MONGOLIA

Mongol Uls

CAPITAL: Ulaanbaatar

FLAG: The national flag, adopted in 1946, contains a blue vertical stripe between two red stripes; in gold, on the stripe nearest the hoist, is the soyombo, Mongolia's independence emblem.

ANTHEM: Bügd Nayramdah mongol ard ulsyn töriin duulal (State Anthem of the Mongolian People's Republic).

MONETARY UNIT: The tugrik (t) of 100 mongos. There are coins of 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 mongos and notes of 1, 3, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 tugriks. t1 = $0.00084 (or $1 = t1,187.17) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Constitution Day, 13 January; Women's Day, 8 March; Mother and Children's Day, 1 June; Naadam Festival, 11–13 July; Mongolian Republic Day, 26 November. Movable holidays include Mongol New Year's Day, in February or March.

TIME: 8 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Situated in east-central Asia, Mongolia has an area of 1,565,000 sq km (604,250 sq mi), extending 2,368 km (1,471 mi) e–w and 1,260 km (783 mi) n–s. Comparatively, the area occupied by Mongolia is slightly smaller than the state of Alaska. The largest landlocked country in the world, Mongolia is bordered on the n by Russia and on the e, s, and w by China, with a total boundary length of 8,162 km (5,072 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

Mongolia is essentially a vast plateau with an average elevation of 914 to 1,524 m (3,000 to 5,000 ft). Mongolia comprises a mountainous section in the extreme west, where the peak of Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) of the Mongolian Altay Mountains rises to a height of 4,374 m (14,350 ft). Other mountain ranges are the Hentiyn, along the Soviet border, and the Hangayn, in west-central Mongolia. The southern part of the country is occupied by the Gobi, a rocky desert with a thin veneer of shifting sand. Explorations have uncovered large reservoirs of water 2–3 m (7–10 ft) beneath the desert surface. The largest lakes are found in the northwest. These include the nation's largest lake, Uvs Lake, a saltwater lake with an area of about 3,366 sq km (1,300 sq mi).

CLIMATE

Mongolia has an arid continental climate with a wide seasonal range of temperature and low precipitation. In winter, it is the site of the great Siberian high, which governs the climate of a large part of Asia and gives Mongolia average winter temperatures of -21° to -6°c (-6° to -22°f) and dry, virtually snowless winters. In summer, remnants of the southeasterly monsoon bring most of the year's precipitation. Annual precipitation ranges from 25 to 38 cm (10 to 15 in) in mountain areas to less than 10 cm (4 in) in the Gobi.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Mongolia is divided into several natural regions, each with its characteristic plant and animal life. These regions are the mountain forests near the Soviet Siberian border; the mountain steppe and hilly forest farther south; the lowland steppe grasslands; the semidesert; and finally the true desert. Larch and Siberian stone pine are characteristic trees of the northern forests, which are inhabited by bear, Manchurian red deer, snow panther, wild boar, and elk. The saiga antelope and the wild horse are typical steppe dwellers. As of 2002, there were at least 133 species of mammals, 274 species of birds, and over 2,800 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Environmental problems facing Mongolia include desertification, inadequate water supply, and air and water pollution. Areas affected by deforestation and excessive grazing are eventually overtaken by the desert. After a winter of little snow, wildfires spread across northern Mongolia from March until June of 1996. The fires were the most extensive since records were first compiled in 1978, resulting in 26 deaths and nearly 800 people injured or rendered homeless. An estimated 20% of Mongolia's coniferous forest was damaged in the blaze. In 2000, only about 6.8% of the total land area was forested.

Water pollution is a particularly significant problem in Mongolia because the water supply is so limited. The country has only 35 cu km of renewable water resources. In 2002, only 87% of city dwellers and 30% of the people living in rural areas had access to improved water sources.

The country's air pollution problems are due to increased industrial activity within the country, including the burning of soft coal, and airborne industrial pollution from the former Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. The heavy concentration of factories in Ulaanbaatar has polluted the environment in that area.

In 2003, about 11.5% of the total land area was protected, including six Ramsar wetland sites. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 13 types of mammals, 22 species of birds, 1 species of fish, and 3 species of invertebrates. Przewalski's horse (also called takh) is considered to be the last existing ancestor of the modern domesticated horse. The species was extinct in the wild of Mongolia by 1970, but a special government project of breeding the remaining animals in captivity has resulted in more than 1,500 horses reintroduced to a nature reserve at Hustain Nuruu. Threatened species included the Bactrian camel, the snow leopard, and the saiga.

POPULATION

The population of Mongolia in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 2,646,000, which placed it at number 135 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 4% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 31% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 100 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.6%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 3,390,000. The population density was less than 1 person per sq km (1 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 57% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.74%. The capital city, Ulaanbaatar, had a population of 812,000 in that year. Darhan has a population of 90,000; Erdenet, 72,300.

MIGRATION

Few Mongolian nationals live outside the country, but 3.4 million persons of Mongolian extraction lived in the Inner Mongolia province of China. About 500,000 live in Russia—in the Buryat and Kalmyk republics. Between 1955 and 1962, some 20,000 Chinese laborers entered Mongolia to work on construction projects, but in 1964 Mongolia expelled about 2,000 Chinese nationals who had refused to take part in an agricultural resettlement program. In addition, Mongolia expelled 7,000 ethnic Chinese between 1983 and 1993. Since the independence of Kazakhstan, many Kazakhs have emigrated.

Nomadic herders account for nearly half of Mongolia's population. Mongolia is one of the only developing countries where internal migration to rural areas exceeds migration to cities. The number of families formally registered as nomadic herders grew from an estimated 74,000 in 1990 to 170,000 in 1995. In 2000 the total number of migrants was 8,000, with virtually no refugees. There were no reports of refugees or asylum seekers in 2004.

In 2004 some 2,259 Mongolians sought asylum in Europe, mainly in France and the United Kingdom.

In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero, a significant change from 2000 when the rate was -6.5 per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

According to latest estimates, about 85% of the population are ethnic Mongols; they are primarily Khalkha, which account for about 90% of all Mongols. The remainder include Durbet Mongols of the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (including Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) account for about 7% of the population. Other groups include those of Chinese and Russian origin.

LANGUAGES

Khalkha Mongolian, the official language, is spoken by about 90% of the population. It is one of a large dialect group in the Mongolic branch of the Altaic language family. Early in the 13th century, the Mongols adopted an alphabet written in vertical columns from the Turkic Uighurs, and they retained that script until modern times. The literary language differed increasingly from the living spoken language and, in 1941, the Mongolian government decided to introduce a new phonetic alphabet that would accurately reflect modern spoken Mongolian. The new alphabet consisted of the Cyrillic letters used in Russian, except for two special characters needed to render the Mongolian vowels represented as ö and ü in Western European languages. After a period of preparation (1941–45), the new alphabet was introduced in 1946 in all publications and in 1950 in all business transactions, but, following independence, the traditional script was due to be restored in 1994.

The differences between the Khalkha language spoken in Mongolia, the Buryat language spoken in the Buryat Republic of the Russian Federation, the Chahar and Ordos languages of China's Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region, and other Mongolian dialects are comparatively small and chiefly phonetic. A characteristic phonetic feature of Mongolian is the law of vowel harmony, which requires that a word contain either the so-called back vowels, represented as a, o, and u in Western European languages, or the so-called front vowels, represented as e (ā), ö, and ü, but not an association of the two types of vowels. Turkic, Russian, and Chinese are also spoken.

RELIGIONS

Before the government's campaign against religion in the 1930s, there were about 700 Buddhist monasteries with about 100,000 lamas in Mongolia. During 1936–39, the Communist regime closed virtually all monasteries, confiscated their livestock and landholdings, tried the higher lamas for counterrevolutionary activities, and induced thousands of lower lamas to adopt a secular mode of life. In the mid-1980s, only about 100 lamas remained. Since the new constitution of 1992 established freedom of religion, Mahayana Buddhism has made a surprising resurgence. Former monasteries have been restored, and there is a seminary at Gandantegchinlen Hiyd. In 1992, Roman Catholic missionaries were also encouraged to come to Mongolia to continue the presence they had initiated earlier in the century.

A 2004 report indicated that about 50% of the population practiced some form of Buddhism, mostly Lamaist (or Tibetan) Buddhism. About 4% of the population were ethnic Kazakh Muslims. There were small Christian communities throughout the country, including Roman Catholics, Russian Orthodox, and Protestants. It is believed that some natives practice shamanism. About 40% of the population still claims no religious affiliation.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and the separation of church and state. However, the government has reserved the right to place some restrictions on religious activities. For instance, the government can limit the number of churches and clergy allowed for each religious organization. Religious groups are required to register through the Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs.

TRANSPORTATION

The Trans-Mongolian Railway, about 1,496 km (930 mi) in length, connects Mongolia with both China and Russia. Ulaanbaatar has been connected to the Trans-Siberian Railway via Bayantümen since 1939 and via Sühbaatar since 1950, and to the Chinese Railways via Dzamïn üüd since the end of 1955. Choybalsan is also connected to the Trans-Siberian system via Ereenstav. Ulaanbaatar Railways has been linked to Nalayh since 1938 and to Darhan and Tamsagbulag since 1964. The Sharïn Gol Open-Pit Coal Mining Industry was connected to the Darhan industrial center during the third five-year plan (1961–65) by a 60-km (37-mi) rail line. A 200-km (124-mi) railroad line connects Erdenet, a copper-molybdenum mining and industrial center near the Russian border, with the Trans-Mongolian Railway. The total length of railroads in 2004 was 1,810 km (1,125 mi), all of it broad gauge.

Mongolia had 49,256 km (30,637 mi) of roadways in 2002, of which 1,724 km (1,068.8 mi) were paved. Although Mongolia, as of 2004, had 580 km (360 mi) of navigable waterways, only Lake Hovsgol (135 km) was in regular use. The 270 km (168 mi) Selenge River and the 175 km (109 mi) Orhon River, while navigable, carry little traffic. In addition, the country's lakes and rivers are only open from May through September due to freezing in winter. Although land-locked, Mongolia, as of 2005, had a merchant fleet of 65 vessels of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 339,423 GRT.

There were an estimated 46 airports in 2004. As of 2005, a total of 14 had paved runways, and there were also two heliports. Mongolia's first air service began operating between Ulaanbaatar and Verkhneudinsk in eastern Siberia in 1926. Miat-Air Mongol is the principal airline. In 2003, about 295,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Archaeological investigations show that the land now known as Mongolia has been inhabited since the Lower Paleolithic period, more than 130,000 years ago. By about 1000 bc, animal husbandry of the nomadic type had developed, and by the 3rd century bc, a clan style of organization based on horsemanship had emerged. The Huns, a Turkic-speaking people, driven westward during the Han dynasty in China (206 bc–ad 220), created a nomadic empire in central Asia that extended into Europe, beginning about ad 370. It reached almost to Rome under the leadership of Attila (r.433?–453) and declined after his death. Mongolia first played an important part in world history in ad 1206, when the Mongol tribes united under the leadership of the conqueror Temujin, or Genghis Khan. The Mongols set up their capital at Karakorum and established a vast empire extending from the northern Siberian forest to Tibet and from the Caspian Sea to the Pacific. After the death of Genghis in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons into Mongol states, or khanates: the Great Khanate of East Asia, which included the Yüan dynasty of China, and reached its peak under Kublai Khan (r.1260–94), who established his capital at Cambaluc (now Beijing); the Khanate of Chaghadai (Djakhatai) in Turkestan; the Hulagid Khanate, founded by Hulagu Khan in Persia; and the Golden Horde in southern Russia, founded by Batu Khan, who invaded Poland and Hungary in 1240. Having crossed the Danube River, Batu withdrew in 1241. The Mongols' century of dominance in Asia allowed for great trade and cultural interchange but also led to the spread of the bubonic plague to Europe.

During the 14th century, the great Mongol states disintegrated. The Yüan dynasty in China collapsed in 1368, to be replaced by the Ming dynasty; the western part of the Turkestan Khanate was incorporated into the empire of Timur in 1390; Hulagu's Persian empire disintegrated after 1335; and the Golden Horde was attacked and shaken by the forces of Prince Dmitry Donskoy in Russia in 1380 but ruled South Russia into the 15th century. In 1369, at the age of 33, Timur, also called Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane, proclaimed himself ruler of all the land lying between the Tien Shan and the Hindu Kush mountain ranges. The Mongols retired to their original steppe homelands, splitting into three major groups: the northern Khalkha Mongols, north of the Gobi Desert; the southern Chahar Mongols, south of the Gobi; and the western Oirat Mongols. Babur, a descendant of Timur, founded the Mughal (or Mogul) Empire (so called from the Farsi word for "Mongol") in India in 1526; it lasted until the 18th century. Buddhism, which had been introduced by Tibetan monks in the 15th century, became widespread in the 16th and 17th centuries.

A cleavage developed between the northern (outer) Mongols and the southern (inner) Mongols, who had been more closely associated with Mongol rule in China. In the course of conquering China, the Manchus subdued the southern Mongols in 1636, placing them under the eventual rule of China's Qing (Ch'ing) or Manchu dynasty (1644–1911). The northern Mongols, who had been fighting with western Mongols for supremacy, sought Manchu aid against their foes and accepted Manchu suzerainty in 1691. Finally, the Manchus destroyed the western Mongols as a historical force in 1758. The Russian-Chinese border treaties of Nerchinsk (1689) and Kyakhta (1727) confirmed Chinese rule over both the southern and northern Mongols but assigned the Buryats to Russia.

Following the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty by the Chinese revolution in 1911, northern Mongol princes proclaimed an autonomous Outer Mongolia under the rule of Bogdo Khan, the Living Buddha (Jebtsun Damba Khutukhtu) of Urga, an earlier name of Ulaanbaatar. A treaty with the tsar's government pledged Russian assistance for the autonomous state. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Chinese exploited Russia's weakness, reoccupying Outer Mongolia in 1919 and ending its autonomy. In early 1921, the Chinese were driven out by Russian counterrevolutionary forces under Baron von Ungern-Sternberg. He, in turn, was overcome in July 1921 by the Mongol revolutionary leaders Sukhe Baatar and Khorloin Choybalsan, assisted by the Soviet Red Army. Under Soviet influence, a nominally independent state, headed by the Living Buddha, was proclaimed on 11 July 1921 and lasted as a constitutional monarchy until his death in 1924.

The Mongolian People's Republic (MPR), the second communist country in world history, was proclaimed on 26 November 1924. With the support of the former USSR, Communist rule was gradually consolidated. Large landholdings of feudal lords were confiscated, starting in 1929, and those of monasteries in 1938. A 10-year mutual assistance treaty, signed in 1936 and renewed for another 10 years in 1946, formalized the close relations between the former USSR and the MPR. In the summer of 1939, with Soviet support, the Mongolians fought invading Japanese along the border with Manchuria, ending with a solid defeat for the Japanese in September. After a virtually unanimous plebiscite by the Mongolians in favor of independence, the Nationalist government of the Republic of China formally recognized the MPR in 1945 (it withdrew its recognition in 1953) and the Nationalists on Taiwan still claim Mongolia as part of China. On 14 February 1950, the People's Republic of China and the former USSR signed a treaty that guaranteed the MPR's independence. In October 1961, the MPR became a member of the United Nations. Conflicting boundary claims between the MPR and China were settled by treaty on 26 December 1962, and on 30 June 1964 the MPR and the former USSR signed a 20-year treaty of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance. In June 1987, the MPR and the United States established diplomatic relations. With the growth of cities around the mining industry, Mongolian society shifted from being 78% rural in 1956 to being 52% urban in 1980 to 57% in 2005.

