christian leaders and militia. In August 1982, U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement also provided for the deployment of a multinational force composed of U.S. Marines along with French and Italian units. A new President, Bashir Gemayel, was elected with acknowledged Israeli backing. On September 14, however, he was assassinated. The next day, Israeli troops crossed into West Beirut to secure Muslim militia strongholds and stood aside as Lebanese Christian militias massacred almost 800 Palestinian civilians in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps. Then-Israeli Minister of Defense Ariel Sharon was held indirectly responsible for the massacre by the Kahane Commission and later resigned. With U.S. backing, Amin Gemayel, chosen by the Lebanese parliament to succeed his brother as President, focused anew on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. The multinational force returned.

On May 17, 1983, Lebanon, Israel, and the United States signed an agreement on Israeli withdrawal that was conditioned on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress. In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the Shuf (southeast of Beirut), thus removing the buffer between the Druze and the Christian militias and triggering another round of brutal fighting. By September, the Druze had gained control over most of the Shuf, and Israeli forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone, where they remained until May 2000. The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in February 1984, following the defection of many Muslim and Druze units to militias, was a major blow to the government. With the U.S. Marines looking ready to withdraw, Syria and Muslim groups stepped up pressure on Gemayal. On March 5, 1984 the Lebanese Government canceled the May 17 agreement; the Marines departed a few weeks later.

This period of chaos witnessed the beginning of terrorist attacks launched against U.S. and Western interests. These included the April 18, 1983 suicide attack at the U.S. Embassy in West Beirut (63 dead), the bombing of the headquarters of U.S. and French forces on October 23, 1983 (298 dead), the assassination of American University of Beirut President Malcolm Kerr on January 18, 1984, and the bombing of the U.S. Embassy annex in East Beirut on September 20, 1984 (9 dead).

It also saw the rise of radicalism among a small number of Lebanese Muslim factions who believed that the successive Israeli and U.S. interventions in Lebanon were serving primarily Christian interests. It was from these factions that Hizballah emerged from a loose coalition of Shi’a groups. Hizballah employed terrorist tactics and was supported by Syria and Iran.

Worsening Conflict and Political Crisis—1985–89

Between 1985 and 1989, factional conflict worsened as various efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting took place in the “War of the Camps” in 1985 and 1986 as the Shi’a Muslim Amal militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. The Amal movement had been organized in mid-1975, at the beginning of the civil war, to confront what were seen as Israeli plans to displace the Lebanese population with Palestinians. (Its charismatic founder Imam Musa Sadr disappeared in Libya 3 years later. Its current leader, Nabih Berri, is the Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies.) The combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hizballah.

Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister Rashid Karami, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel’s term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, Lebanese Armed Forces Commanding General Michel Aoun, as acting Prime Minister, contravening Lebanon’s unwritten “National Pact,” which required the prime minister to be Sunni Muslim. Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to Salim al-Hoss, a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no president.

In February 1989 Aoun attacked the rival Lebanese Forces militia. By March he turned his attention to other militias, launching what he termed a “War of Liberation” against the Syrians and their Lebanese militia allies. In the months that followed, Aoun rejected both the agreement that ultimately ended the civil war and the election of another Christian leader as president. A Lebanese-Syrian military operation in October 1990 forced him to take cover in the French Embassy in Beirut and later into a 15-year exile in Paris. After Syrian troop withdrawal, Aoun returned to Lebanon on May 7, 2005 and won a seat in the 2005 parliamentary elections. His Free Patriotic Movement became a principal element of the pro-Syrian opposition bloc.

End of the Civil War—1989–91

The Ta’if Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. In January of that year, a committee appointed by the Arab League, chaired by Kuwait and including Saudi Arabia, Algeria, and Morocco, had begun to formulate solutions to the conflict, leading to a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in Ta’if, Saudi Arabia, where they agreed to the national reconciliation accord in October. Returning to Lebanon, they ratified the agreement on November 4 and elected Rene Moawad as President the following day. Moawad was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22 as his motor-cade returned from Lebanese Independence Day ceremonies. Elias Hrawi, who remained in office until 1998, succeeded him.

In August 1990, parliament and the new President agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Ta’if. The Chamber of Deputies expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims (with Druze counted as Muslims). In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes prior to its enactment. The amnesty was not extended to crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the Lebanese Armed Forces began to slowly rebuild itself as Lebanon’s only major nonsectarian institution.

In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 left handicapped, during Lebanon’s 16-year civil war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently. The last of the Western hostages taken during the mid-1980s were released in May 1992.

Postwar Reconstruction—1992 to 2005

Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Omar Karami in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. Former Prime Minister Rashid al Sulh, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon’s first parliamentary elections in 20 years, replaced him.

By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. Solidere, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri’s strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces Emile Lahoud in 1998, following Hrawi’s extended term as President, Salim alHoss again served as Prime Minister. Hariri returned to office as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned.

