Donald Duk

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Donald Duk

by Frank Chin

THE LITERARY WORK

A novel set in San Francisco’s Chinatown in the early 1990s; published in 1991.

SYNOPSIS

As the Chinese New Year approaches, a twelve-year-old Chinese American boy, Donald Duk, tries to deal with his feelings about his cultural heritage.

Events in History at the Time of the Novel

The Novel in Focus

For More Information

Born in Berkeley, California, in 1940, Frank Chin has been called the “conscience of Asian American writing” (Wand in Chan, p. 529). He is a critic, an essayist, a fiction writer, and a playwright. In Chin’s view, much of traditional Chinese American literature has stereotyped the Chinese as timid and passive, and has departed from the truth of Chinese history and philosophy. His own writing aims to show Chinese culture in its “real” form, a form that attempts to break away from the stereotypes of the past.

Events in History at the Time of the Novel

San Francisco’s Chinatown

Since its origins as a city, San Francisco has included a large Chinese community within its population. The original surge of Chinese immigration came as a result of numerous events in both China and the United States. In the 1840s, China’s ruling Manchu dynasty was declining into a state of corruption and injustice. Increases in population, which limited available land, coupled with a terrible cycle of flood, famine, and drought, drastically affected the living conditions for the majority of China’s population. The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and the conflicts of the Opium War (1839-42) created even greater discord and hardship in the country. When news of California’s gold discovery reached the Canton province in China in 1848, the United States became an attractive destination to thousands of Chinese men eager to improve their lives and those of their families as well. In 1850, 500 men left Hong Kong for California. By the end of 1851, there were an estimated 25,000 Chinese in California, working in the mining industry and other manual labor occupations. By 1890 the Chinese population in the United States reached its peak at more than 107,000, with the majority on the West Coast. The Chinese Exclusion Acts of 1882 and 1902 caused this number to dwindle, but after their repeal in 1943, new waves of immigration revitalized San Francisco’s Chinatown and other Chinese American communities. A 1965 revision of U.S. immigration law further stimulated movement from China to the United States.

From its earliest years, San Francisco’s Chinatown has existed as a virtually self-sufficient political community through a complicated system of interconnecting organizations. Its ability to handle its own problems has allowed Chinatown to maintain a unique existence, almost independent of the city surrounding it. Chinatown became almost a city unto itself, growing by the 1990s to include 30,000 inhabitants within a twenty-four block area, a population density exceeded in the United States only by some areas of Manhattan. Chinatown continues to be the first home in the U.S. for many immigrants from southern China; they tend to leave the inner city for the surrounding suburbs after achieving some economic success.

Chinese New Year

The New Year is the main festival in the Chinese calendar. It occurs on the second full moon of the winter solstice, which places it either in late January or early February. The celebration of the holiday spans two full weeks. Countless superstitions and traditions are associated with the holiday. For example, it is believed that one shouldn’t wash one’s hair on New Year’s Day for fear of washing away good luck for the coming year. Business transactions are settled and debts are paid before the New Year because it is considered bad luck to begin the year owing money. Another important tradition of the New Year involves giving away lay see, or lucky money. The lay see consists of dollar bills folded and enclosed in small red envelopes which are doled out to children and unmarried family members. In Donald Duk, Donald receives lay see from his uncle, his aunts, and even from a few family acquaintances.

Food is also a major part of the New Year’s celebration. Families come together to share large meals; the overabundance of food symbolizes the hope that the coming year will yield prosperity and happiness. Customary foods also play a part in the New Year’s holiday. In the novel, Donald’s father cooks a traditional dish, “ho see fot choy,” which translates as oysters with noodles and vegetable casserole; the dish is eaten on New Year’s because “ho see fot choy” sounds identical to the expression for typical holiday greeting, “happy new year,” in Chinese. Similarly, lettuce and cabbage are eaten because their names also sound like the words “fortune” and “riches.” Another common New Year’s dish is a whole fish, which symbolizes togetherness and abundance for the year to come. The majority of these New Year’s dishes are prepared the night before so that nothing is cut on New Year’s Day out of fear that the luck of the new year might be cut.