With their close ties with the former USSR, Mongolians were well aware of Soviet policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) and of the democratic movements in Eastern Europe after the mid-1980s. The MPR initiated its own policy of "openness" (il tod ) and began economic reforms to serve as transitional steps away from a centrally planned, collective economy and toward a market economy. Following the first popular demonstrations calling for faster reforms, in Ulaanbaatar in December 1989, the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) opted for political as well as economic reforms. The MPRP's leadership resigned in March 1990 and in May the constitution (of 1960) was amended to allow for new, multiparty elections, which took place in July. The MPRP won a majority (85% of the seats) in the legislature, the People's Great Hural (PGH), which took office in September. The PGH elected as president a member of the MPRP, Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat, but invited the opposition parties to join in forming the new government.

During 1991, the new government discussed Mongolia's economic and political transformation. It issued vouchers to all citizens for the purchase of state property as a step toward privatization. Economic reform was made more difficult by the economic collapse of the former Soviet Union. In 1991, Russia insisted on trade based on cash rather than barter and dramatically cut aid. By 1992, Mongolia faced severe energy shortages. In 1991, the PGH also discussed the writing of a new constitution, which took effect in February of the next year. Based on that constitution, elections in June 1992 created a new legislature (with a MPRP majority), the State Great Hural (SGH) and, in June 1993, President Ochirbat was reelected (but with the support of a coalition of new parties, not the MPRP) in the first direct presidential elections. By September 1992, some 67,000 former Soviet troops (in Mongolia since 1966 when Sino-Soviet tensions increased) completed a process of withdrawal begun in 1990.

In the 1996 parliamentary elections, discontent, especially among the young, led to the defeat of the MPRP. The leaders of the winning Democratic Union Coalition (DUC), mostly political novices, promised to intensify market reforms. The election results marked the first smooth transfer of power in Mongolia's modern history and one of the most peaceful among all the former communist nations. In the following years, however, the stability and effectiveness of Mongolia's democratic government were hobbled by disunity within the majority DUC and by the political stalemate between the DUC and the ex-communists of the opposition MPRP. In late 1996 and early 1997, the MPRP prevailed in local elections, and its candidate, Natsagiyn Bagabandi, was elected president. After the resignation of two prime ministers, the nation was left with an interim government in the second half of 1998, as Bagabandi rejected multiple DUC nominees for the post.

In October 1998 the country was shaken by the murder of Sanjaasurengiyn Zorig, a pro-democracy leader and government minister who had been tapped to be the next DUC nominee for prime minister. By August 1999, yet another DUC government had fallen, and Rinchinnyamiin Amarjargal, the 38-year-old former foreign minister, became Mongolia's third prime minister in 15 months.

On 2 July 2000, parliamentary elections were held that resulted in an overwhelming victory for the MPRP. The MPRP took 72 of 76 seats in the State Great Hural, with only 4 seats going to opposition members. Nambaryn Enkhbayar was named prime minister. On 20 May 2001, Bagabandi was reelected president with 58% of the vote, giving the MPRP control of both the presidency and parliament. The elections were characterized by international observers as free and fair.

In November 2002, the Dalai Lama visited Mongolia, a trip denounced by China. China warned Mongolian officials not to meet with the Tibetan spiritual leader, and briefly suspended train services with the country. Thousands of Mongolian Buddhists attended the Dalai Lama's speech on 6 November.

As of early 2003, the country continued to face problems of high unemployment, poor welfare and education systems, corruption, crime, and harsh winters. This was due, in part, to a steep drop in world prices for Mongolia's two largest exports, cashmere and copper. The severe winter of 2001 killed at least 1.3 million livestock; approximately 40% of Mongolians depend upon the country's 30 million livestock for their livelihood. Mongolia, though engaging in increased privatization of state-owned enterprises to speed the country's alignment with free market principles, has been careful to dedicate a percentage of the resulting revenues to social programs. Growth improved from 2002 at 4% to 2003 at 5%, due largely to high copper prices and new gold production, with the government claiming a 10.6% growth rate for 2004 that was unconfirmed. The unemployment rate for 2005 was 6.7%. Mongolia's economy continued to be heavily impacted by its neighbors, particularly since it imports a large majority of its energy and oil from Russia. Mongolian economy also largely consists or a 'black' or 'gray' market. The World Bank estimated that this underground economy is equal to or greater than the official economic statistics. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Due to stagnant unemployment and poverty, Bagabandi made an increased effort to align Mongolia with the international community. Bilateral talks were held in China and the United States in 2004 which led to increased trade and cooperation. The United States is particularly interested in Mongolia due to its strategic geographical position and that it holds relations with North Korea. Mongolia also reopened relations with Russia, due mainly to the Russian decision to resolve a large portion of Soviet-era debt. This allowed Mongolia to fully pay off all debt to Russia in 2004.

MPRP candidate Nambariin Enkhbayar was elected president in May 2005. He won 53.4% of the vote, thereby avoiding a runoff election. His closest rival, Mendsaikhan Enkhsaikhan of the Democratic Party, took 20%. Enkhbayar's declared that the largest problem during his tenure would be the poverty experienced by many Mongolians; over ⅓ of the population lives in poverty.

GOVERNMENT

A new constitution went into effect 12 February 1992, replacing the 1960 constitution and completing Mongolia's transition from a single-party state to a multiparty, parliamentary form of government. At that time, the country's name was officially changed from "Mongolian People's Republic" to "Mongolia." Suffrage is universal at age 18. The unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH), has 76 members, who are elected by district to four-year terms. The SGH meets twice each year. It can enact and amend laws, set domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency.

A president, the head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, is selected by direct, popular vote for a four-year term, with a limit of two terms. The president nominates the prime minister and can call for the dissolution of the government, initiate and veto legislation (subject to override by two-thirds vote of the SGH), and issue decrees which take effect with the signature of the prime minister.

A prime minister, the head of government, is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH to a four-year term. The prime minister selects a cabinet which must be confirmed by the SGH. The government dissolves when the prime minister resigns, when half the cabinet resigns simultaneously, or upon a vote for dissolution by the SGH.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), which had been the single ruling party since 1924, legalized opposition parties in 1990. In addition to the MPRP, major parties prior to the 2004 elections included the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), which included the Mongolian National Democratic Party (MNDP), the Mongolian Social Democratic Party (MSDP), the Green Party (NYAM), and the Mongolian Democratic Party of Believers (MDPB); Mongolian Conservative Party (MCP); Democratic Power Coalition, which included the Mongolian Democratic Renaissance Party (MDRP) and Mongolian People's Party (MPP); Mongolian National Solidarity Party (MNSP); Bourgeois Party/Capitalist Party; United Heritage Party (UHP), which included the United Party of Herdsman and Farmers, Independence Party; Traditional United Conservative Party, and Mongolian United Private Property Owners Party; and the Mongolian Workers Party.

In the first election for the State Great Hural (SGH) 28 June 1992, the MPRP won 56.9% of the vote and 71 of 76 seats in the SGH. In the first direct presidential election, 6 June 1993, President Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat (first elected president 3 September 1990) was reelected with 58% of the vote. A former member of the MPRP, Ochirbat defeated that party's candidate, running as head of a coalition of the SDP and MNDP.

In the elections of 30 June 1996, the Democratic Union Coalition (which included the MNDP, the MSDP, and two smaller parties) defeated the MPRP, winning 50 of 76 seats (an increase of 44 seats). The MPRP won 25 seats, and the remaining seat went to the MCP. The DUC campaign platform included the Mongolia's Contract With Voters, which promised to cut government spending, reduce welfare, and reorganize the transformation of the government.

In the July 2000 parliamentary elections, MRPR candidates won 72 or the 76 seats, with the remaining 4 seats won (one each) by MNDP, the Civil Courage Party or Civil Will Party (CWP) in alliance with the Mongolian Green, the Motherland Alliance (the Mongol Democratic New Socialist Party and the Mongolian Labor Party), and an independent nonpartisan candidate.

General elections held in 2004 resulted in an impasse, as neither the MPRP or nor the main opposition, the Motherland Democratic Party (MDP), held the 39 seats required to form a government. The MPRP was dealt a devastating blow with a reduction in parliamentary seats from 72 to 36. Electoral fraud was suspected on the part of the MDC and a recount was ordered. Parliament was not able to meet for the first half of 2004 as neither side wished to pursue legislation while the electoral investigation was ongoing. In August, the MPRP formed a coalition with the MDC and Tsakhilganiin Elbegdorj retained his post of prime minister for a second term.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Mongolia administratively consists of 21 provinces (aymag ), divided into 334 counties (soums) and lesser administrative units called baghs, as well as one autonomous city, Ulaanbaatar, which is divided into districts and horoos. Each level of local administration has its own legislative body, or hural. These hurals nominate the provincial governors, who are then appointed by the prime minister.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

Prior to the 1992 constitution, justice was administered through a Supreme Court elected by the People's Great Hural; province and city courts, elected by the corresponding assemblies of people's deputies; and lower courts. The 17-member Supreme Court remains the highest judicial body with a Constitutional Court vested with sole authority for constitutional review. The local courts (people's courts) handle most routine civil and criminal cases. Provincial courts hear more serious cases and review local court decisions. The Supreme Court hears appeals from the local and provincial courts. The old specialized military justice and railway courts have been abolished. All courts are now organized under a single unified national system.

The General Council of Courts nominates and the president appoints the lower and the Supreme Court judges. The new constitution provides for a completely independent judiciary. It also promises procedural due process rights to a fair trial, legal assistance, right to appeal, and access to requests for pardons.

A 1999 media law banned censorship of public information, and many independent newspapers and media outlets exist. However, to the extreme poverty in the country, the main source of news is the state-owned Radio Mongolia. Internet access and Western news media are available in all major cities and not hampered by government censorship. Parliamentary meetings are also broadcast to the public.

Trade unions are legal, although with the continued sale of many state factories, membership in trade unions has declined to approximately one-half the population in 2005. Strikes and collective bargaining are legal except in what the government considers "essential sectors", which are transportation, law enforcement and utilities.

The constitution bars arbitrary arrest, although this continued to occur. Prisoners also report beatings and torture while in detention. Deaths in prison are reported, although this is most likely due to disease exacerbated by poor conditions like lack of food, heat and medical services. Mongolia vowed to concentrate resources on prison reform by 2010.

Military service is mandatory for all men aged 18–28 for 12 months. In 2003 the army had approximately 7,500 soldiers and the Air Defense Force had about 800 personnel.

Mongolia is a member of most international organizations including the United Nations, International Court of Justice and the World Trade Organization.

ARMED FORCES

In 2005, Mongolia's armed forces had 8,600 active personnel, with reserves of 137,000. The Army had 7,500 personnel, whose equipment included 370 main battle tanks, 120 reconnaissance vehicles, 310 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 150 armored personnel carriers, and 570 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 800 personnel whose major equipment included 11 attack helicopters and 9 fixed wing transport aircraft. Paramilitary forces consisted of a border guard numbering 6,000 and 1,200 internal security troops. Mongolia's defense budget in 2005 totaled $17.6 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Admitted to the United Nations on 27 October 1961, Mongolia participates in ESCAP and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the FAO, IAEA, ILO, IMF, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and the World Bank. It is a member of the WTO, the Asian Development Bank, the Colombo Plan, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the ASEAN Regional Forum, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council, and the G-77. Mongolia is a partner in the OSCE and an observer of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), an agreement signed in June 2001 between the leaders of China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan to fight terrorism and ethnic and religious militancy while promoting trade.

The principal ally of Mongolia was the former USSR, which provided substantial economic and military assistance over the years. In 1986, the MPR made efforts toward normalizing relations with China, which had become strained after the expulsion of Chinese laborers in 1983, by establishing the first five-year trade agreement between the two countries, restoring air service and improving rail service between them, and exchanging consular delegations for the first time. In the 1990s, Mongolia expanded its political and financial relationships with the United States, Japan, and the European Union. However, it remains dependent upon Russia and China for the development of its economy and trade. Mongolia is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Mongolia is part of the Basel Convention, the Convention on Biological Diversity, Ramsar, CITES, the Kyoto Protocol, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

After 70 years as a centrally planned economy, Mongolia has undergone a difficult transition towards a free market system since 1990. With the help of active government promotion, the country's industrial sector grew steadily for several decades, expanding from 7% of the national income in 1940 to 35% by 1997, as agriculture's share of total production declined from 79% to 31%. Despite these changes, animal husbandry has remained a dominant sector of the economy, with live animals and animal products accounting for a major share of exports, and livestock providing much of the raw material processed in the country's industrial sector. Total Soviet assistance at the height of Soviet support amounted to 30% of GDP. A number of factors, including the sudden cessation of economic aid from the former Soviet Union and allied countries, the disruption of trade with traditional trading partners, as well as a severe winter in 1990/91, caused a steep decline in the country's economic activity in the early 1990s. The annual growth rate of the GDP dropped steeply from 8.3% to -9.5% in 1992, and -3% in 1993.

Despite these difficulties, the government continued its economic transformation program involving the privatization of most previously state-owned enterprises and other policy reforms. In 1994, GDP grew by 2.3%, followed by further increases of 6.3% in 1995, 2.6% in 1996, 4% in 1997, 3.5% in 1998, 3.2% in 1999, 1.1% in 2000 and 1.4% in 2001. Although the economy has grown steadily since 1994, the economic wellbeing of most people is still in decline. Inflation reached a peak of over 325% in 1992, accelerating faster than wages, but dropping to about 4% in 1995. In 1999, inflation jumped to 10%, and was at 8% and 8.1% in 2000 and 2001. Development of the country's rich oil and mineral resources continues to be a high priority, and negotiations for the exploitation of oil, gold and rare earth elements with foreign companies are being actively pursued.

The GDP growth rate was 6.0% in 2004, up from 5.1% in 2003, and 3.9% in 2002; in 2005, the economy was expected to expand by 5.5%. This growth was mainly fueled by higher commodity prices (for gold, copper, etc.) requested from Mongolia's main trading partner—China. Inflation, reduced to insignificant levels in 2002—0.9%, started growing again in 2003 (5.1%), and 2004 (8.7%). The unemployment rate reached 14.2% in 2003, but it is believed that a large part of the jobless population is actually employed by the grey economy.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $6.0 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,200. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 5.5 %. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 11%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 20.6% of GDP, industry 21.4%, and services 58%.

According to the World Bank, in 2003 remittances from citizens working abroad totaled $56 million or about $23 per capita and accounted for approximately 4.4% of GDP. Foreign aid receipts amounted to $247 million or about $100 per capita and accounted for approximately 19.7% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Mongolia totaled $894 million or about $361 per capita based on a GDP of $1.3 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings.

It was estimated that in 2004 about 36.1% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2003 (the latest year for which data was available), the workforce was estimated at 1.488 million people. Of that total that same year, 42% were involved in agriculture/herding, 4% in mining, 6% in manufacturing, 14% in trade, 29% in services, 5% in the public sector and 3.7% in undefined occupations. In 2003, unemployment was put at 6.7%. A shortage of skilled labor has required the procurement of a large supplementary workforce from the former USSR and Eastern Europe.

The right to organize trade unions and professional organizations is granted by the 1990 constitution. In that year, the Association of Free Trade Unions, (AFTU) which includes about 70 unions, was chartered. In 2002, there were 400,000 unionized workers, amounting to less than 50% of the workforce. Nonessential workers have a right to strike.

According to the labor code, the working week is fixed at 40 hours, and for those under 18, at 36 hours. Children as young as 14 or 15 may work with parental permission. In reality, regulations regarding child labor are not effectively enforced. The legal minimum wage was less than $25 per month in 2002, although most workers earned in excess of this amount.

AGRICULTURE

As of 2003, cropland amounted to 1,200,000 hectares (2,965,000 acres), up from only 1,160,000 hectares (2,866,000 acres) in 1979; the cultivated area represents only 1% of potentially arable land. The high altitude, temperature extremes, long winters, and low precipitation provide limited potential for agricultural development. Crop production accounts for 3% of all employment.

