Durkheim, Emile 1858-1917
(Emile Durkeim)

PERSONAL:

Born April 15, 1858, in Epinal, Lorraine, France; died November 15, 1917, in Paris, France; married Louise Dreyfus, 1887; children: two.Education: Graduated from Ecole Normale, Paris, France, 1882; Sorbonne, Ph.D., 1892.

CAREER:

Sociologist, educator, and writer. Provincial lycées, taught philosophy, 1882-85; University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France, lecturer in education and sociology, 1887-96, professor of sociology (first professorship in sociology in France), 1896-1902; University of Paris, Sorbonne, professor of sociology and education, 1902-17.L'Année sociologique, founder, 1897.

WRITINGS:

Quid secundatus politicae scientiae instituendae contulerit,Bounouilhou (Bordeaux, France), 1892, expanded edition published asMontesquieu and Rousseau: Forerunners of Sociology, University of Michigan Press (Ann Arbor, MI), 1960, new edition published asMontesquieu: quid secundatus politicae scientiae instituendae contulerit, edited by William Watts Miller, Durkheim Press (Oxford, England), 1997.

De la division du travail social: Etude sur l'organisation des sociétés supérieures,Alcan (Paris, France), 1893, translation by W.D. Halls published asThe Division of Labor in Society, introduction by Lewis A. Coser, Free Press (New York, NY), 1997.

Le suicide; étude de sociologie, F. Alcan (Paris, France), 1895, 10th edition, 1990, published as Suicide: A Study in Sociology, edited and with an introduction by George Simpson, Free Press (New York, NY), 1997.

Les Règles de la méthode sociologique, Alcan (Paris, France), 1898, translation by Sarah A. Solovay and John H. Muelloer published as The Rules of Sociological Method, 8th edition, edited by George E.G. Catlin, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1938, 10th French edition, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1997.

Les formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le système totémique en Australia, Alcan (Paris, France), 1912, published as The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, Free Press (New York, NY), 1995, 4th edition in French, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1998.

(With Ernest Denis) Qui a voulu la guerre?: les origins de la guerre d'après les document diplomatiques (title means "Who Wanted War?: The Origin of the War according to Diplomatic Documents"), Armand Colin, (Paris, France), 1915, Kimé (Paris, France), 1996.

"L'Allemagne au-dessus de tout": la mentalité allemande et la guerre, (title means "‘Germany above All’: The German Mental Attitude and the War"), Armand Coliln (Paris, France), 1915, reprinted, A. Colin (Paris, France), 1991.

(With Ernest Lavisse) Lettres à tous les France, (letters), A. Colin (Paris, France), 1916, reprinted, 1992.

Education et sociologie, Alcan (Paris, France), 1922, published as Education and Sociology, Free Press (Glencoe, IL), 1956, reprinted in French, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1999.

Sociologie et philosophie, Alcan (Paris, France), 1924, published as Sociology and Philosophy,Free Press (Glencoe, IL) 1953, reprinted in French, 1996.

L'Education morale, avertissement de Paul Fauconnet, F. Alcan (Paris, France) 1925, published as Moral Education: A Study in the Theory and Application of the Sociology of Education, Free Press (New York, NY), 1973, French edition reprint, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1992.

L'Evolution pédagogique en France, Volume 1: Des origins à la renaissance,Volume 2: De la renaissance à nos jours (lectures, 1904-05), Alcan (Paris, France) 1938, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1990, translation by Peter Collins and published as The Evolution of Educational Thought: Lectures on the Formation and Development of Secondary Education in France, Routledge & Kegan Paul (London, England), 1977.

Leçons de sociologie, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1950, new edition, 1999.

Pragmatisme et Sociologie, Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin (Paris, France), 1955, published as Pragmatisim and Sociology,Cambridge University Press (New York, NY), 1983.

Professional Ethics and Civic Morals, Routledge (London, England), 1957, reprinted 1992.

La science sociale et l'action, 2nd edition, introduction and presentation by Jean-Claude Filloux, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1970, reprinted, 1987.

Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society, edited and with an introduction by Robert N. Bellah, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1973.