In early April 1996, Israel conducted a military operation dubbed “Grapes of Wrath” in response to Hezbollah’s continued launching of rockets at villages in northern Israel. The 16-day operation caused hundreds of thousands of civilians in south Lebanon to flee their homes. On April 18, Hezbollah fired mortars at an Israeli military unit from a position near the UN compound at Qana, and the Israeli Army responded with artillery fire. Several Israeli shells struck the compound, killing 102 civilians sheltered there. In the “April Understanding” concluded on April 26, Israel and Hezbollah committed themselves to avoid targeting civilians and using populated areas to launch attacks. The Israel-Lebanon Monitoring Group (ILMG), co-chaired by France and the United States, with Syria, Lebanon, and Israel all represented, was set up to implement the Understanding and assess reports of violations. ILMG ceased operations following the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from south Lebanon.

On May 23, 2000, the Israeli military carried out a total withdrawal of Israeli troops from the south and the Bekaa Valley, effectively ending 22 years of occupation. The SLA collapsed and about 6,000 SLA members and their families fled the country, although more than 3,000 had returned by November 2003. The military court tried all of the SLA operatives who remained in the country and the average sentence handed down was 1-year imprisonment.

On June 16, 2000, the UN Security Council adopted the report of the Secretary General verifying Israeli compliance with UN Security Council Resolution 425 (1978) and the withdrawal of Israeli troops to their side of the demarcated Lebanese-Israeli line of separation (the “Blue Line”) mapped out by UN cartographers. (The international border between Lebanon and Israel is still to be determined in the framework of a peace agreement.) In August 2000, the Government of Lebanon deployed over 1,000 police and soldiers to the former security zone, but Hezbollah also maintained observation posts and conducted patrols along the Blue Line. While Lebanon and Syria initially agreed to respect the Blue Line, both since have registered objections and continue to argue that Israel has not fully withdrawn from Lebanese soil. As regional tension escalated with the Palestinian intifada in September 2000, Hezbollah cited Blue Line discrepancies when it reengaged Israel on October 7, taking three Israeli soldiers captive in an area known as Sheba’a Farms. (In 2001, the Israeli Government declared the three soldiers were believed to be dead.) Sheba’a Farms, a largely unpopulated area just south of the Blue Line opposite the Lebanese town of Sheba’a, was captured by Israel when it occupied Syria’s Golan Heights in 1967. The Lebanese Government has repeatedly laid claim to the area since shortly before Israel’s general withdrawal. Meanwhile, the Syrian Government has verbally stated that the Sheba’a Farms tract is Lebanese, but, as with the rest of the Lebanon-Syria border, has been unwilling to commit to a formal border demarcation in the area. As a result of secret mediation by the German Government, Israel released a number of Lebanese prisoners held by Israel in early 2004 in exchange for Elhanan Tannenbaum, an Israeli reservist abducted by Hezbollah in late 2000.

In January 2000 the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to act against groups such as Asbat alAnsar, which has been linked to Osama bin Laden’s al-Qaida network, and other extremists. On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, a former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatila massacres and who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut. A September 2004 vote by the Chamber of Deputies to amend the constitution to extend President Lahoud’s term in office by 3 years amplified the question of Lebanese sovereignty and the continuing Syrian presence. The vote was clearly taken under Syrian pressure, exercised in part through Syria’s military intelligence service, whose chief in Lebanon had acted as a virtual pro-consul for many years. Syria, which views Lebanon as part of its own territory, has not signed a boundary agreement with Lebanon and does not have normal diplomatic relations with Lebanon. The UN Security Council expressed its concern over the situation by passing Resolution 1559, also in September 2004, which called for withdrawal of all remaining foreign forces from Lebanon, disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout the country, and a free and fair electoral process in the presidential election.

Syrian Withdrawal—2005

Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who had resisted Syria’s effort to secure Lahoud’s extension, and 19 others were assassinated in Beirut by a car bomb on February 14, 2005. The assassination spurred massive protests in Beirut and international pressure that led to the withdrawal of the remaining Syrian military troops from Lebanon on April 26. In the months that followed Hariri’s assassination, journalist Samir Qassir, Lebanese politician George Hawi, and journalist Gebran Tueni were murdered by car bombs, and Defense Minister Elias Murr and journalist May Chidiac narrowly avoided a similar fate when they were targeted with car bombs. The UN International Independent Investigative Commission (UNIIIC) headed by Detlev Mehlis began an investigation of Hariri’s assassination and related crimes, beginning with the October 2004 attempt to assassinate Communications Minister Marwan Hamadeh. Serge Brammertz took over the investigation at the beginning of 2006. In December 2006, the Lebanese Cabinet approved an agreement with the UN Security Council to create a Special Tribunal of international character which will be responsible for trying those who may be indicted as a result of the investigation. President Lahoud, Parliament Speaker Berri, and the Shia ministers who resigned from Lebanon’s cabinet in November 2006 do not recognize the cabinet’s decision on this matter, however.