Shortages of fuels and parts for agricultural equipment caused crop production to decline by 70% during the 1990s. Principal crops produced in 2004 (in 1,000 tons) included: wheat, 150; barley, 2.5; potatoes, 67; and vegetables, 44. Trade in agricultural products in 2004 consisted of $173.6 million in imports and $62.7 million in exports.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal husbandry is the backbone of Mongolia's economy, employing some 160,000 persons. After Mongolia became the world's second communist country in 1924, many nomads settled down to raise livestock on state-owned collectives. The end of communist rule in 1990 brought the resurgence of traditional animal herding methods. Pastures constitute about 75% of the national territory. In 2005 there were 11,686,000 sheep, 12,238,000 goats, 1,842,000 cattle, 2,005,000 horses, 257,000 camels, and some 6,000 hogs. The goat population increased by over one million in 1994/95, due to a boom in the cashmere industry. The meat produced in 2005 was 195,400 tons. Because of the harsh climate, Mongolians consume much fat and meat during winter, and dairy products in the summer.

Mongols claim that the Mongolian thoroughbred is the progenitor of many breeds of race horses worldwide; furthermore, its stamina and speed over long distances surpass Arabic and Akhaltec racers. The Mongolian Horse Association was founded in February 1989 in Zunmod to increase the population and preserve traditional horse-breeding techniques, which were largely being forgotten over the past three decades.

Hunting remains an important commercial activity, with furs and skins the chief products. In 2005, production of skins and hides was estimated at 19,800 tons from sheepskins and 11,200 tons from cattle hides.

FISHING

Fishing is not a significant industry in Mongolia. The total catch in 2003 was 130 tons.

FORESTRY

Forests cover about 6.8% of the total territory of Mongolia, mainly in the area around Hövsgöl Lake. It is estimated that the country's total timber resources represent at least 1.25 billion cu m (44 billion cu ft). Birch, cedar, larch, and fir trees predominate. In 2004, the timber cut was 6.631 million cu m (222.7 million cu ft), with 29% burned as fuel. The lumber industry yielded 300,000 cu m of sawn wood that year.

MINING

Mongolia was the world's third-largest producer of fluorspar and among the top three producers in Asia and the Pacific of copper and molybdenum. In 2004, Mongolia exported nearly all of its copper and molybdenum concentrates, while fluorspar was sent to Japan and Russia. Construction, mining (of coal, copper, molybdenum fluorspar, and gold), and oil were Mongolia's top three industries. Geological surveys have uncovered deposits of some 80 minerals, which were largely untapped. Also produced in 2004 were cement, hydrated lime, quicklime, varieties of stone, and silica. Most mining operations were in the eastern and north-central regions, including the Erdenet copper mining center.

Output in 2004 included (in metric tons): mine copper (metal content), 130,000; fluorspar (including acid grade and sub-metallurgical), 295,000; mine molybdenum, 1,411; gypsum, 25,000; and mine tungsten, 40,000 (estimated). Gold output for 2004 was 18,600 kg, up from 11,119 kg in 2003. Gold mining increased significantly in the 1990s, and the number of companies engaged in gold mining grew to more than 100; total reserves were estimated to be 2,000 tons gold in 17 regions, the most important being Naran, Tolgoi, and Zamar. No tin was mined in 1999 and 2000, or in 2004. Uranium production ceased after 1997. The Erdenet copper-molybdenum mine, completed in 1981, was developed by the state in cooperation with the former USSR, and was 51% owned by the Mongolian government and 49%, by the Russian government. Clay, gold, gypsum, limestone, molybdenum, salt, sand and gravel, silver, precious stones, and tungsten were also mined by small operations.

Mongolia's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2004 totaled $1.5 billion. The country's minerals sector accounted for around 17.3% of GDP that year. The government encouraged foreign investment and adopted a number of long-term programs to explore for and develop metallic and nonmetallic minerals. Ivanhoe Mines Ltd. estimated that the Oyu Tolgoy had as much as 750 million tons of copper and gold resources. The Tsagaan Suvraga porphyry copper deposit, in southwestern Sayanshand City, in the northern part of the Ulaan-Uul structural-formational zone of the south Gobi mineral belt, contained 240 million tons of sulfide ore at a grade of 0.53% copper and 0.018% molybdenum. The government was looking for investors to develop a 500-million-ton iron ore deposit north of Darkhan City.

Parliament-approved guidelines for 2001–04 would privatize 27 state-owned enterprises and restructure 25 state-owned enterprises and organizations. Copper mining remained state owned. In 1997, the government modified mining laws to increase the land open to exploration to 40%, change policies regarding exploration licenses, and grant tax incentives to promote mining.

ENERGY AND POWER

Mongolia produces only a small amount of oil, no natural gas, and some coal.

In 2004, Mongolia's production of oil averaged 542 barrels per day, while demand and imports each averaged an estimated 11,000 barrels per day in that year. A small amount of oil, averaging an estimated 497 barrels per day, was exported that same year.

All of Mongolia's electricity is produced by conventional thermal power plants. In 2004, electric power output totaled an estimated 2.692 billion kWh, with consumption in that year, an estimated 2.209 billion kWh. Electricity exports and imports in 2004 came to an estimated 8.2 million kWh and 130.5 million kWh, respectively. In 2002, Mongolia's generating capacity was put at 0.901 million kW. Although about half the population is served with electricity, electric power outages in rural areas can last for months.

Mongolia produced 7,081,000 short tons of coal in 2002, of which 86% consisted of brown coal or Lignite, and the remainder bituminous.

INDUSTRY

Small-scale processing of livestock and agricultural products has historically been a mainstay of Mongolia's industrial sector. With the establishment of the Erdenet copper plant in the late 1970s, metal processing also became an important part of the economy. In 1996, industrial output was estimated at t239.3 billion, with production of metals accounting for 32.6%; energy production, 19.1%; processed foods, 15.8%; wool and woolen apparel, 11.5%; mineral fuels, 6.8%; chemicals, 6.7%; and other items, 7.5%. Much of the country's industrial activity is concentrated in four centers: Ulaanbaatar, Erdenet, Darhan, and Choybalsan. Industry employed approximately 74,100 persons in 1996.

Mongolia's industrial development has been severely affected by dwindling imports of fuel, spare parts, and equipment formerly obtained from the former USSR and allied trading partners. As a result, total output from the industrial sector generally declined in the early 1990s, falling by 2.5% in 1996. By 1997, the industrial sector had begun to recover, with growth estimated that year at 4.5%. Industrial growth in 2000 was 2.4%. Industrial production in Mongolia included about 40 different commodities. As of 2002, the production of food, leather, shoes, glass, and garments were on the decline, while production of copper and molybdenum concentrates, coal mining, and the food and beverage industries were increasing. About 72% of the economy had been privatized by 2000.

In 2003, industry made up 21.4% of the economy, with 4% of the labor force being engaged in mining, and 6% in manufacturing; 42% of the working population is still engaged in herding or agriculture. The industrial production growth rate was 4.1% in 2002, slightly higher than the GDP growth rate, and a sign that the industry is an important economic growth fosterer.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The Academy of Sciences, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1921 and reorganized in 1961. It includes departments of agriculture, chemistry and biology, geography and geology, medicine, and technology; and numerous research institutes concerning agriculture, fisheries and veterinary science, medicine, natural sciences, and technology. The Natural History Museum in Ulaanbaatar features Gobi Desert dinosaur eggs and skeletons. The National University of Mongolia, founded in 1942 at Ulaanbaatar, has faculties of mathematics, natural sciences, physics, and biology, and undertakes research with the State Construction Research Institute in pursuit of knowledge related to nuclear physics, biophysics, mineral resources, energy, and communications. The Mongolian Technical University, founded in 1969 at Ulaanbaatar, has schools of power engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and geology and mining engineering. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, Mongolia's expenditures on research and development (R&D) totaled $11.868 million, or 0.28% of GDP. In that same year, the country had 710 researchers and 72 technicians per million people that were involved in R&D. High technology exports in that year totaled $1 million.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Prior to economic reforms of the early 1990s, consumer goods produced at Ulaanbaatar or imported from abroad were distributed by state marketing agencies to retail outlets in local administrative centers. Prices for all items except consumer services and some luxury goods were set by the government. With steady price liberalization undertaken since 1990, prices are now closely regulated for only a few staples, such as fuel, rice, and flour.

Because the rapid dismantling of the government's centrally planned distribution system proceeded without an effective alternative yet in place, severe supply shortages have been experienced especially in the country's urban centers. To reduce these shortages, a system of public markets has been developed where supplies in excess of targeted deliveries can be sold freely. Commodity exchanges, however, still retain some of the characteristics of a centrally planned economy. Bartering is still common among Mongolia's nomadic population.

As of 2002, wide-spread reform toward privatization was nearly completed and these privately-owned enterprises have begun to show growth in contributions to the economy. The government still seeks foreign investment as a major opportunity to boost and stabilize the domestic economy.

Business hours are generally from 9 am to 6 pm, Monday through Friday.

FOREIGN TRADE

Minerals, mainly copper concentrates and molybdenum, were Mongolia's largest exports. In 1998, exports totaled $316.8 million. The second most important export category includes wool, hides, and skins, followed by consumer goods, mainly manufactured garments. The liberalization and expansion of free trade zones have promoted the export of manufactured goods such as spun wool and cashmere, carpets, leather goods, green tea, canned meat, and light consumer goods. In 1999, imports amounted to $472.4 million. Imports included machinery and equipment, fuels, rice, wheat flour, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

Although Mongolia continues to depend on the republics of the former USSR (especially Russia) as its dominant trading partners, the country's trading profile has changed greatly since the mid-1980s. In 1985, communist countries, excluding China and North Korea, accounted for 95.5% of Mongolia's exports and 98.1% of its imports. In 1997 Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization. By 1998 Russia accounted for only 12.1% of exports, while their share of imports fell to 30.6%.

In 2004, Mongolia's exports totaled $853 million (FOB—Free on Board), while its imports grew to $1 billion (CIF—Cost and Freight). Export commodities included copper, apparel, livestock, animal products, cashmere, wool, hides, fluorspar, and other nonferrous metals, and they mainly went to China (which received 47.8% of total exports), the United States (17.9%), and the United Kingdom (15.7%). Imports chiefly came from Russia (33.3%), China (23.6%), Japan (7.4%), South Korea (6%), and the United States (4.6%), and included machinery and equipment, fuel, cars, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building materials, sugar, and tea.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Mongolia consistently imports more than it exports. The sudden discontinuance of grants and debt cancellations by the former

Soviet Union devastated the balance of payments position. Subsequently, the IMF in 1993, 1997, and 2001 approved a series of three-year loans to Mongolia, the last due to expire in September 2004.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2000 the purchasing power parity of Mongolia's exports was $466.1 million while imports totaled $614.5 million resulting in a trade deficit of $148.4 million.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2001 Mongolia had exports of goods totaling $460 million and imports totaling $549 million. The services credit totaled $86 million and debit $174 million.

Exports of goods and services reached $1.2 billion in 2004, up from $835 million in 2003. Imports grew from $1.1 billion in 2003, to $1.5 billion in 2004. The resource balance was consequently negative in both years, worsening from -$249 million in 2003, to -$303 million in 2004. The current account balance was also negative, slightly improving from -$99 million in 2003, to - $35 million in 2004.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Before 1924, Mongolia lacked its own banks and currency. Mongolians bartered, using such commodities as livestock, tea, and salt for exchange, or such foreign currencies as the US dollar, the Russian ruble, the British pound, and the Chinese Mexican dollar in commerce. Chinese and Russian banks offered credit, as did monasteries and private moneylenders. The government began to transform this chaotic monetary situation with a series of reforms, starting with the establishment of Mongolbank, or the Mongolian Trade-Industrial Bank, in June 1924. Mongolbank was founded as a Mongolian-Soviet joint-stock company. In February 1925, the tugrik was made the official national currency, and it was slowly introduced into circulation over the next three years. In April 1928, all other currencies were withdrawn from circulation. In 1929, the government drove private moneylenders out of business by establishing a monopoly on foreign trade and outlawing private lending.

In April 1954, the Soviet Union handed over its shares in Mongolbank, which was renamed the State Bank of the Mongolian People's Republic, which remains the official bank of Mongolia. However, economic reforms have allowed the formation of a commercial banking sector. The economic reforms were brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.

Mongolia has a two-tier banking system where control of the money supply is invested in the central bank. The Bank of Mongolia has established lending rules the commercial banks must follow. Also, reserve requirements are set by the national bank. In 1991, commercial functions were separated from the Mongol Bank, and two commercial banks were created; by the late 1990s there were 18. On advice from the Asian Development Bank, the government closed a number of banks in 1999 and 2000, leaving 12 in operation in an effort to restructure the two-tier system. In 2000, the World Bank gave Mongolia a loan earmarked for restructuring of its financial systems. Also in that year, foreign exchange reserves reached $123 million. The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $142.2 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $301.6 million. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 8.6%.

The Mongolian Securities Exchange opened in August 1995. About 60,000 individuals have opened accounts on the stock market. By 1996, more than 7.8 million shares from 400 companies had been traded and 28,000 contracts concluded; average daily trade volume is 60,000–80,000 shares.

INSURANCE

In the 1980s, insurance was offered by the State Directorate for Insurance, or Mongoldaatgal, which was under the control of the Ministry of Finance. The government was planning to introduce health insurance in 1993 as a cooperative effort between individuals, government agencies, and the private sector.

PUBLIC FINANCE

The annual budget is submitted to the People's Great Hural for approval. Privatization did not begin until fiscal year 1990/1991 along with political upheaval. Privatization of large state businesses has begun, as has the implementation of tax reforms. Most small businesses were private as of 2001.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2004 Mongolia's central government took in revenues of approximately $582 million and had expenditures of $602 million. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$20 million. Total external debt was $1.36 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 2002, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were t403.22 billion and expenditures were t422.62 billion. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 32.4%; defense, 5.9%; public order and safety, 3.9%; economic affairs, 21.2%; environmental protection, 0.3%; housing and community amenities, 0.3%; health, 4.7%; recreation, culture, and religion, 2.2%; education, 6.3%; and social protection, 22.8%.

TAXATION

The turnover tax, for the majority of state revenues, is an indirect sales tax levied at the production stage on all manufactured commodities. Personal taxes consist of income taxes, paid by salaried industrial workers and office employees, and livestock taxes on private herders, based on the number of livestock owned. There is a ceiling of 40% on taxes levied on enterprises with foreign capital. There is also a 13% value-added tax (VAT). Exemptions from the VAT include financial and legal services, leases and rents for dwellings, religious organizations, and public transportation.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Mongolia collects a general import tariff of 5% and a VAT of 13% on most imported items. However, gold is subject to a 10% VAT, while imports of technological equipment and machinery imported under the country's Law of Foreign Investment are exempt. Customs duties have been insignificant, yielding less than 1% of total state revenues.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

Prior to 1990, no private investments were possible in Mongolia; much of the country's investment capital was derived from government loans and grants provided by the former USSR and allied countries. New government policy and laws since the late 1980s, including the Foreign Investment Law of 1993, provide the legal basis and incentive for foreign investments. In 1994, Mongolia concluded a Bilateral Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA) with the United States, in 1997 accessed to the WTO, and in 1999 was granted normal trade relations (NTR) status by the United States.

The Foreign Investment and Taxation Laws provide for tax incentives and exemptions for foreign investment. Total income tax exemptions are granted to businesses engaged in infrastructural projects like building power plants, thermal plants, power transmission networks, highways, railways, and air cargo transportation facilities. Mining operations, metallurgy operations, chemicals production, and machinery and electronics manufacturing receive a 10-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for the next five years. Companies that export more than 50% of production receive a three-year tax holiday, and 50% tax exemption for another three years.