Durkheim on Religion, compiled and edited by W.S.F. Pickering, Routledge & Kegan Paul (Boston, MA), 1975, reprinted, Scholars Press (Atlanta, GA), 1994.

Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education,edited by W.S.F. Pickering, Routledge (London, England), 1979.

Contributions to "L'Année Sociologique," edited by Yash Nandan, Free Press (New York, NY), 1980.

Durkheim and the Law, edited by Steven Lukes and Andrew Scull, St. Martin's Press (New York, NY), 1983.

Readings from Emile Durkheim, edited by Kenneth Thompson, new translations by Margaret A. Thompson, Routledge (London, England), 1985.

Socialism and Saint-Simon = Le Socialisme, translation by Charlotte Sasttler, edited and with an introduction by Alvin W. Gouldner, Antioch Press (Yellow Springs, OH), 1988.

Selected Writings, Cambridge University Press (Cambridge, England), 1988.

Le socialisme: sa définition, ses débuts, la doctrine saint-simonienne, introduction by Marcel Mauss, preface by Pierre Birnbaum, Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1992.

Ethics and the Sociology of Morals, translated and with an introduction by Robert T. Hall, Prometheus Books (Buffalo, NY), 1993.

(With Jean-Claude Filloux) Durkheim et l'éducation,Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), 1994.

Emile Durkheim in Institutional Analysis, edited, translated, and with an introduction by Mark Traugott, University of Chicago Press (Chicago, IL), 1994.

Society and Solitude (symposium readings), University Press of America (Lanham, MD), 1995.

Suicide and the Birth Rate: A Study in Moral Statistics, translated by Barclay D. Johnson, B.D. Johnson (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), 1996.

Durkheim on Politics and the State, edited by Anthony Giddens, translated by W.D. Walls, Polity Press (Cambridge, England), 1996.

Lettres à Marcel Mauss,Presses universitaires de France (Paris, France), presented by Philippe Bes-nard and Marcel Fournier, 1998.

L'Individualisme et les intellectuals (title means "Individualism and the Intellectuals"), Mille et une nuits (Paris, France) 2002.

L'evaluation en comité: textes et rapports de souscription au Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques, 1903-1917. edited by Stép Baciocchi and Jennifer Mergy, Berghahn Books (New York, NY), 2003.

Durkheim's Philosophy Lectures: Notes from the Lycée de Sens cours, 1883-1884,edited and translated by Neil Gross and Robert Alun Jones, Cambridge University Press (New York, NY), 2004.

Contributor to L'incests, un siècle d'interprétations, Delachaux et Niestlé, 1997; works have been published in several languages, including Catalan, Dutch, English, Spanish, Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Korean, Basque, Czech, German, Russian, and Welsh.

SIDELIGHTS:

Emile Durkheim is considered one of the founding fathers of modern sociology. The breadth of his sociological studies and writings was immense, covering such topics as war, suicide, labor, social classes, education, politics, and moral principles. "Durkheim thought that sociology had an important role to play in the search for a new basis of social coherence in modern society," wrote a contributor toThinkers of the Twentieth Century.

One of Durkheim's most famous works is De la division du travail social: Etude sur l'organisation des sociétés supérieures,published in English as The Division of Labor in Society. In an article in Sociological Perspectives, Warren Schmaus noted: "For Durkheim, the function of the division of labor is to create the social attachments that constitute organic solidarity." Isabel Emmett, writing a review of The Division of Labor for the Times Literary Supplement, commented that the author "thought freshly and provocatively about happiness, bad industrial management, unemployment in work, the growth of individuality and many other matters."