Parliamentary elections were held May 29-June 19, 2005 and the anti-Syrian opposition led by Sa’ad Hariri, Rafiq Hariri’s son, won a majority of 72 seats (out of 128). Hariri ally and former Finance Minister Fouad Siniora was named Prime Minister and Nabih Berri was reelected as Speaker of Parliament. Parliament approved the first “made-in-Lebanon” cabinet in almost 30 years on July 30. The ministerial statement of the new cabinet (which included two Hezbollah ministers), a summary of the new government’s agenda and priorities, focused on political and economic reform, but also endorsed Hezbollah’s right to possess military weapons to carry out a “national resistance” against the perceived Israeli occupation of Lebanese territory.

Hezbollah forces continued to launch sporadic military strikes on Israeli forces, drawing responses that produced casualties on both sides and, on two occasions in 2001, Israeli air strikes on Syrian radar sites in Lebanon. Israel continues to violate Lebanese sovereignty by conducting overflights of Lebanese territory north of the Blue Line. UNIFIL has recorded numerous violations of the Blue Line by both sides since the Israeli withdrawal. In general, however, the level of violence along the Israeli-Lebanon front decreased dramatically from May 2000 until mid-2006.

War with Israel—2006

On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah guerillas crossed into Israel, killed three Israeli soldiers, and kidnapped two others, precipitating a war with Israel. Israeli air strikes hit Hezbollah positions in the south and strategic targets throughout Lebanon, and Israeli ground forces ground forces moved against Hezbollah in southern Lebanon. Hezbollah resisted the ground attack and fired thousands of rockets at civilian targets in Israel. By the time the war ended, on Aug. 14, an estimated 1200 Lebanese civilians and hundreds of Hezbollah fighters had died, along with 119 Israeli military and 43 Israeli civilians. UN Security Council Resolution 1701, which ended the war, provided for a ceasefire, Israeli withdrawal and lifting of blockades, disarming of Hezbollah and other militias, and a ban on unauthorized weapons transfers into Lebanon. UNSCR 1701 also significantly strengthened UNIFIL’s mandate and authorized its enlargement from about 2,000 initially up to a maximum of 15,000. Bolstered by UNIFIL, which by the beginning of 2007 had more than 11,000 personnel, the Lebanese Armed Forces deployed to southern Lebanon and the border with Israel for the first time in almost four decades.

The war temporarily or permanently displaced roughly one-fourth of Lebanon’s population, and caused enormous damage to homes, businesses, and infrastructure. The country, which was already seriously indebted, suffered roughly $5 billion in damages and financial losses. The international community provided massive humanitarian relief, plus substantial aid for economic reconstruction and reform, with $940 million in aid pledged at an August 31, 2006 donors conference in Stockholm and $7.6 billion in pledges announced at a Paris conference January 25, 2007. Aid pledged in Paris was to be coordinated with the Lebanese Government’s program for fiscal and economic reform. Although Syria withdrew its military forces from Lebanon, intelligence assets remained, and Syria continues to have a strong influence in Lebanese politics. In November 2006, as Siniora’s cabinet neared approval of the Hariri tribunal, pro-Syrian ministers, including all the Shi’ite ministers, withdrew from the cabinet. Led by Hezbollah, pro-Syrian forces began months of massive demonstrations, sit-ins, and occasional violence with the aim of either paralyzing or bringing down the cabinet. Minister of Industry Pierre Gemayel, son of ex-president Amin Gemayel, was assassinated November 21.

GOVERNMENT

Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy in which the people constitutionally have the right to change their government. However, from the mid-1970s until the parliamentary elections in 1992, civil war precluded the effective exercise of political rights. According to the constitution, direct elections must be held for the parliament every 4 years. Parliament, in turn, is tasked to elect a new president every 6 years. A presidential election scheduled for the autumn of 2004 was pre-empted by a parliamentary vote to extend the sitting President’s term in office by 3 years. The president and parliament choose the prime minister. Political parties may be formed. However, the political parties that do exist are weak and mostly based on sectarian interests.

Since the emergence of the post-1943 state, national policy has been determined largely by a relatively restricted group of traditional regional and sectarian leaders. The 1943 national pact, an unwritten agreement that established the political foundations of modern Lebanon, allocated political power on an essentially confessional system based on the 1932 census. Until 1990, seats in parliament were divided on a 6-to-5 ratio of Christians to Muslims (with Druze counted as Muslims). With the Ta’if Agreement, the ratio changed to half and half. Positions in the government bureaucracy are allocated on a similar basis. Indeed, gaining political office is virtually impossible without the firm backing of a particular religious or confessional group. The pact also allocated public offices along religious lines, with the top three positions in the ruling “troika” distributed as follows:

• The presidency is reserved for a Maronite Christian;
• The prime minister, a Sunni Muslim; and
• The speaker of parliament, a Shi’a Muslim.