Thus far, private foreign capital remains a small source of investment in the country. Mongolia's lack of infrastructure remains an impediment to foreign investment. A north-south paved road running from Russia to China and through the capital was completed with finance from the Asian Development Bank (ADB) but Mongolia still lacks an east–west highway. As of July 2000, cumulative foreign investment in Mongolia totaled $308.4 million. The biggest source has been China, including Hong Kong ($86 million), followed by Japan ($47.5 million), South Korea ($30.4 million), the United States ($27.1 million), Russia ($15.5 million), and Canada ($9.3 million). The sector attracting the most foreign direct investment (FDI) has been mining (24%), followed by light industry (19.6%); raw material processing, including cashmere (10.9%); trade and catering (6.4%); construction (6.3%); banking and financial services (5.4%) and telecommunications (5.0%). Leading investors include Sumitomo Corporation and Komatsu of Japan; Korean Telecom; and SOCO Oil, Caterpillar, and Nescor of the United States.

Although the Mongolian government openly welcomes foreign investments (albeit, it favors a series of key industries, like banking and cashmere production), there are reports of corruption at the level of individual agencies and the judiciary that hinder the free flow of capital.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In the past, Mongolia operated on the basis of a planned economy, with five-year plans implemented from 1947 until 1990, with assistance from the former USSR and China. In 1990, with the establishment of a new consensus government, there followed a three-year plan that aimed for achieving greater efficiency in the allocation of resources and a diversified economic base by undertaking a sustained transition to a free market economy. The change was a fundamental shift, as the government relinquished its role as the primary factor in the economy and began limiting itself to policies supporting a market-oriented economy. Main components of the government's program include privatization of state enterprises, price liberalization, changes in national law, and an action plan for environmental protection. Current plans specify development of the country's energy and mining sectors, and further action in environmental protection as well as continued reforms in a number of areas including fiscal management, land tenure, and social benefit entitlements.

In 1996, the initial phase of privatization of state property was completed. According to the government, 100% of small- and medium-sized enterprises were privatized as well as 97% of the country's livestock. In 2000, the private sector accounted for 72% of GDP. At the end of the 1990s, however, the government's commitment to privatization and market reforms appeared to be weakening. However, the government that took office in August 2000 renewed the effort at gaining macroeconomic stability and restoring the momentum for reform. In September 2001, the administration entered into a three-year arrangement with the IMF under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) supported by stand-by funds of sdr28.49 million (about $40 million). In a 2002 review, the IMF commended the government on progress made to contain inflation, but noted that improvements were needed in fiscal transparency and accountability.

In July 2002, a pledge meeting of the Consultative Group (CG) for Mongolia, consisting of donors from 20 countries and 18 international organizations in addition to representatives of various civil and private organizations, agreed on the importance of the government's addressing governance issues: ensuring accountability, promoting transparency, controlling corruption, reforming the judiciary and strengthening the rule of law. Priority areas of action stressed were energy and information and communications technology (ICT), as well as preparation of a long-term strategy for rural development. The donors pledged $333 million in support of Mongolia's development efforts in 2003.

Economic development strategies were expected to be less successful if they focused only on the national economy of Mongolia, outside of the political, geographical, and economic context it finds itself in. The country was still heavily dependent on trade with its neighbors (most of the petroleum products and a substantial part of its electric power are imported from Russia, while most of its exports are going to China), and as such will find it hard to develop an endogenous growth strategy. The large gray economy (some specialists think this is almost as large as the real economy), corruption, and a weak law and regulatory system are some of the factors that could hamper the country's economic expansion. Market opportunities include mining, construction, tourism, and meat processing.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance program provides for free medical services, benefits for temporary disability, and pensions for permanent disability and old age.

Women have equal rights and freedoms under Mongolian law, with the exception of a law barring them from hazardous work. Women account for approximately half of the work force, generally receive equal pay for equal work, and many hold mid-level government and professional jobs. Domestic abuse and violence remain serious problems. New laws went into effect in 2005 to combat domestic violence.

Although the government generally respects the human rights of its citizens, there are reports of mistreatment of detainees and prisoners. Human rights organizations operate openly in Mongolia.

HEALTH

Health care is administered under state auspices and all medical and hospital services are free. The government gives special priority to increasing the number of physicians and other health personnel and expanding facilities in rural areas. Each province has at least two hospitals and each agricultural cooperative and state farm has a medical station. As of 2004, there were an estimated 267 physicians, 305 nurses, 18 dentists, and 31 pharmacists per 100,000 people. Most Mongolians had access to health services. In 2000, 60% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 30% had adequate sanitation. Health expenditures were 4.7% of the GDP.

Average life expectancy in 2005 was an estimated 64.52 years (up from 45 years in 1950). Pulmonary and bronchial infections, including tuberculosis and brucellosis, are widespread but are being brought under control through the use of ayrag, an indigenous drink brewed from horse milk and possessing demonstrated healing qualities. Cholera, smallpox, typhus, and other epidemic diseases have been virtually eliminated. Immunization rates for children up to one year of age were as follows: tuberculosis, 90%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 78%; polio, 87%; and measles, 80%. Rates for DPT and measles were, respectively, 94% and 93%.

The general mortality rate was estimated at seven per 1,000 people as of 2002. In 2005, the infant mortality rate was 53.79 per 1,000 live births. At least 30.4% of children had goiter. About 25% of children under five years of age were malnourished and 11% of births were of low birth weight. Maternal mortality in 2003 was 65 per 100,000 live births. The total fertility rate decreased steadily from 5.4 in 1980 to 2.6 per woman in 2000.

The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 200 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

HOUSING

Although there are many stone and wood buildings in Ulaanbaatar and some of the larger provincial centers, the traditional housing structure is the ger, a tent-like wooden frame structure covered in woolen felt. In 2002, about 49% of the population lived in gers. Approximately 57% of the population lived in Ulaanbaatar, where large apartment-house complexes with stores, services, and cultural facilities were being built to house the growing urban population. Apartments are the primary residence for urban dwellers.

The Asian Development Bank has sponsored a loan program to support housing construction in the nation. Within the country itself, groups focusing on housing issues include the Citizen's Representatives Meeting of Ulaanbaatar, the Tsast Impex Company, and the joint Mongolian-Chinese Bogda Holding Company.

EDUCATION

The 1991 Education Law introduced a number of changes in the system. The traditional Mongolian script was to be introduced from the first grade, and teaching of English in all schools was made compulsory. Nonformal education offered by private institutions was also given due importance and recognition.

Eight years of schooling is compulsory starting at age eight, and free of charge. Primary school covers four years of study, followed by four years of junior secondary school and two years of upper secondary school. There are technical and vocational schools, which admit students after their primary education is complete. Many children in rural areas are withdrawn from school in order to work at home. An absence of heat in many rural schools is also a problem that may contribute to poor enrollment levels. More than 70% of students from rural areas reside in dormitories adjoining the schools. The academic year runs from September to July.

In 2001, about 31% of children between the ages of three and seven were enrolled in some type of preschool program. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 79% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 77% of age-eligible students; 72% for boys and 83% for girls. It is estimated that nearly all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 31:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1.

While higher and professional education is not free, tuition fees for poor students are subsidized by the government. The Mongolian State University, in Ulaanbaatar, was founded in 1942 and includes faculties in the social sciences, trade, and philology, as well as in science and technology. The Ministry of Science, Technology, Education and Culture (MOSTEC) is responsible for higher education. In 2003, about 37% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in some type of higher education program; 28% for men and 47% for women. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 97.8%.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 9% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The Mongolian State University has a library of 350,000 volumes. The State Central Library of Mongolia, which is under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences, contains four million volumes in Mongolian, Chinese, English, French, German, Manchu, Russian, Tibetan, and other languages. It also has a collection of valuable Buddhist manuscripts, including a 335-volume Buddhist encyclopedia. In 1991, the country opened a college of business and commerce, which houses a library of 21,000 volumes. Also that year, it opened the College of Economics with 40,000 volumes. The Library of the State Great Hural of Mongolia, established in 1992, serves the members of parliament, with holdings of about 40,000 volumes and subscriptions of over 100 periodicals per year. Ulaanbaatar City Central Library was established in 1980 and has over 500,000 items.

The State Central Museum, containing art treasures and antiquities, the Museum of National History, the Ulaanbaatar Museum (a public affairs museum), the Fine Arts Museum, and the Museum of Religion, all in Ulaanbaatar, are under the jurisdiction of the Academy of Sciences. Also in the capital are the Mongolian National Modern Art Gallery, opened in 1989, and the Palace Museum, in the home of Bodg Geegen, former head of state and leader of the Buddhist Church of Mongolia. The Zanabazar Museum of Fine Art features collections of native artists. The Theater Museum opened in 1991.

MEDIA

In 2003, there were an estimated 56 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 35,600 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 130 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Radio broadcasting began in the MPR in 1934. Radio Ulaanbaatar broadcasts programs in Mongolian, Russian, Chinese, English, French, and Kazakh. Mongel Telev 12, which transmits locally produced programs, and a satellite station are also located in Ulaanbaatar. There are several independent stations. In 2004 there were 7 AM and 62 FM radio stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 50 radios and 81 television sets for every 1,000 people. About 20.5 of every 1,000 people were cable subscribers. Also in 2003, there were 77.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 58 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were five secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

The newspapers of the MPR (together with the organizations that publish them) include Unen (Central Committee of the MPRP, 1999 circulation 170,000); Ardyn Erh (Mongolian Great Hural and Cabinet, circulation 77,500); Novosti Mongoliy (the Mongolian News Agency); Hodolmor, the organ of the trade unions; Dzaluuchuudyn Unen (Central Committee of the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League); Shine Hodoo (Ministry of Agriculture and the Supreme Council of the Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives); Utga Dzohiol Urlag (the Union of Mongolian Writers and the Ministry of Culture); and Ulaan Od (Ministry of Defense and the Ministry of Public Security). Also published are 41 periodicals, including Namyn Am'dral, a journal of the Central Committee of the MPRP, and Shinjleh Uhaan Am'dral, a bimonthly publication of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences.

The constitution provides for freedom of expression, including free speech and a free press, and the government is said to respect these rights in practice.

ORGANIZATIONS

The Mongolian National Chamber of Commerce and Industry is in Ulan Bator.

Mongolia's mass organizations, all of which work closely with the MPRP, include the Mongolian Revolutionary Youth League (founded in 1922), Mongolian Pioneers' Organization, Committee of Mongolian Women (founded in 1933), and Mongolian-Soviet Friendship Society (founded in 1947).

Other youth organizations include the Union of Mongolian Students, Junior Chamber, and the Scout Association of Mongolia. There are several sports associations in the country promoting competition amongst amateur athletes. Another nongovernment women's organization is the Women's Information and Research Center.

Professional and cultural organizations include the Mongolia Academy of Science, the Union of Mongolian Artists, the Union of Mongolian Composers, the Mongolian Association for Lawyers, the Union of Mongolian Journalists, the Union of Mongolian Writers, and the Union of Mongolian Philatelists.

Social action organizations are the Mongolian Committee for Afro-Asian Solidarity, Mongolian Union for Peace and Friendship Organizations, and Mongolian Committee for the Defense of Peace. There are national chapters of the Red Cross Society, Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, and Caritas.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Points of interest include the largest monastery in Mongolia, Gandan Lamasery in Ulaanbaatar, and the ruined city of Karakorum, once the capital of the Mongol Empire. Mongolia offers abundant and varied scenery, including forests, steppes, lakes, and deserts, and a wide variety of wildlife. The national sports of Mongolia are wrestling, archery, and horse racing. Mongols also participate in boxing and sumo wrestling.

A valid passport is required for entry into Mongolia, an onward/return ticket, and a visa if staying of more than 90 days. In 2003, about 201,000 tourists visited Mongolia. Tourist expenditure receipts totaled $154 million that same year. Despite the birth of multiparty democracy in the 1990s, Mongolia has not encouraged tourism. Tourist facilities are in short supply, and prices are high.

According to the US Department of State, the estimated cost of staying in Ulaanbaatar in 2004 was $200 per day.

FAMOUS MONGOLIANS

A long line of Mongol khans have left their mark on history ever since Temujin, or Genghis Khan (1162–1227), set up the first Mongol empire in 1206. Outstanding among them were Kublai Khan (1216–94), a grandson of Genghis, who conquered most of China; Hulagu Khan (1217–60), a brother of Kublai, who conquered Persia and Syria; Batu Khan (d.1255), Kublai's cousin, who overran Russia, Poland, and Hungary; Timur, also known as Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane (1336?–1405), a descendant of Genghis, who extended his military power for short periods into southern Russia, India, and the Levant; and Babur (Zahir ad-Din Muhammad, 1483–1530), a descendant of Timur, who established an empire in India.

In recent times, two national leaders were Sukhe Baatar (1894–1923) and Khorloin Choybalsan (1895–1952). Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal (1916–91), intermittently general secretary of the Central Committee of the MPRP since 1940, became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1952, was elected chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Hural in 1974, and was named the MPRP general secretary in 1981. Jambyn Batmunkh (1926–97) became chairman of the Council of Ministers in 1974 and was elected chairman of the Presidium and general secretary of the MPRP in 1984. Natsagiyn Bagabandi (b.1950) was the president of Mongolia from 1997 to 2005; he was succeeded by Nambaryn Enkhbayar (b.1958), who was prime minister from 2000–04.

The founder of modern Mongolian literature is D. Natsagdorj (1906–37). Tsendyn Damdinsuren (1908–86) is one of the most important writers. Leading playwrights are Ch. Oydov (1917–63) and E. Oyuun (1918–2001). Other prominent writers are B. Rindhen (1905–78), D. Namdag (1911–82), U. Ulambayar (b.1911), and Ch. Lodoydamba (1917–70). B. Damdinsuren (1919–92) and L. Murdorzh are noted composers. Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha (b.1947) became the first Mongolian in space in 1981, when he was carried into orbit aboard the former USSR's Soyuz 39.

DEPENDENCIES

The MPR has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hanson, Jennifer. Mongolia. New York: Facts On File, 2004.

Hoare, Jim and Susan Pares. A Political and Economic Dictionary of East Asia. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Kotkin, Stephen and Bruce A. Elleman (ed.). Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.

Mongolia in Transition. Surrey, England: Curzon, 1996.

Nordby, Judith. Mongolia. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio, 1993.

Poverty and the Transition to a Market Economy in Mongolia. New York: St. Martin's, 1995.

Sanders, Alan J. K. Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2003.

Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Mongolia

Compiled from the July 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Mongolia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2006 est.) 2.59 million.

Annual growth rate: (2006) 1.3%.

Health: (2006) Infant mortality rate—19.1/1,000. Life expectancy—65.85 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitution: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Government branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was approved in January 2006 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 15 announced political parties (15 listed under “Government” section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Political subdivisions: 21 aimags (provinces) and one city (Ulaanbaatar).

Economy

GDP in PPP: (2006 est.) $6.23 billion.

GDP growth: (2006) 8.4%. Per capita GDP in PPP: (2006 est.) $2,402.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture: (18.8% of 2006 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (38.3% of 2006 GDP, includes mining 30%, manufacturing 5.8%, and utilities (electricity, gas, and water) 2.5%) Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2006) Total turnover of foreign trade for 2006 was $3,028.4 million. Exports—$1,542.8 million: minerals, livestock, animal products, and textiles. Markets—Asian countries (70.4%), European countries (10.7%), and countries of American continent (18.8%). Imports—$1,485.6 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—91 countries account for 93.2% of total imports, of which European countries (47.4%) and Asian countries (47.2%).

Aid received: From 1990-2004, official development assistance to Mongolia from bilateral and multilateral donors was $2.7 billion. Fiscal year: Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 19 births/1000 people (2006). About two-thirds of the total population is under age 30, 28.5% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of Mongolia's population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. Among ethnic Mongols, the Khalkha comprise 90% and the remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million ethnic Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1206 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Chinggis (“Genghis”) Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Chinggis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The

Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961. In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History—921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an “integral part of the Republic of China,” whose “sovereignty” therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000: Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Part (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).