During the New Year’s holiday, San Francisco’s Chinatown assumes a colorful and carnival-like atmosphere. Vendors sell flowers and candy, and of course, a variety of lay see envelopes all decorated with calligraphy or characters printed in gold. At the end of the two-week holiday comes the Chinese New Year parade, which includes a colorful sixty-foot dragon operated by more than fifty dancers who carry it on poles as it weaves its way through the streets. The parade is one of San Francisco’s largest celebrations and typically draws a crowd of more than 500,000. In the novel, Donald and his friend Arnold carry the dragon through the parade with other members of their kung-fu martial arts school.

Chinese opera

When Chinese immigrants left their homeland to establish a Chinese American community in California, they brought many elements of their culture with them. One of these elements was the musical theater, or Chinese opera. Many of the stories staged in Chinese opera are based on Chinese folktales and mythology. The opera consists of a small orchestra with no more than seven or eight members and elaborately dressed actors who perform the key roles, which are typically limited to a few characters.

IMMIGRATION ACT OF 1965

In 1965 the United States replaced its immigration policy, which set quotas by nation of origin, with an act establishing a yearly limit of 170,000 newcomers from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere. Family members of U.S. citizens could be admitted regardless of these limits, as could political refugees.

When the Chinese imperial government banned the opera in 1854, San Francisco’s Chinatown became one of the greatest refuges for Chinese opera performers. This ban was lifted in 1868, which drew many of the greatest Chinese opera stars back to China; opera was again banned in the twentieth century during the Cultural Revolution of the communist era. Small Chinese American groups like the one led by Donald’s uncle in the novel work to keep the traditional opera alive. Other members of the main character’s family have been involved in Chinese opera too. Donald is shocked to learn that his father was once a famous opera star, known for playing the role of Kwan Kung, a Chinese immortal whose eyes could kill with a glance.

Chinese railroad workers

After Donald’s uncle tells him that one of his ancestors worked on the railroad, Donald begins having dreams about the Chinese railroad workers who built the Central Pacific tracks through the Sierra Nevada mountain range. The Chinese had been recruited to work on the Central Pacific in the early 1860s. Congress had approved financial subsidies for the railroad, but only under the condition that the Central Pacific would complete its line from Sacramento, California, to an undetermined location in Utah (where it would connect to the Union Pacific tracks), by July 1, 1869. The Chinese laborers spent the winter of 1866-67 hacking tunnels through the dense granite of the Sierra Nevadas. Much of the work was done with explosives, which the Chinese were highly proficient in using; this had been one of the skills that made them desirable employees to the owners of the Central Pacific. As the Chinese struggled through the snow and ice in the Sierras, they were urged to work even harder by their Caucasian supervisors. Finally, the Chinese went on strike, demanding a raise in pay from $30 a month to $45 a month and an end to their twelve-hour workdays. After bitter negotiations, the Chinese received a $5 a month raise but were forced to maintain a twelve-hour day.

With the arrival of spring in 1867, many of the Chinese workers moved on to the Nevada desert to continue laying the rails toward Utah. Though the fact that the ground was level made much of the work easier, the extreme desert heat, scorpions, and rattlesnakes kept the working conditions difficult. Despite the inhospitable Nevada desert, the Chinese made dramatic progress throughout the next year, completing 362 miles of track in 1868.

Early in 1869, the Central Pacific workers came in sight of the Union Pacific track crew, which consisted almost entirely of Irishmen. Because they were being paid by the mile, a fierce competition arose between the two railroad crews as each tried to lay more track than the other. Fearing that the quality of the rails would suffer as a result of the competition, Congress designated Promontory Point, Utah, as the meeting place for the two railroads, beyond which neither one could go. Despite this mandate, the competitive spirit between the two companies continued. Charles Crocker, one of the owners of the Central Pacific, bet William Durant of the Union Pacific that the Central Pacific crew could lay 10 miles of track in a single day. Durant readily accepted the wager; his Irish crew had only finished 6 miles of track on their most productive day of work, and he doubted that Central Pacific could exceed that. On April 28, 1869, 5,000 Central Pacific rail workers laid 10 miles and 56 feet of track in twelve hours. In that single day the Chinese crews had placed 25,800 ties, laid 3,520 rails, sledged 28,120 spikes, and fastened 14,080 bolts. The record has never been matched, even by the machines now used by the railroads. The tracks were joined with those of the Union Pacific on May 10, 1869, with great fanfare. Two golden spikes, one silver spike, and one spike of gold, silver, and iron were hammered into place at the juncture of the two rails.