Efforts to alter or abolish the confessional system of allocating power have been at the center of Lebanese politics for decades. Those religious groups most favored by the 1943 formula sought to preserve it, while those who saw themselves at a disadvantage sought either to revise it after updating key demographic data or to abolish it entirely. Nonetheless, many of the provisions of the national pact were codified in the 1989 Ta’if Agreement, perpetuating sectarianism as a key element of Lebanese political life.

Although moderated somewhat under Ta’if, constitutionally, the president has a strong and influential position. The president has the authority to promulgate laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies, to issue supplementary regulations to ensure the execution of laws, and to negotiate and ratify treaties.

The Chamber of Deputies is elected by adult suffrage (majority age is 21) based on a system of proportional representation for the various confessional groups. Political blocs are usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal/family allegiance rather than on political affinities. The parliament traditionally has played a significant role in financial affairs, since it has the responsibility for levying taxes and passing the budget. It also exercises political control over the cabinet through formal questioning of ministers on policy issues and by requesting a confidence debate. Lebanon’s judicial system is based on the Napoleonic Code. Juries are not used in trials. The Lebanese court system has three levels—courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, e.g., rules on such matters as marriage, divorce, and inheritance.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 11/27/2006

President: Emile LAHUD

Prime Minister: Fuad SINIORA

Dep. Prime Min.: Elias MURR

Min. of Agriculture: Talal SAHILI

Min. of Culture: Tareq MITRI

Min. of Defense: Elias MURR

Min. of Displaced People: Nehmeh TOHME

Min. of Economy & Trade: Sami HADDAD

Min. of Education: Khaled QABBANI

Min. of Energy & Water: Mohammed FNEISH

Min. of Environment: Yacoub SARRAF

Min. of Finance: Jihad AZOUR

Min. of Foreign Affairs & Emigrants: Fawzi SALLOUKH

Min. of Health: Mohammad KHALIFEH

Min. of Industry:

Min. of Information: Ghazi ARIDI

Min. of Interior & Municipalities: Hassan SABAA

Min. of Justice: Charles RIZK

Min. of Labor: Trad HAMADEH

Min. of National Education: Ibrahim DAHER

Min. of Public Works & Transport: Mohammed SAFADI

Min. of Social Affairs: Nayla MOUAWAD

Min. of Telecommunications: Marwan HAMADEH

Min. of Tourism: Joseph SARKIS

Min. of Youth & Sports: Ahmad FATFAT

Min. of State for Administrative Development: Jean OGHASSABIAN

Min. of State for Parliamentary Affairs: Michel PHARAON

Governor, Central Bank: Riad SALAMEH

Ambassador to the US:

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York:

Lebanon maintains an embassy in the United States at 2560 28th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. There also are three consulates general in the United States: 1959 East Jefferson, Suite 4A, Detroit, MI 48207, tel. (313) 567-0233/0234; 7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510, Los Angeles, CA 90028, tel. (213) 467-1253/1254; and 9 East 76th Street, New York, N.Y. l0021, tel. (212) 744-7905/7906 and 744-7985.

POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Lebanese political institutions often play a secondary role to highly confessionalized personality-based politics. Powerful families also still play an independent role in mobilizing votes for both local and parliamentary elections. Nonetheless, a lively panoply of domestic political parties, some even predating independence, still exists. The largest are all confessional based. The Phalange, National Bloc, National Liberal Party, Lebanese Forces and Free Patriotic Movement (FPM) are overwhelmingly Christian parties. Amal and Hezbollah are the main rivals for the organized Shi’a vote, and the PSP (Progressive Socialist Party) is the leading Druze party. In the recent parliamentary elections, an anti-Syrian opposition coalition (“March 14″) emerged, led by Sa’ad Hariri’s predominantly Sunni Future Movement and allied with Druze leader Jumblatt, the Qornet Shehwan coalition of center-right Christian politicians, Samir Geagea’s mostly Maronite Lebanese Forces, and Elias Attallah’s Democratic Left secular movement. In addition to domestic parties, there are branches of pan-Arab secular parties (Ba’ath, socialist and communist parties) that were active in the 1960s and throughout the period of civil war.

There are differences both between and among Muslim and Christian parties regarding the role of religion in state affairs. There is a very high degree of political activism among religious leaders across the sectarian spectrum. The interplay for position and power among the religious, political, and party leaders and groups produces a political tapestry of extraordinary complexity.