January 2006: MPRP ministers resigned from the government, and the government dissolved. A new coalition government was formed, led by the MPRP with the participation of four smaller parties.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually for 3–4 month sessions. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution in consultation with the SGH chairman, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. Under constitutional changes made in 2001, the president is required to nominate the prime ministerial candidate proposed by a party or coalition with a majority of members of the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 21 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and all aimags.

Political Parties

• Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
• Democratic Party
• Motherland—Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
• National New Party
• Civil Will Party
• Mongolian People's Party
• Mongolian Green Party
• Mongolian Traditional United Party
• Mongolian National Solidarity Party
• Mongolian Libera 1 Democratic Party
• Mongolian Republican Party
• Mongolian Women's Nationa 1 United Party
• Mongolian Liberal Party
• Mongolian Social Democratic Party
• Freedom Implementing Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR

Speaker, State Great Hural: Danzan LUNDEEJANTSAN

Prime Min.: Sanjaa BAYAR

Dep. Prime Min.: Miyegombo ENKHBOLD

Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Nymaa ENKHBOLD

Sec., National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV

Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Tserendash TSOLMON

Min. of Defense: Jamyandorj BATKHUYAG

Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Nordov BOLORMAA

Min. of Environment: Gankhuyag SHIILEGDAMBA

Min. of Finance: Chultem ULAAN

Min. of Food & Agriculture: Tserendorj GANKHUYAG

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Sanjaasuren OYUN

Min. of Fuel & Energy: Chimed KHURELBAATAR

Min. of Health: Byambaa BASEREEDENE

Min. of Industry & Trade: Khalzkhuu NARANKHUU

Min. of Justice & Home Affairs: Tsend MUNHK-ORGIL

Min. of Roads, Transportation, & Tourism: Radnaabazar RASH

Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Damdin DEMBEREL

Chief, Gen. Staff, Mongolian Armed Forces: Tseveguren TOGOO, Lt. Gen.

Governor, Bank of Mongolia: Alag BATSUKH

Ambassador to the US: Radvan BOLD

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227, website: www.mongolianembassy.us.

ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R., leading to a very deep recession. Economic growth returned due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and anemic GDP growth of 1.1% in 2000 and 1% in 2001. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia's primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved to 4% in 2002, 5% in 2003, 10.6% in 2004, 6.2% in 2005 and 7.5% in 2006. Much of the growth was due to high copper prices and new gold production. Other than agriculture (20.2% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are mining 20.4%, trade and service 24.8% and transportation, storage, and communication 12.2%. Mongolia's economy continues to be heavily influenced by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products from Russia. China is Mongolia's chief export partner and a main source of the “shadow,” or “gray” economy. The gray economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy. The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad, both legally and illegally, constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Because of Mongolia's remoteness and natural beauty, the tourism sector has recently shown signs of rapid growth. With spiking international commodity prices, there has been a surge of international interest in investing in Mongolia's minerals sector despite the absence of a policy environment firmly conducive to private investment. How effectively Mongolia mobilizes private international investment around its comparative advantages (mineral wealth, small population, and proximity to China and its burgeoning markets) will ultimately determine its success in sustaining rapid economic growth. Parliament passed a windfall profits tax on copper and gold that took effect in mid-2006, and major amendments to the minerals law allowing the government to take an equity stake in major new mines. It is unknown what effect these laws will have on mining activities in Mongolia, although major potential investors expressed considerable concern about the changes.

Parliament in 2006 passed four new tax laws: personal and corporate income, value-added and excise, intended to reduce the overall tax burden on taxpayers and stimulate the economy. Most provisions of the new laws took effect January 1, 2007. No projections of the economic effects are currently available.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal by individual home or “ger” (yurt in Russian) owners, power plants, and factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. With the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals (gold, coal, etc.) has become the focus of public debate. A great deal of public attention is being paid to non-transparency of the government process of awarding licenses, the equitable sharing of economic rents between foreign investors and the Government of Mongolia, and the potential impact on the environment. However, the real environmental concern is the sharp boom in the number of informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury, which may lead to an epidemic of mercury poisoning.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. Mongolia is landlocked between Russia and China, and seeks cordial relations with both nations. At the same time, Mongolia has sought to advance its regional and global relations. Ties with Japan and South Korea are particularly strong. Japan is the largest bilateral aid donor to Mongolia, a position it has held since 1991. Mongolia has also made efforts to steadily boost ties with European countries.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia has sought to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, and has pursued a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998 and a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000. Mongolia is currently seeking to join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). Mongolia is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, but has stated it does not intend to seek membership.

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. China has objected strongly to the five visits since 1990 of the Dalai Lama; during the last, in 2002, China briefly disrupted railroad links for “technical” reasons. There are regular high-level visits and expanding trade ties. President Hu Jintao visited Mongolia in 2003. President Bagabandi visited China in 2004, and President Enkhbayar visited in 2005.

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. In 1991, Mongolia and Russia concluded both a Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million. In July 2006, Prime Minister Fradkov visited Mongolia with a large business delegation. The Mongolian and Russian Governments continue to jointly own the railroad and the large Erdenet copper mine. President Enkhbayar visited Moscow in December 20

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004. President Bush, Mrs. Bush, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Mongolia in November 2005. Defense Secretary Rumsfeld visited in October 2005 and Speaker of the House of Representatives Dennis Hastert visited Mongolia in August 2005. Agriculture Secretary Johanns led a presidential delegation in July 2006 in conjunction with Mongolia's celebration of its 800th anniversary.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) plays a lead role in providing bilateral American assistance to Mongolia. The program emphasizes two main themes: sustainable, private sector-led economic growth; and more effective and accountable governance. Total USAID assistance to Mongolia from 1991 through 2007 was about $170 million, all in grant form. About two-thirds of USAID Mongolia's current (2007) budget of $5.6 million a year promotes economic growth, and focuses on macroeconomic policy reform, energy sector commercialization, financial sector reform, strengthening the cashmere and tourism industries, and providing business development services to small and medium enterprises in both rural and urban areas. The other third focuses on judicial sector reform, electoral reform, parliamentary reform, and anti-corruption work.

In most years since 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture has provided food aid to Mongolia under the Food for Progress and 416(b) programs. The monetized proceeds of the food aid ($3.7 million in 2005) are currently used to support programs bolstering entrepreneurship, herder diversification, better veterinary services, and disaster relief. The United States has also supported defense reform and an increased capacity by Mongolia's armed forces to participate in international peacekeeping operations. Mongolia has contributed small numbers of troops to coalition operations in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2003, gaining experience which enabled it to deploy armed peace-keepers to both UN and NATO peace-keeping missions in 2005. With U.S. Department of Defense assistance and cooperation, Mongolia and the U.S. jointly hosted “Khan Quest 06,” the Asian region's premier peace-keeping exercise in 2006. “Khan Quest 07” will be hosted on 01-16 August 2007.

The Peace Corps currently has over 100 Volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health, small business development, and youth development. In 2005 and 2006 Mongolian Government officials, including President Enkhbayar and Prime Minister Elbegdorj, requested significant increases in the number of Volunteers serving in country. The Peace Corps has responded with a commitment to make modest annual increases until 2010. The program celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2006 with participation by President Enkhbayar.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

ULAANBAATAR (E) Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar, APO/FPO AmEmbassy Ulaanbaatar PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002, (976-11) 329-095, Fax (976-11) 320-776, INMARSAT Tel 383130947, Workweek: M-F/ 0830-1230, 1300-1700, Website: http://mongolia.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

November 8, 2007

Country Description: Mongolia is the size of Alaska and is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and is successfully making the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the mining, energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations (transiting twice will require a double-or multiple-entry visa) and note that some land entry points have varying days and hours. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Country Specific Information for these countries at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia, as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

Individuals without Mongolian visas are subject to an exit tax payable either in USD or Mongolian Tugrugs upon departure. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/ exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/ departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianem-bassy.us for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups operating in open areas and usually after dark who surround, grab, and choke an individual in order to search the victim's pockets. Thieves have also sliced victims’ clothing in attempts to reach wallets, cell phones and other valuables. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open-air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season.

Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations:

• Chinggis Khan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.
• The State Department Store: tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/ exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.
• Naran Tuul Covered Market: Organized criminal groups look for and target foreigners for robbery and pick pocketing.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Med evac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. Please see medical information for Americans traveling abroad.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners (also available on the U.S. Embassy web site at http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international traveler's hotline. Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are a few car rental companies operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and rental vehicles should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads outside of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian drivers permits, vehicle inspection, road tax, and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at: 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the web site of the country's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at: http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits U.S. government personnel from using the domestic services of Mongolian International Air Transport (MIAT) for official travel because of uncertainties regarding service and maintenance schedules, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT's international flights.

Special Circumstances: Traveler's checks denominated in U.S. dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at some commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank, Golomt Bank, Khan Bank, and Xac Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA and Maestro/Cirrus ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition, and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at: 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Police officials will often require a visitor to remain in Mongolia for an indefinite period of time pending resolution of a filed complaint. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at: at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, and the Embassy's web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption

March 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: The U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar does not process immigrant visas at this time. After the adoption is completed, adoptive parents must take their child to the U.S. Embassy in Seoul, South Korea for immigrant visa processing and the orphan visa interview.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority: The government offices responsible for adoptions in Mongolia are the Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor of Mongolia (MSWL) and the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens.

Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor of Mongolia (MSWL)
Mailing Address:
United Nations Street 5
UB-46
Government Building No 2
Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor
Tel: 976-11-267635
Fax: 976-11-327635
Fax: 976-11-328634
Website: http://www.mswl.pmis.gov.mn
E-mail:
[email protected]

Office of Immigration,
Naturalization and Foreign Citizens,
Ministry of Justice and Home Affairs
Mailing Address:
Chinggis Avenue 11
Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar
210628
Ms. Purevee Bolormaa
Tel: 976-11-319588
Tel: 976-11-315323
Fax: 976-11-313259
Website:
http://www.mngimmigration.mn
E-mail: [email protected]

The Mongolian and U.S. authorities involved in the adoption and immigration process review each case individually to ensure that the child and the prospective adoptive family have met both countries’ legal requirements.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: The Mongolian embassy in Washington, D.C., has a web page devoted to the eligibility requirements for adopting Mongolian children. American citizens considering adopting from Mongolia should visit the Mongolian embassy's adoption page online at http://www.mongolianembassy.us.

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for prospective adoptive parents who apply through agencies authorized by the Mongolian Government. However, Mongolian Family Law does require persons adopting privately (i.e., not through an agency) to reside in Mongolia for at least six months.

Time Frame: It is hard to predict with certainty how much time is required to complete an adoption in Mongolia. The time frames provided in this flyer are intended as guidelines only, and the specific circumstances of each case can significantly impact the length of the process.

As of March 2007, adoption procedure takes approximately twelve to eighteen months from the time the U.S. adoption agency or private U.S. citizens submitted the paperwork to MSWL to the time the MSWL gives it for final approval to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Although the Government of Mongolia currently permits private adoptions, there has been some discussion of prohibiting these in the near future. Adoptive parents using an agency must use one of the Mongolian Government-approved adoption agencies. The U.S. Department of State does not assume any responsibility for the quality of services provided by these private adoption agencies or their employees.

Adoption Fees: There are no Mongolian government fees for adoption. Prospective adoptive parents can expect to pay notary fees and/or fees for translation of documents.

Private adoptions: Foreign citizens who have resided in Mongolia for more than six months shall apply directly to the Ministry of Social Welfare and Labor (MSWL) about his/her request to adopt a Mongolian child. The MSWL is the Central Authority in Mongolia. The Department of Population Development, Social Welfare Policy and Coordination within the MSWL accepts all necessary documentation for adoption including residency permit and/or work permit. This process generally takes between three and six months, although it has sometimes taken longer depending on the MSWL's workload. While Mongolian law does not currently require a home study, in practice the MSWL has recently been requiring home studies. The U.S. Embassy in Mongolia believes that the home study requirement will be formalized in the future.

The MSWL checks all documents and proposes a child for adoption. Once the prospective parents agree to the adoption, the case goes to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens for final decision, which takes approximately one month.

Licensed Adoption Agency: The first step for a family residing in the United States is to apply to one of the Mongolian Government-approved U.S. adoption agencies (listed above) for a home study. Adoption agencies gather documents from prospective parents and present them to the MSWL. Based on the home study, the MSWL will propose a child with whom to match the prospective parents. The adoption agency then presents the documentation to the Office of Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens for final approval. This process normally takes approximately one month.

Both Processes: Parents who have adopted a child (either independently or through an adoption agency) must register their adoption to the State and Civil Registration and Information Center (SCRIC), which then issues a birth certificate and adoption decree. The parent must be present at the registration.

Required Documents: For a list of document required by the government of Mongolia please see Article 58.3 of Mongolian family law available at www.mongolianembassy.us.

Embassy of Mongolia, Washington, D.C .
2833 M Street, N.W.
Washington D.C. 20007
Web:http://www.mongolianembassy.us/ E-mail: [email protected]

Permanent Mission of Mongolia to the United Nations in New York
6 East 77th Street,
New York, N.Y. 10021
Web: http://www.un.int./mongolia
E-mail:[email protected]

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Embassy of the United States of America, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
11 Micro District
Big Ring Road, POB 1021
Ulaanbaatar-13, Mongolia
http://www.ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov
E-mail: [email protected]

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Mongolia may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. Questions about the immigrant visa process for Mongolian children should be directed to the U.S. Embassy in Seoul.

General questions regarding inter-country adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, Toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Mongolia

Compiled from the January 2007 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia

PROFILE

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2006 est.) 2.56 million.

Annual growth rate: (2005) 1.16%.

Health: (2005) Infant mortality rate—21.54/1,000. Life expectancy—65.21 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Government branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was approved in January 2006 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 25 announced Political parties: (21 listed under “Government” section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Political subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darkhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP in PPP: (2005 est.) $5.27 billion.

GDP growth rate: (2005 est.) 6.2%.

Per capita GDP in PPP: (2005 est.) $2,059.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture: (21.7% of 2005 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (27.9% of 2005 GDP, includes mining 20.4%, manufacturing 4.4%, and utilities (electricity, gas, and water) 3.1%) Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2005) Total turnover of foreign trade for 2005 was $2,249.2 million. Exports—$1,064.9 million: minerals, livestock, animal products, and textiles. Markets—Asian countries (56.7%), European countries (16.1%), and countries of American continent (25.9%). Imports—$1,184.3 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—91 countries account for 93.2% of total imports, of which European countries (48.7%) and Asian countries (44.5%).

Aid received: From 1990–2004, official development assistance to Mongolia from bilateral and multilateral donors was $2.7 billion.

Fiscal year: Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia’s birth rate is estimated at 21.59 births/1000 people (2006). About two-thirds of the total population is under age 30, 27.9% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of Mongolia’s population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. Among ethnic Mongols, the Khalkha comprise 90% and the remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia’s population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million ethnic Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1206 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Chinggis (“Genghis”) Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Chinggis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People’s Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country’s wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The

Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961. In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow’s general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier. During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated.

In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People’s Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an “integral part of the Republic of China,” whose “sovereignty” therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People’s Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People’s Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000: Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).