Another major work by Durkheim is Les Règles de la méthode sociologique, published in English as The Rules of Sociological Method. The book is largely credited with playing a seminal role in the development of sociology as an accepted science. In the book, Durkheim focuses further on his methodological principles as a foundation for sociology, trying to further illustrate a sociological slogan that "social facts explain social facts" as opposed to the belief that the realities of society can be plumbed completely from individual psychology. A contributor to Thinkers of the Twentieth Century wrote: "Social facts have the following characteristics: they exist independently of the subjective awareness of individuals; they are exterior to the individual; they exercise constraint over behavior; and they are general and collective." The contributor went on to note: "In less formal terms, Durkheim argued that the culture and structure of social groups existed independently of the individuals who happen at any given time to be members of such groups." Writing in the Sociological Review, M. Gane commented: "Durkheim's effort, despite its weaknesses, remains one of the most successful attempts to reflect on the methodological requirements of such … [a sociological] aspiration."

Another sociological phenomenon that greatly interested Durkheim was suicide. In his book Le suicide; étude de sociologie, published in English as Suicide: A Study in Sociology, the author uses statistical methodology to delve into suicide and present a theory to explain this highly individualistic behavior as stemming from social causes.

Durkheim was also fascinated by the religious aspects of society and wrote extensively on this topic inLes formes élémentaires de la vie religieuse: le système totémique en Australia, published in English as The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. The book was partially Durkheim's response to those interpretations of religion that saw it as false and unnecessary. Writing in Contemporary Sociology,Lawrence A. Scaff wrote that the author's purpose "was to attack the appeal to innate foundations of knowledge by explaining why certain ideas enjoy credence without needing support from proof." As noted by a Thinkers of the Twentieth Century contributor, Durkheim presented his case that "sociologists are not concerned with the truth of religious propositions but with the functions of religions in society. Religion is not a feature of individual behaviour but an essential dimension of collective life."

Durkheim is also considered one of the founding fathers of the sociology of education, with many of his sociological observations in the field of education stemming from his sociological studies of morality in society. InL'Education morale, published in English as Moral Education: A Study in the Theory and Application of the Sociology of Education, the author first discusses how morality evolved in the secular world and then turns his attention to how this morality affects the world of a child. Durkheim's wide-ranging views on education and morality are collected in Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education. Writing in the Religious Studies Review, Ernest Wallwork commented that the author "is at his best in a section on ‘morals’ that addresses the issues of cultural and ethical relativism … and the social role of the moral critic." R.S. Downie wrote in British Book News:"This book performs a valuable service by bringing together many of the scattered writings."

Durkheim's writings have been gathered in several other collections, such as Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society. Broken up into five sections, the book includes twelve selections from various works, including The Division of Labor as well as various essays. American Journal of Sociology contributor Edward A. Tiryakian called the book "a well-conceived, integrated selection of readings." Durkheim and the Law draws from many of the author's longer works "on topics such as legal evolution and the functions of criminal law," as noted by Terry Nardin in Perspective. Drawing on selections from Professional Ethics and Civic Morals and from various essays, lectures, and public debates, Durkheim on Politics and the State "displays … [Durkheim's] incisive analysis of the structural basis of moral solidarity," according to a reviewer writing in Ethics.

BIOGRAPHICAL AND CRITICAL SOURCES:

BOOKS

Emibayer, Mustafa, editor, Emile Durkheim: Sociologist of Modernity, Blackwell (Malden, MA), 2003.

Thinkers of the Twentieth Century, 2nd edition, St. James Press (Detroit, MI), 1987.

Twentieth-Century Literary Criticism, Volume 55, Thomson Gale (Detroit, MI), 1995.

PERIODICALS

American Journal of Sociology, November, 1974, Edward A. Tiryakian, review of Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society, pp. 769-771; September, 1980, Everett K. Wilson, review of Emile Durkheim on Institutional Analysis, pp. 419-421; September, 1996, Philip Smith and Jeffrey C. Alexander, review of The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, pp. 585-592.

Armed Forces & Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal, fall, 1998, Jeffrey W. Riemer, "Durkheim's ‘Heroic Suicide’ in Military Combat," p. 103.

British Book News, May, 1980, R.S. Downie, review of Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education, p. 269.

Canadian Journal of Sociology, winter, 2001, William J. Ramp, "Durkheim and the Unthought: Some Dilemmas of Modernity," p. 89.