In the past, the system worked to produce a viable democracy. The civil war resulted in greater segregation across the confessional spectrum. Whether in political parties, places of residence, schools, media outlets, even workplaces, there is a lack of regular interaction across sectarian lines to facilitate the exchange of views and promote understanding. Some Christians favor political and administrative decentralization of the government, with separate Muslim and Christian sectors operating within the framework of a confederation. Muslims, for the most part, prefer a unified, central government with an enhanced share of power commensurate with their larger share of the population. The trajectory of the Ta’if Agreement points towards a non-confessional system, but there has been no real movement in this direction in the decade and a half since Ta’if.

Palestinian refugees, predominantly Sunni Muslims, who numbered 405,525 in 2006 according to UNWRA, are not active on the domestic political scene. Nonetheless, they constitute an important minority whose naturalization/settlement in Lebanon is vigorously opposed by most Lebanese, who see them as a threat to Lebanon’s delicate confessional balance. During 2002, parliament enacted legislation banning Palestinians from owning property in Lebanon. The Labor Ministry opened up professions previously closed to Palestinians in June 2005. The number of recent Iraqi refugees numbers in the tens of thousands and is believed to be growing.

ECONOMY

Lebanon has a free-market economy and a strong laissez-faire commercial tradition. The Lebanese economy is service-oriented; main growth sectors include banking and tourism. According to the Lebanese Ministry of Economy and Trade, Lebanon posted 5% real growth in 2004, with inflation running at 3%. There are no restrictions on foreign exchange or capital movement, and bank secrecy is strictly enforced. Lebanon has adopted a law to combat money laundering. There are practically no restrictions on foreign investment; however, the investment climate suffers from red tape, corruption, arbitrary licensing decisions, high taxes, tariffs, and fees, archaic legislation, and a lack of adequate protection of intellectual property. There are no country-specific U.S. trade sanctions against Lebanon.

Lebanon embarked on a massive reconstruction program in 1992 to rebuild the country’s physical and social infrastructure devastated by both the long civil war (1975-90) and the Israeli occupation of the south (1978-2000). In addition, the delicate social balance and the near-dissolution of central government institutions during the civil war handicapped the state as it sought to capture revenues to fund the recovery effort. Monetary stabilization coupled with high interest rate policies aggravated the debt service burden, leading to a substantial rise in budget deficits. Thus, the government accumulated significant debt, which by 2005 had reached $36 billion, or 185% of GDP. Unemployment is estimated at 18% officially, but in the absence of reliable statistics, some estimate it could be as high as 20-25%.

The government also has maintained a firm commitment to the Lebanese pound, which has been pegged to the dollar since September 1999. The government passed an Investment Development Law as well as laws for the privatization of the telecom and the electricity sector, signed the EuroMed Partnership Agreement with the European Union (EU) in March 2003, and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). In order to increase revenues, the government introduced a 10% value added tax (VAT) that became applicable in February 2002 and a 5% tax that became applicable in February 2003.

Plagued by mounting indebtedness, Lebanon submitted a comprehensive program on its financing needs at the Paris II donors conference in November 2002 and succeeded in attracting pledges totaling $4.4 billion, including $3.1 billion to support fiscal adjustment and $1.2 billion to support economic development projects. Despite the substantial aid it had received, the government made little progress on its reform program, and by 2006, even before the war, the debt problem had grown worse. After the war, $940 million in relief and early reconstruction aid was pledged to Lebanon August 31, 2006 at a donors conference in Stockholm, and an additional $7.6 billion in assistance for reconstruction and economic stabilization was pledged January 25, 2007 at the International Conference for Support to Lebanon, “Paris III”. Unlike the Paris II aid, much of the Paris III aid was to be contingent on Lebanon’s meeting agreed benchmarks in implementing its proposed five-year economic and social reform program. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) agreed to initiate a Post-Conflict Program and to assign a team to Lebanon to provide technical assistance, to monitor the progress of reforms, and to advise donors on the timing of aid delivery.

The U.S. enjoys a strong exporter position with Lebanon, generally ranking as Lebanon’s fifth-largest source of imported goods. More than 160 offices representing U.S. businesses currently operate in Lebanon. Since the lifting of the passport restriction in 1997 (see below), a number of large U.S. companies have opened branch or regional offices, including Microsoft, American Airlines, Coca-Cola, FedEx, UPS, General Electric, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Cisco, Eli Lilly, and Pepsi Cola.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