January 2006: MPRP ministers resigned from the government, and the government dissolved. A new coalition government was formed, led by the MPRP with the participation of four smaller parties.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP’s role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia’s first multi-party elections for a People’s Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People’s Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People’s Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition. As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually for 3-4 month sessions. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms. The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the National Security Council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government’s dissolution in consultation with the SGH chairman, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister’s signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president. The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. Under constitutional changes made in 2001, the president is required to nominate the prime ministerial candidate proposed by a party or coalition with a majority of members of the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister’s resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution. Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darkhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

• Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party
• Democratic Party
• Motherland Party
• National New Party
• Mongolian Civil Will Party
• Mongolian Republican Party
• Mongolian People’s Party
• Mongolian Green Party
• Mongolian Workers’ Party
• Mongolian Traditional United Party
• Mongolian Solidarity Party
• Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
• Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
• Mongolian Youth Party
• Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
• Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
• Mongolian Communist Party
• Mongolian Local Development Party
• Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
• Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
• Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution. Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/6/2006

President: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR

Speaker, State Great Hural: Tsend NYAMDORJ

Prime Minister: Miegombyn ENKHBOLD

Dep. Prime Min.: Mendsaikhan ENKHSAIKHAN

Chief of Staff: Sanjaa BAYAR

Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Sunduin BATBOLD

Sec., National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV

Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Janlav NARANTSATSRALT

Min. of Defense: Mishig SONOMPIL

Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Ulzisaikhan ENKHTUVSHIN

Min. of Environment: Ichinkhorloo ERDENEBAATAR

Min. of Finance: Namid BAYARTSAIKHAN

Min. of Food & Agriculture: Dendev TERBISHDAGVA

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Nymaa ENKHBOLD

Min. of Fuel & Energy: Badarch ERDENEBAT

Min. of Health: Lamjav GUNDALAI

Min. of Industry & Trade: Bazarsad JARGALSAIKHAN

Min. of Justice & Home Affairs: Dorj ODBAYAR

Min. of Roads, Transportation & Tourism: Tsegmid TSENGEL

Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Luvsan ODONCHIMED

Min. in Charge of Disaster Relief: Min. in Charge of Professional Inspections: Ukhna KHURELSUKH

Ambassador to the US: Ravdan BOLD Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227, website—www.mongolianembassy.us.

ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R., leading to a very deep recession. Economic growth returned due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and anemic GDP growth of 1.1% in 2000 and 1% in 2001. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia’s primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved to 4% in 2002, 5% in 2003, 10.6% in 2004, and 6.2% in 2005. Much of the growth was due to high copper prices and new gold production. Other than agriculture (21.7% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are mining 20.4%, trade and service 24.8% and transportation, storage, and communication 12.2%. Mongolia’s economy continues to be heavily influenced by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products from Russia. China is Mongolia’s chief export partner and a main source of the “shadow,” or “gray” economy. The gray economy is estimated to be at least one-third the size of the official economy. The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad, both legally and illegally, constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Because of Mongolia’s remoteness and natural beauty, the tourism sector has recently shown signs of rapid growth. With spiking international commodity prices, there has been a surge of international interest in investing in Mongolia’s minerals sector despite the absence of a policy environment firmly conducive to private investment. How effectively Mongolia mobilizes private international investment around its comparative advantages (mineral wealth, small population, and proximity to China and its burgeoning markets) will ultimately determine its success in sustaining rapid economic growth. Parliament passed a windfall profits tax on copper and gold that took effect in mid-2006, and major amendments to the minerals law allowing the government to take an equity stake in major new mines. It is unknown what effect these laws will have on mining activities in Mongolia, although major potential investors expressed considerable concern about the changes. Parliament in 2006 passed four new tax laws: personal and corporate income, value-added and excise, intended to reduce the overall tax burden on taxpayers and stimulate the economy. Most provisions of the new laws took effect January 1, 2007. No projections of the economic effects are currently available.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia’s deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal by individual home or “ger” (yurt in Russian) owners, power plants, and factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. With the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals (gold, coal, etc.) has become the focus of public debate. A great deal of public attention is being paid to non-transparency of the government process of awarding licenses, the equitable sharing of economic rents between foreign investors and the Government of Mongolia, and the potential impact on the environment. However, the real environmental concern is the sharp boom in the number of informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury, which may lead to an epidemic of mercury poisoning.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system’s collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and non-aligned foreign policy. Mongolia is landlocked between Russia and China, and seeks cordial relations with both nations. At the same time, Mongolia has sought to advance its regional and global relations. Ties with Japan and South Korea are particularly strong. Japan is the largest bilateral aid donor to Mongolia, a position it has held since 1991. Mongolia has also made efforts to steadily boost ties with European countries.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia has sought to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, and has pursued a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998 and a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000. Mongolia is currently seeking to join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC). Mongolia is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, but has stated it does not intend to seek membership.

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. China has objected strongly to the five visits since 1990 of the Dalai Lama; during the last, in 2002, China briefly disrupted railroad links for “technical” reasons. There are regular high-level visits and expanding trade ties. President Hu Jintao visited Mongolia in 2003. President Bagabandi visited China in 2004, and President Enkhbayar visited in 2005. After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. In 1991, Mongolia and Russia concluded both a Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million. In July 2006, Prime Minister Fradkov visited Mongolia with a large business delegation. The Mongolian and Russian Governments continue to jointly own the railroad and the large Erdenet copper mine. President Enkhbayar visited Moscow in December 2006.

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004. President Bush, Mrs. Bush, and Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Mongolia in November 2005. Defense Secretary Rumsfeld visited in October 2005 and Speaker of the House of Representatives Dennis Hastert visited Mongolia in August 2005. Agriculture Secretary Johanns led a presidential delegation in July 2006 in conjunction with Mongolia’s celebration of its 800th anniversary.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia’s movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) plays a lead role in providing bilateral American assistance to Mongolia. The program emphasizes two main themes: sustainable, private sector-led economic growth; and more effective and accountable governance. Total USAID assistance to Mongolia from 1991 through 2005 was about $150 million, all in grant form. About two-thirds of USAID Mongolia’s current (2006) budget of $7.5 million a year promotes economic growth, and focuses on macroeconomic policy reform, energy sector commercialization, financial sector reform, strengthening the cashmere and tourism industries, and providing business development services to small and medium enterprises in both rural and urban areas. The other third focuses on judicial sector reform, electoral reform, parliamentary reform, and anti-corruption work. In most years since 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture has provided food aid to Mongolia under the Food for Progress and 416(b) programs. The monetized proceeds of the food aid ($3.7 million in 2005) are currently used to support programs bolstering entrepreneurship, herder diversification, better veterinary services, and disaster relief. The United States has also supported defense reform and an increased capacity by Mongolia’s armed forces to participate in international peacekeeping operations. Mongolia has contributed small numbers of troops to coalition operations in Iraq and Afghanistan since 2003, gaining experience which enabled it to deploy armed peacekeepers to both UN and NATO peacekeeping missions in 2005. With U.S. Department of Defense assistance and cooperation, Mongolia and the U.S. jointly hosted “Khan Quest 06,” the Asian region’s premier peacekeeping exercise in 2006. The Peace Corps currently has over 100 Volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health, small business development, and youth development.

In 2005 and 2006 Mongolian Government officials, including President Enkhbayar and Prime Minister Elbegdorj, requested significant increases in the number of Volunteers serving in country. The Peace Corps has responded with steady, modest increases each year since 2005. The program celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2006 with participation by President Enkhbayar.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaanbaatar; APO/FPO: AmEmbassy Ulaanbaatar PSC 461, Box 300, FPO AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M-F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usembassy.gov.

Last Updated: 1/9/2007

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : November 27, 2006

Country Description: Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and is successfully making the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country’s development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations and note that some land entry points have varying days and hours. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Consular Information Sheets for these countries at http://travel.state.gov/. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia, as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

Individuals without Mongolian visas are subject to an exit tax payable either in USD or Mongolian T ugrugs upon departure. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child’s travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianembassy.us for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, can be found. Americans are reminded to remain vigilant with regard to their personal security and to exercise caution. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups operating in open areas and usually after dark that surround, grab and choke an individual in order to search the victim’s pockets. Thieves have also sliced victims’ clothing in attempts to reach wallets, cell phones and other valuables. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open-air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season.

Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations:

Chinggis Khan International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.

The State Department Store: tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.

Naran Tuul Covered Market: Organized criminal groups look for and target foreigners for robbery and pick pocketing.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost tens of thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Medevac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. Please see medical information for americans traveling abroad.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners (also available on the Embassy website, http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov) or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s international traveler’s hotline.

Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are a few car rental companies operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and rental vehicles should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads outside of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian drivers permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the website of the country’s national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits the use by U.S. government personnel of the domestic services of MIAT and all services of Hangard and Trans-Ulgii airlines for official travel because of uncertainties regarding service and maintenance schedules, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT’s international flights.

Special Circumstances: Traveler’s checks denominated in U.S. dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or T ugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA and Maestro/Cirrus ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Police officials will often require a visitor to remain in Mongolia for an indefinite period of time pending resolution of a filed complaint. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, and the Embassy’s web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open for American Citizens Services Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption : June 6, 2002

Important Notice: U.S. citizens are strongly discouraged from adopting in Mongolia at this time. Adoptions in Mongolia do not clearly meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law and a child adopted in Mongolia may not be eligible to immigrate to the United States. Please check this site in the near future for further details.

MONGOLIA

Compiled from the August 2004 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain: Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert wasteland, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate: Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population: (2004 est.) 2.751 million.

Annual growth rate: (2004) 1.43%.

Health: (2004) Infant mortality rate—55.45/1,000. Life expectancy—64.17 yrs.

Ethnic groups: (2004) 85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Languages: Khalkha Mongol, more than 90%; other languages include Kazakh, Russian, English, German, and Japanese.

Religions: Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education: Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type: Parliamentary form of government, president second in authority to the State Great Hural.

Independence: gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions: 1960 and February 12, 1992.

Branches: Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2001) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was formed in August 2004 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law is under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties: 24 announced political parties (19 listed under "Government" section).

Suffrage: Universal at 18.

Administrative subdivisions: 18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP: (2003 est.) $4.877 billion.

GDP growth: (2003) 5.0%.

Per capita GDP: (2003 est.) $1,800.

Natural resources: Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, petroleum.

Agriculture: (32% of 2003 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population) Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry: (23% of 2003 GDP, includes mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction) Types—Minerals (primarily copper), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade: (2002) Exports—$524 million: livestock, animal products, minerals, and textiles. Markets—China 42%, U.S. 31.6%, Russia 9%, Korea 4.3%, Japan 1.2%. Imports—$690.8 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—Russia 34.4%, China 24.3%, Japan 6.2%, U.S. 3.4%, Germany 4.4%.

Aid received: It is estimated that donors have given one and half billion dollars in aid, loans, and technical assistance over the past decade.

Fiscal year: Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Seminomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 21.4 births/1000 people (2004). About twothirds of the total population is under age 30, 29.7% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major out-side influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures which attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new

policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History — 1921-Present

March 13, 1921: Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924: U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939: Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, ending in defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949: Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961: Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987: Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989: First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990: Large scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990: Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990: Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990: First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990: First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992: New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992: New election law passed.

June 28, 1992: Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993: First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996: Election of first noncommunist government.

July 2, 2000: Election of the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004: Election of new Parliament split between former communist party and democratic opposition.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
Democratic Party
Mongolian Green Party
Mongolian People's Party
Mongolian Republican Party
Mongolian Workers' Party
Mongolian Traditional United Party
Mongolian Solidarity Party
Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
Mongolian Youth Party
Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
Mongolian Communist Party
Mongolian Local Development Party
Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
Mongolian Civil Courage Party
Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The new constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 8/25/04

President: Bagabandi , Natsagiyn
Prime Minister: Elbedorj , Tsakhiagiyn
Speaker of the State Great Hural: Enkhbayar , Nambaryn
Chief of Staff: Bayar , Sanjaa
Chief Cabinet Secretariat: Enkhtuvshin , Ulziisaikhany
Secretary, National Security Council: Bold , Ravdangiyn
Min. of Defense: Gurragchaa , Jugderdemidiin
Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Tsanjid , Ayurzanyn
Min. of Environment & Nature: Barsbold , Ulambayaryn
Min. of Finance & Economics: Ulaan , Chultemin
Min. of Food & Agriculture: Nasanjargal , Darjaagiin
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Erdenechuluun , Luvsangiin
Min. of Health: Nyamdavaa , Pagvajavyn
Min. of Industry & Commerce: Ganzorig , Chimidzorigiin
Min. of Infrastructure: Jigjid , Byambyn
Min. of Justice & Internal Affairs: Nyamdorj , Tsendiin
Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Batbayar , Shiilegiin
Ambassador to the US: Bold , Ravdangiyn
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Choisuren , Baatar

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227.

ECONOMY

The rapid political changes of 1990-91 marked the beginning of Mongolia's efforts to develop a market economy, but these efforts have been complicated and disrupted by the dissolution and continuing deterioration of the economy of the former Soviet Union. Prior to 1991, 80% of Mongolia's trade was with the former Soviet Union, and 15% was with other Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) countries. Mongolia was heavily dependent upon the former Soviet Union for fuel, medicine, and spare parts for its factories and power plants.

The former U.S.S.R. also served as the primary market for Mongolian industry. In the 1980s, Mongolia's industrial sector became increasingly important. By 1989, it accounted for an estimated 34% of material products, compared to 18% from agriculture. However, minerals, animals, and animal-derived products still constitute a large proportion of the country's exports. Principal imports included machinery, petroleum, cloth, and building materials.

In the late 1980s, the government began to improve links with noncommunist Asia and the West, and a tourism sector developed. As of January 1, 1991, Mongolia and the former Soviet Union agreed to conduct bilateral trade in hard currency at world prices.

Despite its external trade difficulties, Mongolia has continued to press ahead with reform. Privatization of small shops and enterprises is largely complete, and most prices have been freed. Privatization of large state enterprises has begun. Tax reforms also have begun, and the barter and official exchange rates were unified in early 1992.

Between 1990 and 1993, Mongolia suffered triple-digit inflation, rising unemployment, shortages of basic goods, and food rationing. During that period, economic output contracted by one-third. As market reforms and private enterprise took hold, economic growth began again in 1994-95. Unfortunately, since this growth was fueled in part by over-allocation of bank credit, especially to the remaining state-owned enterprises, economic growth was accompanied by a severe weakening of the banking sector. GDP grew by about 6% in 1995, thanks largely to a boom in copper prices. Average real economic growth leveled off to about 3.5% in 1996-99 due to the Asian financial crisis, the collapse of the Russian ruble in mid-1999, and worsening commodity prices, especially copper and gold.

Mongolia's GDP growth fell from 3.2% in 1999 to 1.1% in 2000 and 1.0% in 2001. The disappointing results can be attributed to the loss of 2.4 million livestock in bad weather and natural disasters in 2000 and 2001. Prospects for development out-side the traditional reliance on nomadic, livestock-based agriculture are constrained by Mongolia's land-locked location and lack of basic infrastructure. Mongolia's best hope for accelerated growth is to attract more foreign investment. From 1990 to 2002, more than 2,399 foreign companies from 72 countries have invested a total of $660.5 million in Mongolia. Many believe this number could be dramatically increased if investors had more confidence that their investments would be adequately protected.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Most recently, with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. The Prime Minister called for coexistence with all nations, and Mongolia follows a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible.

Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries. At the same time, Mongolia is reaching out to advance its regional and global relations.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia is seeking active supporters and friends beyond its neighbors and looking to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations. While it is downgrading relations with most of its former east European allies, it is pursuing a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia is seeking to join APEC and became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998. Mongolia became a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000.

Asia

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross border trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. Today, relations between Mongolia and China are correct. The two foreign ministers exchanged visits in 1997, as did the leaders of the two countries' parliaments. President Jiang Zemin visited Mongolia in July 1999 and President Bagabandi paid a state visit to China in July 2004.

Mongolia is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Its Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990 and Prime Minister Obuchi reciprocated with a visit to Mongolia in July 1999. Japan has provided more than $120 million in grants and loans since 1991 and coordinated international assistance to Mongolia. Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. Japan is Mongolia's largest bilateral aid donor. In 2001 President Bagabandi made state visits to India and Nepal.

Russia

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary obstacle to developing any real coordination was the NIS' own need for the same political and economic restructuring. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Sovietera debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million.

Europe

Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. The Prime Minister has traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EU headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation. President Bagabandi visited several European capitals in 1999-2000.