Choice, February, 1973, review ofSelected Writings, p. 1664; April, 1974, review of Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society, p. 332; January, 1976, review of Durkheim on Religion, p. 1506; February, 1978, review of The Evolution of Educational Thought, p. 1690; January, 1979, review of Emile Durkheim in Institutional Analysis, p. 1592; June, 1980, review ofEssays on Morals and Education, p. 578; December, 1983, review of Durkheim and the Law, p. 642.

Christian Century, January 2, 1974, review of Moral Education: A Study in the Theory and Application of the Sociology of Education, p. 22.

Contemporary Sociology, January, 1977; March, 1977, Tendzin N. Takla, review of Durkheim on Religion,pp. 163-165; July, 1979, Edward A. Tiryakian, review of Emile Durkheim on Institutional Analysis, pp. 649-650; September, 1979, Everett K. Wilson, review of The Evolution of Educational Thought: Lectures on the Formation and Development of Secondary Education in France, pp. 747-748; September, 1982, Philippe Besnard, review ofContributions to "L'Année Sociologique," pp. 509-511; July, 1995, review of Jennifer M. Lehmann, Ethics and the Sociology of Morals, pp. 420-422; July, 1996, Lawrence A. Scaff, review of The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, pp. 467-469; March, 1998, Marcel Fournier, review ofMontesquieu: quid secundatus politicae scientiae instituendae contulerit, p. 216.

Educational Forum, winter, 1993, M. Jean Bouas, "The Three R's of Moral Education: Emile Durkheim Revisited," pp. 180-185.

Encounter, October, 1975, Bryan Wilson, "The Debate over ‘Secularization,’ pp. 77-84.

Ethics, October, 1984, review of Pragmatisim and Sociology, pp. 181-182; January, 1988, review of Durkheim on Politics and the State, p. 423; April, 1994, review ofProfessional Ethics and Civic Morals, p. 676.

Harvard Educational Review, November, 1977, Mohamed Cherrakoui, "Bernstein and Durkheim: Two Theories of Change in Educational Systems," pp. 556-564.

Library Journal, September 1, 1972, review of Selected Writings, p. 2714.

Newsweek, February 3, 1992, Barbara Kantrowitz, "Sociology's Lonely Crowd."

Personnel and Guidance Journal, July, 1974, Daniel Sinick, review of Moral Education, p. 703

Perspective, June, 1984, Terry Nardin, review of Durkheim and the Law, pp. 87-88.

Religious Studies Review, April, 1982, Ernest Wallwork, review of Durkheim: Essays on Morals and Education, pp. 174-175; July, 1999, review of The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, p. 267.

Signs, autumn, 2001, Elisabeth Pedersen, "Sexual Politics in Comte and Durkheim: Feminism, History, and the French Sociological Tradition," p. 229.

Social Forces, September, 1975, review of Sociology and Philosophy, p. 309.

Sociological Perspectives, spring, 1995, Stephen Parker Turner, "Durkheim's ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’: Is It a Classic?" p. 1; spring, 1995, S.G. Stedman Jones Jones, "Charles Renouvier and Emile Durkheim:Les Regles de la Methode Sociologique," p. 27, and Warren Schmaus, "Explanation and Essence in The Rules of Sociological Method and The Divison of Labor in Society,"p.57.

Sociological Review, May, 1976, W.S.F. Pickering, review ofSociology and Philosophy, pp. 387-389; February, 1984, M. Gane, review of The Rules of Sociological Method, pp. 134-136; September, 1984, review of The Rules of Sociological Method, pp. 268-269; February, 1985, Steven Lukes, review of Emile Durkheim on Morality and Society, pp. 164-166.

Sociology of Religion, fall, 1996, Donald A. Nielsen, review of The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, p. 328.

Times Educational Supplement, August 19, 1983, Brian Morton, review of The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 18.

Times Literary Supplement, April 26, 1985, Isabel Emmett, review of The Division of Labour in Society, p. 462.

ONLINE

Emuseum, Minnesota State University, Mikato, Web site,http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/ (April 28, 2006), biography of author.

Program for the Study of Religion at the University of Illinois Web site,http://www.relst.uiuc.edu/(June 13, 2006), biographical and work information on author.