The foreign policy of Lebanon reflects its geographic location, the composition of its population, and its reliance on commerce and trade. Lebanon’s foreign policy has been heavily influenced by neighboring Syria, which has also long influenced Lebanon’s internal policies as well. Reflecting lingering feelings in Syria that Lebanon was unjustly separated from Syria by European powers, Syria and Lebanon have never formally agreed on their mutual boundaries, and, rather than having normal diplomatic relations, the two countries are linked by a Higher Council for Bilateral Relations. Syria has no embassy or equivalent office in Beirut, while Lebanon has an “Interest Office” in Damascus. The framework for relations was first codified in May 1991, when Lebanon and Syria signed a treaty of mutual cooperation. This treaty came out of the Ta’if Agreement, which stipulated “Lebanon is linked to Syria by distinctive ties deriving strength from kinship, history, and common interests.” The Lebanese-Syria treaty calls for “coordination and cooperation between the two countries” that would serve the “interests of the two countries within the framework of sovereignty and independence of each.” Numerous agreements on political, economic, security, and judicial affairs have followed over the years. Syria maintained troops in Lebanon from 1976 until 2005; however, even after the withdrawal of Syria’s military troops, it is believed to have maintained intelligence assets in Lebanon. In any case, Syrian influence in Lebanese politics remains strong.

Lebanon, like most Arab states, does not recognize Israel, with which it has been technically at war since Israel’s establishment. Lebanon participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and despite the 1948 Lebanon-Israel armistice, Lebanon’s lack of control over the border region resulted in repeated border hostilities, initiated mainly by Palestinian exile groups from 1968 to 1982 and later by Hezbollah. These attacks led to Israeli counterattacks, including a 1978 invasion, a 1982 invasion and occupation which ended in 2000, and the 2006 war. Lebanon did not participate in the 1967 or 1973 Arab-Israeli wars, nor in the 1991 Gulf War. The success of the latter created new opportunities for Middle East peace-making. In October 1991, under the sponsorship of the United States and the then-Soviet Union, Middle East peace talks were held in Madrid, Spain, where Israel and a majority of its Arab neighbors conducted direct bilateral negotiations to seek a just, lasting, and comprehensive peace based on UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338 (and 425 on Lebanon) and the concept of “land for peace.” Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and representatives of the Palestinians continued negotiating until the Oslo interim peace accords were concluded between Israel and the Palestinians in September 1993 and Jordan and Israel signed an agreement in October 1994. In March 1996, Syria and Israel held another round of Madrid talks; the Lebanon track did not convene. Lebanon has repeatedly called for a solution of the Israeli-Palestinian problem as a prerequisite to peace with Israel.

Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Aside from Syria, Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon also is a member of the Organization of Islamic Conference and maintains a close relationship with Iran, largely centered on Shi’a Muslim links. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002.

U.S.–LEBANESE RELATIONS

The United States seeks to maintain its traditionally close ties with Lebanon, and to help preserve its independence, sovereignty, national unity, and territorial integrity. The United States, along with the international community, supports full implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1559, including the disarming of all militias and the deployment of the Lebanese Armed Forces throughout Lebanon. The United States believes that a peaceful, prosperous, and stable Lebanon can make an important contribution to comprehensive peace in the Middle East.

One measure of U.S. concern and involvement has been a program of relief, rehabilitation, and recovery that from 1975 through 2005 totaled more than $400 million in aid to Lebanon. For relief, recovery, rebuilding, and security in the wake of the 2006 war, the U.S. Government substantially stepped up this program, pledging well over $1 billion in additional assistance for the 2006 and 2007 fiscal years. This support reflects not only humanitarian concerns and historical ties but also the importance the United States attaches to sustainable development and the restoration of an independent, sovereign, unified Lebanon. Some of current funding is used to support the activities of U.S. and Lebanese private voluntary organizations engaged in rural and municipal development programs nationwide, improve the economic climate for global trade and investment, and enhance security and resettlement in south Lebanon. The U.S. also supports humanitarian demining and victims’ assistance programs.

Over the years, the United States also has assisted the American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Lebanese American University (LAU) with budget support and student scholarships. Assistance also has been provided to the Lebanese-American Community School (ACS) and the International College (IC).

1993, the U.S. resumed the International Military Education and Training program in Lebanon to help bolster the Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF)--the country’s only nonsectarian national institution--and reinforce the importance of civilian control of the military. Sales of excess defense articles (EDA) resumed in 1991 and have allowed the LAF to enhance both its transportation and communications capabilities, which were severely degraded during the civil war. Security assistance to both the LAF and the Internal Security Forces (ISF) increased significantly after the 2006 war, in order to support the democratically elected Government of Lebanon as it carries out the requirements of UNSCR 1701 and asserts its sovereignty over the whole of Lebanese territory.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

BEIRUT (E) Address: P.O.Box70-840 Antelias-Beirut; Phone: 961-4-542600/543600; Fax: 961-4-544136; INMARSAT Tel: Primary: 873-683-825 unsecure: 873-683-131-826 secure/alternate 761-258-233; Work week: Mon–Fri/0800-1630; Website: www.usembassy.gov.lb.

Last Updated: 11/16/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : October 20, 2006

Country Description: The Republic of Lebanon is a parliamentary republic. Political power is concentrated in the office of the President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament, each representing one of Lebanon’s three largest religious sects (Maronite Christians, Sunni and Shi’a Muslims). Since 1973, Lebanon has been in a state of war with Israel.