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there; Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. More recently, Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status and has supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent NTR status and GSP eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided more than $100 million over the past 7 years in technical assistance and training for Mongolia's democratic and economic reform program. Of that total, some $38 million has gone for emergency energy assistance, which has been instrumental in keeping Mongolia's power and heating system operable through the country's harsh winters. By FY 2000, rural development replaced energy as USAID's main program emphasis. Nearly half of USAID's annual program— $12 million in FY 2003 and $10 million in FY 2004 —is devoted to the Gobi Regional Economic Growth Initiative and other rural transition programs.

The U.S. also is directly supporting Mongolia's democratization by working with U.S. nongovernmental organizations to provide training for parliamentary committee organization and constituent service and has recently launched a program to establish public affairs organizations and legislative relations offices in every ministry. U.S. assistance also provided technical assistance for the drafting of the 1992 constitution, nonpartisan voter education guides, and an election-observer mission for the July 2000 and June 2004 elections.

The U.S. provides support for the Mongolian Government's economic reforms through its Economic Policy Support Project that includes a full-time American policy adviser in the Prime Minister's office. The adviser has worked closely with the Government of Mongolia to set the policy agenda of the current government and provides policy advice and expert technical assistance for the government's major reform initiatives, including privatization, energy, pension, and banking reforms.

The Peace Corps currently has more than 100 volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health and the environment.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaan; APO/FPO: PSC 461, Box 300, FPO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M–F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usmongolia.com

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

September 15, 2004

Country Description: Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and has successfully made the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days. Visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar during their first week of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days may be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. For current information about visas and registration requirements travelers should contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117 or http://www.mongolianembassy.mn

Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on China, see the Consular Information Sheet for China; for more information on Russia, see the Consular Information Sheet for Russia at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia. They are difficult to obtain in Mongolia.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Safety and Security: There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid the protests and street demonstrations that occasionally occur in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found.

Up-to-date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the United States, or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. Travelers should be especially cautious when taking public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open air markets, the State Department Store, the Central Post Office, and Gandan Monastery. U.S. citizens who detect pickpocketing attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends and to explain how funds could be transferred.

Although the investigation and prosecution of a crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you understand the local criminal justice process and find an attorney, if needed. U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Medical Facilities: Medical facilities in Mongolia are limited. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar, medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the eldery is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars or more. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners, or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international travelers hotline.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States, unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the U.S. may cost well in excess of $50,000. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas health-care provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death. Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's, Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Other Health Information: Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX, (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of Public Transportation: Poor
Urban Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Rural Road Conditions/Maintenance: Poor
Availability of Roadside Assistance: Poor

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There are no car rental companies operating in Mongolia, but it is possible to hire a car and driver from tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded (see information on crime above) with the result that pickpockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads out-side of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/travel/abroad_roadsafety.html. For specific information concerning Mongolian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the U.S. and Mongolia at present, nor economic authority to operate such service, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Mongolia's air carrier operations. For further information, travelers may contact the Department of Transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Mongolia has upgraded its aviation facilities and communications and air traffic control capabilities. However, the American Embassy has reported some general safety and reliability concerns regarding domestic flights operated by the national airline MIAT. The Embassy does not prohibit its employees from flying on MIAT, but does encourage them to exercise prudence and good judgment when boarding domestic flights. If Embassy employees see potential hazards, such as missing safety belts or passenger overcrowding, they are advised to get off the plane and wait for another flight.

Customs Regulations: Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, tel: (202) 333-7117.

In many countries around the world, counterfeit and pirated goods are widely available. Transactions involving such products are illegal and bringing them back to the United States may result in forfeitures and/or fines. A current list of those countries with serious problems in this regard can be found here.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, an American citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested, or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.

Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for a U.S. citizen or permanent resident alien, to engage in illicit sexual conduct in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18, whether or not the U.S. citizen or lawful permanent resident alien intended to engage in such illicit sexual conduct prior to going abroad.

For purposes of the PROTECT Act, illicit sexual conduct includes any commercial sex act in a foreign country with a person under the age of 18. The law defines a commercial sex act as any sex act, on account of which anything of value is given to or received by a person under the age of 18.

Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.

Consular Access: American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizen-ship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. U.S. citizens who are detained or arrested in Mongolia should request contact with the U.S. Embassy and visitation by a U.S. consular officer.

Special Circumstances: Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or Tugriks at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There is a handful of ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but none outside the capital.

Disaster Preparedness—Winter Power Shortages: Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to the Department of State Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/family/index.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Mongolia are encouraged to register with the Consular Section of the American Embassy in Mongolia through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy to contact them in case of emergency. Americans traveling to Mongolia are also strongly encouraged to leave contact and itinerary information with people back in the United States, who would have the ability to contact the Embassy in case of emergencies. The U.S. Embassy is located in Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976)-11-329-095; the Consular Section fax number is (976)-11-353-788; the Embassy web site is http://www.usmongolia.com.

MONGOLIA

Compiled from the June 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Mongolia

PROFILE

Geography

Area:

1,566,500 sq. km. (604,103 sq. mi.); slightly larger than Alaska (land boundaries 8,114 km.).

Terrain:

Almost 90% of land area is pasture or desert, of varying usefulness; 1% arable; 9% forested.

Climate:

Continental, with little precipitation and sharp seasonal fluctuations.

People

Nationality:

Noun and adjective—Mongolian(s).

Population (2004 est.):

2.751 million.

Annual growth rate (2004):

1.43%.

Health (2004):

Infant mortality rate—55.45/1,000. Life expectancy—64.17 yrs.

Ethnic groups (2004):

85% Mongol (predominantly Khalkha), 7% Turkic (largest group, Kazakh) 4.6% Tungusic, and 3.4% others, including Chinese and Russian.

Language:

Mongolian, Kazakh, Russian, and English.

Religion:

Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism 94%, Muslim 6% (primarily in the southwest), and Shamanism.

Education:

Years compulsory—8 (provided free by the government). Literacy—more than 90%.

Government

Type:

Multiparty parliamentary form of government.

Independence:

gained in 1921; in 1990, democratic reform begun and shift from dependence on the former Soviet Union declared.

Constitutions:

1960 and February 12, 1992.

Branches:

Executive—power is divided between a president (elected by a popular election in May 2005) and prime minister (current cabinet nominated by the prime minister was formed in September 2004 by the State Great Hural, which was elected in June 2004). Legislative—State Great Hural (76 deputies). Judicial—Constitutional Court is empowered to supervise the implementation of the constitution, makes judgment on the violation of its provisions, and solves disputes. Legal code based on Continental and Russian law is under revision. No provision for judicial review of legislative acts. Legal education at Mongolian State Univ. and private universities. Mongolia accepts ICJ jurisdiction.

Political parties:

24 announced political parties (19 listed under "Government" section).

Suffrage:

Universal at 18.

Administrative subdivisions:

18 aimags (provinces) and 3 autonomous cities (Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet).

Economy

GDP (2003 est.):

$4.877 billion.

GDP growth (2004):

10.6%.

Per capita GDP in PPP (2003 est.):

$1,800.

Natural resources:

Coal, copper, molybdenum, iron, phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, wolfram, fluorspar, gold, uranium, and petroleum.

Agriculture (32% of 2003 GDP, livelihood for about 40% of population):

Products—livestock and byproducts, hay fodder, vegetables.

Industry (23% of 2003 GDP, includes mining, manufacturing, utilities and construction):

Types—Minerals (primarily copper and gold), animal-derived products, building materials, food/beverage.

Trade (2003):

Exports—$615.9 million: livestock, animal products, minerals, and textiles. Markets—China 46.6%, U.S. 23.2%, Russia 6.7%, Korea 4.3%, Japan 1.2%. Imports—$801 million: machinery and equipment, fuels, food products, industrial consumer goods, chemicals, building equipment, vehicles, textiles. Suppliers—Russia 33.1%, China 24.3%, Japan 7.9%, U.S. 2.9%, Germany 4.4%.

Aid received:

It is estimated that donors have given one and half billion dollars in aid, loans, and technical assistance over the past decade.

Fiscal year:

Calendar year.

PEOPLE

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common. Mongolia's birth rate is estimated at 21.4 births/1000 people (2004). About twothirds of the total population is under age 30, 29.7% of whom are under 14.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language—from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia, a language family comprising the Turkic, Tungusic, and Mongolic subfamilies—and is related to Turkic (Uzbek, Turkish, and Kazakh), Korean, and, possibly, Japanese. The Khalkha make up 90% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 10% include Durbet Mongols and others in the north and Dariganga Mongols in the east. Turkic speakers (Kazakhs, Turvins, and Khotans) constitute 7% of Mongolia's population, and the rest are Tungusic-speakers, Chinese, and Russians. Most Russians left the country following the withdrawal of economic aid and collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was suppressed under the communist regime until 1990, with only one showcase monastery allowed to remain. Since 1990, as liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About 4 million Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, mainly in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, and some 500,000 live in Russia, primarily in Buryatia and Kalmykia.

HISTORY

In 1203 AD, a single Mongolian state was formed based on nomadic tribal groupings under the leadership of Genghis Khan. He and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan's grandson Kublai Khan, who conquered China and established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo.

Although Mongol-led confederations sometimes exercised wide political power over their conquered territories, their strength declined rapidly after the Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368. The Manchus, a tribal group which conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, were able to bring Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia when the Khalkha Mongol nobles swore an oath of allegiance to the Manchu emperor. The Mongol rulers of Outer Mongolia enjoyed considerable autonomy under the Manchus, and all Chinese claims to Outer Mongolia following the establishment of the republic have rested on this oath. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, delimiting the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). As Manchu authority in China waned, and as Russia and Japan confronted each other, Russia gave arms and diplomatic support to nationalists among the Mongol religious leaders and nobles. The Mongols accepted Russian aid and proclaimed their independence of Chinese rule in 1911, shortly after a successful Chinese revolt against the Manchus. By agreements signed in 1913 and 1915, the Russian Government forced the new Chinese Republican Government to accept Mongolian autonomy under continued Chinese control, presumably to discourage other foreign powers from approaching a newly independent Mongolian state that might seek support from as many foreign sources as possible.

The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia, and Chinese troops were dispatched there in 1919. Following Soviet military victories over White Russian forces in the early 1920s and the occupation of the Mongolian capital Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major out-side influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, power under the communist regime was consolidated by the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP). The MPRP left gradually undermined rightist elements, seizing control of the party and the government. Several factors characterized the country during this period: The society was basically nomadic and illiterate; there was no industrial proletariat; the aristocracy and the religious establishment shared the country's wealth; there was widespread popular obedience to traditional authorities; the party lacked grassroots support; and the government had little organization or experience.

In an effort at swift socioeconomic reform, the leftist government applied extreme measures that attacked the two most dominant institutions in the country—the aristocracy and the religious establishment. Between 1932 and 1945, their excess zeal, intolerance, and inexperience led to anti-communist uprisings. In the late 1930s, purges directed at the religious institution resulted in the desecration of hundreds of Buddhist institutions and imprisonment of more than 10,000 people.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission

to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

Chronology of Mongolian History 1921-Present

March 13, 1921:

Provisional People's Government declares independence of Mongolia.

May 31, 1924:

U.S.S.R. signs agreement with Peking government, referring to Outer Mongolia as an "integral part of the Republic of China," whose "sovereignty" therein the Soviet Union promises to respect.

May-September 16, 1939:

Large scale fighting takes place between Japanese and Soviet-Mongolian forces along Khalkhyn Gol on Mongolia-Manchuria border, endingin defeat of the Japanese expeditionary force. Truce negotiated between U.S.S.R. and Japan.

October 6, 1949:

Newly established People's Republic of China accepts recognition accorded Mongolia and agrees to establish diplomatic relations.

October 1961:

Mongolia becomes a member of the United Nations.

January 27, 1987:

Diplomatic relations established with the United States.

December 1989:

First popular reform demonstrations. Mongolian Democratic Association organized.

January 1990:

Large-scale demonstrations demanding democracy held in sub-zero weather.

March 2, 1990:

Soviets and Mongolians announce that all Soviet troops will be withdrawn from Mongolia by 1992.

May 1990:

Constitution amended to provide for multi-party system and new elections.

July 29, 1990:

First democratic elections held.

September 3, 1990:

First democratically elected People's Great Hural takes office.

February 12, 1992:

New constitution goes into effect.

April 8, 1992:

New election law passed.

June 28, 1992:

Election for the first unicameral legislature (State Great Hural).

June 6, 1993:

First direct presidential election.

June 30, 1996:

Election resulted in peaceful transition of power from former communist party to coalition of democratic parties. From 1998-2000, four prime ministers and a series of cabinet changes. In early 2000, Democratic Coalition dissolved.

July 2, 2000:

Election resulted in victory for the former communist Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP); first-past-the-post electoral system enabled MPRP, with 52% of the popular vote, to win 95% of the parliamentary seats; formation of new government by Prime Minister N. Enkhbayar.

June 27, 2004:

Motherland-Democracy Coalition formed in early 2004 to contest the parliamentary election. Election resulted in roughly 50/50 split of parliamentary seats between former communist party and democratic opposition and formation of new government by Prime Minister T. Elbegdorj (Democratic Party).

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party—the MPRP—officially was permitted to function. After some instability during the first two decades of communist rule in Mongolia, there was no significant popular unrest until December 1989. Collectivization of animal husbandry, introduction of agriculture, and the extension of fixed abodes were all carried out without perceptible popular opposition.

The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. The dramatic shift toward reform started in early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In the face of extended street protests in subzero weather and popular demands for faster reform, the politburo of the MPRP resigned in March 1990. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

Mongolia's first multi-party elections for a People's Great Hural were held on July 29, 1990. The MPRP won 85% of the seats. The People's Great Hural first met on September 3 and elected a president (MPRP), vice president (SDP—Social Democrats), prime minister (MPRP), and 50 members to the Baga Hural (small Hural). The vice president also was chairman of the Baga Hural. In November 1991, the People's Great Hural began discussion on a new constitution, which entered into force February 12. In addition to establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic and guaranteeing a number of rights and freedoms, the new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH).

The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature as before. In June 1993, incumbent Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat won the first popular presidential election running as the candidate of the democratic opposition.

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The SGH meets semiannually. SGH members elect a chairman and vice chairman who serve 4-year terms. SGH members are popularly elected by district for 4-year terms.

The president is the head of state, commander in chief of the armed forces, and head of the national security council. He is popularly elected by a national majority for a 4-year term and limited to two terms. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature. In the absence, incapacity, or resignation of the president, the SGH chairman exercises presidential power until inauguration of a newly elected president.

The government, headed by the prime minister, has a 4-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the SGH. The prime minister chooses a cabinet, subject to SGH approval. Dissolution of the government occurs upon the prime minister's resignation, simultaneous resignation of half the cabinet, or after an SGH vote for dissolution.

Local hurals are elected by the 18 aimags (provinces) plus the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and cities of Darhan and Erdenet. On the next lower administrative level, they are elected by provincial subdivisions and urban subdistricts in Ulaanbaatar and the municipalities, Darhan and Erdenet.

Political Parties

• Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party
• Democratic Party • Mongolian Green Party
• Mongolian People's Party
• Mongolian Republican Party
• Mongolian Workers' Party
• Mongolian Traditional United Party
• Mongolian Solidarity Party
• Mongolian Party for Tradition and Justice
• Mongolian Democratic Socialist Party
• Mongolian Youth Party
• Mongolian Liberal Democratic Party
• Mongolian Democratic New Socialist Party
• Mongolian Communist Party
• Mongolian Local Development Party
• Mongolian Civil Democratic New Liberal Party
• Mongolian Civil Courage Party
• Mongolian New Social Democratic Party
• Mongolian United Ethnographical Party

Legal System

The 1992 constitution empowered a General Council of Courts (GCC) to select all judges and protect their rights. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body. Justices are nominated by the GCC and confirmed by the SGH and president. The court is constitutionally empowered to examine all lower court decisions—excluding specialized court rulings—upon appeal and provide official interpretations on all laws except the constitution.

Specialized civil, criminal, and administrative courts exist at all levels and are not subject to Supreme Court supervision. Local authorities—district and city governors—ensure that these courts abide by presidential decrees and SGH decisions. At the apex of the judicial system is the Constitutional Court, which consists of nine members, including a chairman, appointed for 6-year terms, whose jurisdiction extends solely over the interpretation of the constitution.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/15/2005

President: Nambaryn ENKHBAYAR
Speaker, State Great Hural: Tsend NYAMDORJ
Prime Minister: Tsakhia ELBEGDORJ
Dep. Prime Min.: Chultem ULAAN
Chief of Staff: Sanjaa BAYAR
Chief, Cabinet Secretariat: Sangajav BAYARTSOGT
Secretary, National Security Council: Dugerjav GOTOV
Min. of Construction & Urban Development: Nyamjav BATBAYAR
Min. of Defense: Tserenkhuu SHARAVDORJ
Min. of Education, Culture, & Science: Puntsag TSAGAAN
Min. of Environment: Ulambayaryn BARSBOLD
Min. of Finance: Norov ALTANHUYAG
Min. of Food & Agriculture: Dendev TERBISHDAGVA
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Tsend MUNH ORGIL
Min. of Fuel & Energy: Tuvden OCHIRKHUU
Min. of Health: Tugsjargal GANDI
Min. of Industry & Trade: Sukhgaatar BATBOLD
Min. of Justice & Internal Affairs: Batbold SANDUI
Min. of Roads, Transportation & Tourism: Gavaa BATKHUU
Min. of Social Welfare & Labor: Tsevelmaa BAYARSAIKHAN
Min. in Charge of Disaster Relief: Ukhnaa KHURELSUKH
Min. in Charge of Professional Inspections: Ichinkhorloo ERDENEBAATAR
Ambassador to the US: Ravdangiyn BOLD
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Baatar CHOISUREN

Mongolia maintains an embassy in the United States at 2833 M Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20007; tel. (202) 333-7117, fax (202) 298-9227.

ECONOMY

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91 at the time of the dismantlement of the U.S.S.R. The following decade saw Mongolia endure both deep recession due to political inaction and natural disasters as well as economic growth due to reform embracing free-market economics and extensive privatization of the formerly state-run economy. Severe winters and summer droughts in 2000-2001 and 2001-2002 resulted in massive livestock die-off and zero or negative GDP growth. This was compounded by falling prices for Mongolia's primary-sector exports and widespread opposition to privatization. Growth improved from 2002 at 4% to 2003 at 5%, due largely to high copper prices and new gold production, with the government claiming a 10.6% growth rate for 2004 that is unconfirmed. Mongolia's economy continues to be heavily impacted by its neighbors. For example, Mongolia purchases 80% of its petroleum products and a substantial amount of electric power from Russia, leaving it vulnerable to price increases. China is Mongolia's chief export partner and a main source of the "shadow," or "gray" economy. The World Bank and other international financial institutions (IFIs) estimate the gray economy to be at least equal to that of the official economy (US$1.4 billion in 2003). The actual size of this gray—largely cash—economy is difficult to calculate since the money does not pass through the hands of tax authorities or the banking sector. Remittances from Mongolians working abroad both legally and illegally constitute a sizeable portion. Money laundering is growing as an accompanying concern. Mongolia settled its large debt to Russia at the end of 2003 on very favorable terms. Mongolia, which joined the World Trade Organization in 1997, is the only member of that organization to not be a participant in a regional trade organization. Mongolia seeks to expand its participation and integration into Asian regional economic and trade regimes.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal coupled with thousands of factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. Most recently, with the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

In the wake of the international socialist economic system's collapse and the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolians began to pursue an independent and nonaligned foreign policy. The Prime Minister called for coexistence with all nations, and Mongolia follows a general policy of expanding relations with as many countries as possible.

Due to Mongolia's landlocked position between the new independent states (NIS) of the former Soviet Union and China, it was essential to continue and improve relations with these countries. At the same time, Mongolia is reaching out to advance its regional and global relations.

As part of its aim to establish a more balanced nonaligned foreign policy, Mongolia is seeking active supporters and friends beyond its neighbors and looking to take a more active role in the United Nations and other international organizations. While it is downgrading relations with most of its former east European allies, it is pursuing a more active role in Asian and northeast Asian affairs. Mongolia is seeking to join APEC and became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998. Mongolia became a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000.

Asia

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross border trade contacts expanded. In 1989, China and Mongolia exchanged visits of foreign ministers. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides. Today, relations between Mongolia and China are correct. The two foreign ministers exchanged visits in 1997, as did the leaders of the two countries' parliaments. President Jiang Zemin visited Mongolia in July 1999 and President Bagabandi paid a state visit to China in July 2004.

Mongolia is expanding relations with Japan and South Korea. Its Prime Minister visited Japan in March 1990 and Prime Minister Obuchi reciprocated with a visit to Mongolia in July 1999. Japan has provided more than $120 million in grants and loans since 1991 and coordinated international assistance to Mongolia. Diplomatic relations were established with South Korea in 1991, and during the Mongolian President's visit, seven agreements and treaties were signed, providing the legal basis for further expanding bilateral relations. Japan is Mongolia's largest bilateral aid donor. In 2001 President Bagabandi made state visits to India and Nepal.

Russia

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. The primary obstacle to developing any real coordination was the NIS' own need for the same political and economic restructuring. Despite these difficulties, Mongolia and Russia successfully negotiated both a 1991 Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues. In December 2003, Mongolia finally settled the Soviet-era debt it owed to Russia with a negotiated payment of $250 million.

Europe

Mongolia seeks closer relations with countries in Europe and hopes to receive most-favored-nation status from the European Union (EU). During 1991, Mongolia signed investment promotion and protection agreements with Germany and France and an economic cooperation agreement with the United Kingdom. Germany continued former East German cooperative programs and also provided loans and aid. The Prime Minister has traveled to Germany, France, Belgium, and EU headquarters in Brussels seeking economic cooperation. President Bagabandi visited several European capitals in 1999-2000.

U.S.-MONGOLIAN RELATIONS

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. The first U.S. ambassador to Mongolia, Richard L. Williams, was not resident there. Joseph E. Lake, the first resident ambassador, arrived in July 1990. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989. Secretary of State Madeline Albright visited Mongolia in May 1998, and Prime Minister Enkhbayar visited Washington in November 2001. More recently, Deputy Secretary of State Richard L. Armitage visited Mongolia in January 2004, and President Bagabandi came to Washington for a meeting with President Bush in July 2004.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. The United States granted Mongolia most-favored-nation status and has supported Mongolia's transition to political democracy and a market economy. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided more than $100 million over the past 7 years in technical assistance and training for Mongolia's democratic and economic reform program. Of that total, some $38 million has gone for emergency energy assistance, which has been instrumental in keeping Mongolia's power and heating system operable through the country's harsh winters. By FY 2000, rural development replaced energy as USAID's main program emphasis. Nearly half of USAID's annual program—$12 million in FY 2003 and $10 million in FY 2004—is devoted to the Gobi Regional Economic Growth Initiative and other rural transition programs.

The U.S. also is directly supporting Mongolia's democratization by working with U.S. nongovernmental organizations to provide training for parliamentary committee organization and constituent service and has recently launched a program to establish public affairs organizations and legislative relations offices in every ministry. U.S. assistance also provided technical assistance for the drafting of the 1992 constitution, nonpartisan voter education guides, and an election-observer mission for the July 2000 and June 2004 elections.

The U.S. provides support for the Mongolian Government's economic reforms through its Economic Policy Support Project that includes a full-time American policy adviser in the Prime Minister's office. The adviser has worked closely with the Government of Mongolia to set the policy agenda of the current government and provides policy advice and expert technical assistance for the government's major reform initiatives, including privatization, energy, pension, and banking reforms.

The Peace Corps currently has more than 100 volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health and the environment.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

ULAANBAATAR (E) Address: Micro District 11, Big Ring Road, C.P.O. 1021, Ulaan; APO/FPO: PSC 461, Box 300, FPO, AP 96521-0002; Phone: (976-11) 329-095; Fax: (976-11) 320-776; INMARSAT Tel: 383130947; Workweek: M-F/0830-1230, 1300-1700; Website: www.usmongolia.com.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

October 21, 2005

Country Description:

Mongolia is a vast country of mountains, lakes, deserts and grasslands. It peacefully abandoned its communist system in 1990 and has successfully made the transition to a parliamentary democracy. Economic reforms continue. The country's development will depend on considerable infrastructure investment, particularly in the energy, transportation, and communication sectors. Travelers to Mongolia should be aware that shortcomings in these areas might have an impact on travel plans.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

A valid passport is required for American visitors. No visa is required for Americans visiting for fewer than 90 days; however, visitors planning to stay in Mongolia for more than 30 days are required to register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency in Ulaanbaatar within the first seven days of arrival. American visitors who fail to register and who stay longer than 30 days, even for reasons beyond their control, will be stopped at departure, denied exit, and fined. It is recommended that if there is any possibility that a visitor will be in Mongolia beyond 30 days that they register with the Immigration, Naturalization and Foreign Citizens Agency within the first seven days of their arrival.

Americans planning to work or study in Mongolia should apply for a visa at a Mongolian Embassy or Consulate overseas. Failure to do so may result in authorities denying registration, levying a fine, and requiring that the visitor leave the country. Travelers arriving or departing Mongolia through China or Russia should be aware of Chinese and Russian visa regulations. American citizens are not permitted to transit through China or Russia without a visa. For more information on these requirements see the Consular Information Sheets for these countries at http://travel.state.gov. Travelers planning travel to Russia should get visas prior to arriving in Mongolia as they are difficult to get at the Russian Embassy in Mongolia.

There is an exit tax payable either in USD or tugrugs collected on departures from individuals without Mongolian visas. This amount may or may not be included with the price of the airline ticket; travelers are advised to confirm when they purchase their airline ticket.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian if not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Visit the Embassy of Mongolia web site at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php for the most current visa information. Travelers can also contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117 for the most current visa information.

Safety and Security:

There have been no significant acts of terrorism, kidnapping, criminal incidents, or extremist activity directed against U.S. interests in Mongolia. There are no regions of instability in the country. U.S. citizens are advised to avoid protests and street demonstrations that occur occasionally in Ulaanbaatar, as the demonstrations may become unruly.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Over the past few years there has been a significant rise in street crime in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, the capital. Violent crime is increasing, and it is not advisable to walk alone through the city after dark. The most common crimes against foreigners are pick pocketing and bag snatching. There are reports of organized groups in open areas surrounding, grabbing and choking an individual in order to search victim's pockets. U.S. citizens who detect pick pocket attempts should not confront the thieves, as they may become violent. Caution is advised when using public transportation and in crowded public areas, such as open air markets, the Central Post Office and the Gandan Monastery. Crime sharply rises before, during and after the Naadam Summer Festival in July and throughout the summer tourist season. Travelers should be extremely cautious at these specific locations: Buyant-Ukhaa International Airport in Ulaanbaatar: tourists arriving and departing from this airport are frequently targeted for robbery and pick pocketing by organized groups.

The State Department Store:

tourists are targeted by organized pick pocket gangs at the entries/exits/elevators and the area surrounding the store.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information:

Medical facilities in Mongolia are very limited and do not meet most Western standards, especially for emergency health care requirements. Many brand-name western medicines are unavailable. Ulaanbaatar, the capital, has the majority of medical facilities; outside of Ulaanbaatar medical facilities and treatment are extremely limited or non-existent. Specialized emergency care for infants and the elderly is not available. Infectious diseases, such as plague, meningococcal meningitis, and tuberculosis, are present at various times of the year. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization and/or medical evacuation to the United States can cost thousands of dollars; see section on Medical Insurance below. Doctors and hospitals usually expect immediate payment in cash for health services. A June 2005 medical evacuation from Ulaanbaatar just to Seoul, Korea cost the patient $87,000. Medevac companies will not initiate an evacuation without a fee guarantee beforehand and in full. The U.S. State Department has compiled a list of worldwide air ambulance services for people needing medical evacuation at http://www.travel.state.gov/travel/tips/health/health_1185.html.

Local hospitals generally do not contact the Embassy about ill or injured Americans in their care; hospitalized American citizens who need Consular assistance from the Embassy will need to specifically request the doctor or hospital to contact the Embassy in Ulaanbaatar. For more information, please contact the U.S. Embassy in Ulaanbaatar, which has a list of medical facilities available to foreigners, or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's international travelers hotline.

Sanitation in some restaurants is inadequate, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar. Stomach illnesses are frequent. Bottled water and other routine precautions are advisable.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation (See Medical Facilities and Health Information).

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Mongolia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Driving in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar can be extremely difficult due to poorly maintained streets, malfunctioning traffic lights, inadequate street lighting, undisciplined pedestrians, and a shortage of traffic signs. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in recent years, but the knowledge and skills of the driving population have not kept pace with the growth of automobiles. There are many metered taxis in Ulaanbaatar. There is one car rental company operating in Ulaanbaatar, but safety and maintenance standards are uncertain and should be utilized with caution. Another alternative is to hire a car and driver from local tourist companies. Public transportation within the capital is extensive, cheap, and generally reliable, but it is also extremely crowded (see Information on crime above) with the result that pick pockets often victimize foreigners. There are few paved roads out-side of the capital, and driving can be hazardous, particularly after dark. For specific information concerning Mongolian driver's permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007, telephone (202) 333-7117.

Visit the website of the country's national tourist office and national authority responsible for road safety at http://www.mongolianembassy.us/default.php.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Mongolia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Mongolia's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/oversight/iasa.

The U.S. Embassy prohibits U.S. government personnel use of MIAT domestic service for official travel because of uncertainties regarding MIAT's service schedule, aircraft certification and insurance status. This prohibition does not extend to MIAT's international flights.

Special Circumstances:

Traveler's checks denominated in dollars are accepted at some hotels and may be converted to dollars or tugrugs at several banks. Credit cards can be used at a variety of hotels, restaurants, and shops in Ulaanbaatar. Outside of the capital, travelers should have cash. Cash advances against credit cards are available at commercial banks such as Trade and Development Bank and Golomt Bank. International bank wire transfers are also possible. There are a handful of VISA only ATM machines in Ulaanbaatar, but that they do not always function and are not reliable. ATM machines do not exist outside the capital.

American citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and citizenship are readily available. U.S. consular officers may not always receive timely notification of the detention or arrest of a U.S. citizen, particularly outside of Ulaanbaatar.

Severe fuel shortages and problems with central heating and electrical systems may cause seriously reduced heating levels and power outages in Ulaanbaatar and other cities during the winter. Smaller towns in the countryside may have no heat or electricity at all. The Embassy advises all American residents in Mongolia to be prepared to depart if there is a complete energy failure. General information about natural disaster preparedness is available via the Internet from the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) at http://www.fema.gov/.

Mongolian customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning import and export of items such as firearms, ammunition and antiquities. Import of firearms or ammunition requires prior approval from the Government of Mongolia. Export of antiquities requires a special customs clearance certificate issued by authorized antique shops at the time of purchase. For additional information contact the Embassy of Mongolia at 2833 M Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20402, telephone: (202) 333-7117.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Mongolian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Mongolia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://www.travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

Americans living or traveling in Mongolia are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Mongolia. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at Micro Region 11, Big Ring Road, Ulaanbaatar. The telephone number is (976) 11-329-095, the Consular Section fax number is (976) 11-353-788, the Embassy web site is http://ulaanbaatar.usembassy.gov/home/index.shtml. The Consular Section can be emailed directly at [email protected]. The Consular Section is open Monday and Thursday from 1-3 p.m., except on U.S. and Mongolian holidays.

International Adoption

June 6, 2002

Important Notice:

U.S. citizens are strongly discouraged from adopting in Mongolia at this time. Adoptions in Mongolia do not clearly meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law and a child adopted in Mongolia may not be eligible to immigrate to the United States.