Entry/Exit Requirements: Pass-ports and visas are required. American citizens coming to Lebanon for tourism can purchase a short-term visa at the border. Travelers holding passports that contain visas or entry/exit stamps for Israel will likely be refused entry into Lebanon. Travelers whose passports contain Israeli stamps or visas and who also hold an “Arab nationality” may be subject to arrest and imprisonment. Travelers who have overstayed their entry visa validity in Lebanon have to adjust their status with the Central Department of Surete General (Department of Passport and Immigration) prior to their departure.

Further information on entry/exit requirements can be obtained from the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street N.W., Washington, D.C., 20008, tel. (202) 939-6300. Travelers may also contact one of the following Consulate s General s of Lebanon:

1959 E. Jefferson, Suite 4A
Detroit, MI 48207
(313) 567-0233

2400 Augusta, Suite 308
Houston, TX 77057
(713) 268-1640

7060 Hollywood Blvd., Suite 510
Los Angeles, CA 90028
(323) 467-1253

6600 S.W. 57th Avenue, Suite 200
Miami, FL 33143
(305) 665-3004

(Honorary Consul, for Florida residents only)
9 E. 76th Street
New York, NY 10021
(212) 744-7905

Safety and Security: Recent events in Lebanon underscore the need for caution and sound personal security precautions. Following the hostilities, and the subsequent assisted departure of nearly 15,000 Americans, the Department of State reiterates its Travel Warning advising U.S. citizens against travel to Lebanon. U.S. citizens who are in Lebanon despite this Travel Warning should exercise particular caution when traveling in parts of the southern suburbs of Beirut, portions of the Bekaa Valley and areas south of the Litani River in South Lebanon. Hizballah maintains a strong presence in many of these areas, and there is the potential for action by other extremist groups in Tripoli. Although both sides have largely honored the August 14 cessation of hostilities between Israel and Hizballah, the situation remains tense and a resumption of sporadic violence remains a possibility. Former Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri was assassinated on February 14, 2005 in a car bomb attack in which 22 people were killed and many others seriously wounded; the potential for violence remains. Since February 2005, there have been 15 separate bombings in Lebanon, resulting in ten dead and 121 wounded.

Americans have been the targets of numerous terrorist attacks in Lebanon in the past. The perpetrators of many of these attacks are still present and retain the ability to act. American citizens should thus keep a low profile, varying times and routes for all required travel. Americans should also pay close attention to their personal security at locations where Westerners are generally known to congregate, and should avoid demonstrations and large gatherings. Unofficial travel to Lebanon by U.S. Government employees and their family members requires prior approval by the Department of State. Palestinian groups hostile to both the Lebanese government and the U.S. operate largely autonomously inside refugee camps in different areas of the country. Intra-communal violence within the camps has resulted in violent incidents such as shootings and explosions. Travel by U.S. citizens to Palestinian camps should be avoided. Asbat al-Ansar, a terrorist group with apparent links to Al-Qaida, has targeted Lebanese, U.S. and other foreign government interests. It has been outlawed by the Lebanese government but continues to maintain a presence in Ain al-Hilweh refugee camp. In addition, dangers posed by landmines and unexploded ordnance throughout south Lebanon are significant and also exist in other areas where civil war fighting was intense. For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: The crime rate in Lebanon is moderate, and both car theft s and house break-ins occur. Violent crime and sexual assault are is rare, although petty theft—such as pick pocketing and purse snatching—is common in crowded public areas. Police are responsive but often unable to affect a positive outcome. There are no special concerns with regard to targeted victimization of Americans or to scams or confidence schemes. There have, however, been recent kidnappings of Lebanese-American women by their Lebanese relatives in an effort to force these women into marriage.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: In Beirut and the surrounding areas, modern medical care and medicines are widely available. Such facilities are not always available in outlying areas, although no location in the country is more than three hours from the capital. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for services, and without such payment may deny service even in emergency cases. A list of doctors who speak English and a list of hospitals are available from the U.S. Embassy and at the Embassy’s website: http://lebanon.usembassy.gov/. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Lebanon is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Drivers in Lebanon often maneuver aggressively and pay little regard to traffic lights and stops signs. Lanes are generally unmarked and roads outside of the capital may be poorly lit. Pedestrians, especially, should exercise great caution. Inter-city directional signs are improving throughout the country, but side roads are often not signposted at all. Public transportation is generally safe. Emergency services in Lebanon are adequate. In case of a road accident, emergency numbers are “140” for the Red Cross and “125” for the emergency civil police. Visit the website of Lebanon’s national tourist office at www.Lebanon-tourism.gov.lb.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Lebanon, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Lebanon’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: In addition to being subject to all Lebanese laws, U.S. citizens who also possess Lebanese nationality may also be subject to other laws that impose special obligations on Lebanese citizens. Lebanese citizens who have been associated with or traveled through Israel are subject to arrest and detention. Until February 4, 2007, Lebanese males 18 to 30 years old who reside in Lebanon are subject to mandatory military service and can be arrested for failing to comply. (Note: Under a new law published February 4, 2005, all existing charges for desertion have been dropped and an exemption has been established for anyone residing outside Lebanon.) Dual nationals can contact the Military Office of the Embassy of Lebanon, 2560 28th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008, or call (202) 265-2335 or fax (202) 667-0063 for details prior to traveling to Lebanon. Lebanese Customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of such items as firearms or antiquities. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Lebanon in Washington, D.C., or one of Lebanon’s consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Lebanese laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Lebanon are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Lebanon are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Lebanon. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Beirut. The U.S. Embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, Beirut, Lebanon. Public access hours for American citizens are Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday, 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 am for regular consular services. Consular Report of Births Abroad (birth certificates for newborns) are handled Wednesdays only from 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. The telephone numbers are (961-4) 542-600, 543-600, and fax 544-209, and American citizens who require emergency services outside of these hours may contact the Embassy by telephone at any time. American citizens registering at the embassy can receive updated information and warden messages via email by subscribing to join-wardenmessagebeirut @mh.databack.com. Information on consular services and registration can be found at http://lebanon.usembassy.gov or by phone at the above telephone numbers between 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m. Monday through Friday local time.

Travel Warning : December 22, 2006

This Travel Warning is being issued to alert American citizens to the ongoing demonstrations and political tensions in Lebanon. The Department strongly urges U.S. citizens to defer travel to Lebanon and also urges American citizens in Lebanon to consider carefully the risks of remaining. This Travel Warning also alerts U.S. citizens to the ongoing safety and security concerns in Lebanon. It supersedes the Travel Warning issued on September 28, 2006.

The Department remains concerned about the personal safety and security of American citizens in Lebanon. American citizens traveling to or residing in Lebanon despite this Travel Warning should exercise heightened caution. Since the August 14 cessation of hostilities between Israel and Lebanon, political tensions in Lebanon have increased and have become a cause for concern in recent weeks. Hizballah maintains a strong presence in many areas of Lebanon, and there is the potential for anti-American actions by other extremist groups in Tripoli, Sidon, and the Palestinian refugee camps. Americans are urged to avoid large public gatherings, including the Martyrs Square and Riad El Solh areas in Beirut when demonstrations occur. Conditions in Lebanon can change quickly and dramatically, including with regard to access to Beirut International Airport and the ports. Sporadic violence has occurred and there remains the possibility of further violence. All U.S. citizens in Lebanon are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Beirut where they may also obtain updated information on travel and security conditions in Lebanon. Registration details are discussed below. U.S. citizens in Lebanon should at all times be aware of a possible deterioration of the security situation. Americans should pay close attention to their personal security and consider fully the necessity of remaining in Lebanon at this time. Accordingly, Americans and their family members should ensure that their passports and U.S. travel documents are up-to-date. The lack of valid travel documents will delay the ability of the U.S. Embassy to provide assistance. The U.S. Government considers the potential threat to U.S. Government personnel assigned to Beirut sufficiently serious to require them to live and work under strict security restrictions. These practices limit, and may occasionally prevent, the movement of U.S. Embassy officials in certain areas of the country.

Unofficial travel to Lebanon by U.S. Government employees and their family members requires prior approval by the Department of State.

Dangers posed by landmines and unexploded ordnance throughout southern Lebanon are significant and also exist in other areas where civil war fighting was intense. There is a danger of unexploded cluster bombs and other ordnance in areas south of the Litani River that were scenes of fighting in the July-August 2006 conflict. Over 100 civilians have been injured, and more than a dozen killed, by unexploded ordnance, since the cessation of hostilities. Travelers should be aware of posted landmine warnings and strictly avoid all areas where landmines and unexploded ordnance may be present.

The Embassy is located in Awkar, near Antelias, Beirut, Lebanon. Public access hours for American citizens are Monday through Thursday, 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. However, American citizens who require emergency services outside of these hours may contact the Embassy by telephone at any time. The telephone numbers are (961-4) 542-600, 543-600, and fax 544-209. American citizens may register with the Embassy online by visiting https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs. Information on consular services and registration can also be found at http://beirut.usembassy.gov or by phone at the above telephone numbers between 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., Monday through Friday local time.

Updated information on travel and security in Lebanon may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747 within the United States or, from overseas, 1-202-501-4444. Additional details can be found in the Department of State’s Consular Information Sheet for Lebanon, the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, the Middle East and North Africa Public Announcement and the Travel Publication A Safe Trip Abroad, all of which are available on the Department’s Internet site at http://travel.state.gov.