In the novel, Donald dreams about many details in the lives of the Chinese railroad workers, including the arduous working conditions, poor treatment, and the record-setting effort of the workers. His dreams and his study of the events at the library instill in Donald his first feelings of pride in his people as he realizes the courage and tenacity it took for them to complete their work on the railroad. Donald also feels frustrated and cheated when he looks at photographs of the Golden Spike ceremony and realizes that not a single Chinese appears in the picture.

The Novel in Focus

The plot

Donald Duk, a twelve-year-old Chinese American boy growing up in San Francisco’s Chinatown, hates his name. He also hates being Chinese; after all, his history teacher at public school constantly describes the early Chinese in America as “passive,” “nonassertive,” and “timid” (Chin, Donald Duk, p. 2). Matters are made even worse by the approach of the Chinese New Year. Now Donald will have to tell his whole class about the things the Chinese do during the holiday. Donald’s uncle, also named Donald, comes to Chinatown with his Cantonese opera group and performs for Donald’s class, embarrassing Donald even further.

A non-Chinese friend of Donald’s, Arnold Azalea, gets permission to stay the night at Donald’s house. Donald is amazed that Arnold likes Chinese food and is interested in Donald’s father’s stories. Besides telling stories, Donald’s father makes model planes that he plans to fly on New Year’s day. Uncle Donald explains to Donald that each of the 108 planes is painted to represent a hero from the Chinese Water Margin story, a legend concerning 108 outlaws who stand against a corrupt dynasty.

Donald is shocked to learn that his father, recognizing the impermanence of all dynasties, plans to burn each of the planes when he flies them. In the middle of the night, Donald takes one of the planes and flies it off the roof of his building. The tiny plane flies a short distance and the firecracker inside it explodes. As Donald prepares to go back to his family’s apartment below, he is confronted by American Cong, a strange man dressed in army fatigues who seems to live on the roof. American Cong claims to be a Vietnam veteran who has a lasting illness from the war, which he describes as “orange” (Donald Duk, p. 19). Downstairs Donald finds his Uncle Donald waiting for him. His uncle had seen him take the plane and tells him that he must make another to replace it and that he must tell his father what he’s done.

LEGEND OF THE WATER MARGIN

The story of the Water Margin is one of the most popular pieces of Chinese folklore. The legend tells of 108 good men who have been outlawed by dishonest officials of a corrupt government. Led by Song Jiang, known as “Timely Rain,” the 108 outlaws combine forces and form an army in the “Water Margin,” or Leongshan swamp, an area of impenetrable marsh. They then overthrow the corrupt Song Dynasty. One of the most interesting of the 108 heroes is Lee Kuey, also known as “the Black Tornado.” Lee Kuey fights naked, with a gigantic battle ax in each hand. In Donald Duk, it is this character who is painted on the model plane that Donald pilfers from his father’s collection and flies by himself from the rooftop.

As the Chinese New Year gets closer, Donald researches the history of the Chinese, and he begins having dreams each night about the Chinese workers who built the Central Pacific railroad. Donald begins to appreciate the accomplishments of the early Chinese immigrants who worked through the grueling winters, cutting tunnels and pathways through the mountains for the railroad.

Each day, Donald and his family visit relatives and friends in anticipation of the holiday, giving gifts and lay see, lucky money, to children and their unmarried friends. One night, Donald’s father gives away fifty-pound sacks of rice to his neighbors. On another night he cooks a banquet for family, friends, and members of Uncle Donald’s opera troupe.

Donald and his family watch the news and see that Homer Lee, whom Donald recognizes as American Cong, has been arrested for killing a local gang member, Fisheyes Koo. Donald realizes that he was with Lee at the time of the murder

and insists that they go to the police station to prove him innocent. Homer Lee is released and the family feels that they have done their good deed for the New Year.

Finally, New Year’s Day arrives, and Donald and Arnold help carry the ceremonial dragon in the Chinese New Year parade. All of Chinatown grows boisterous with the celebration. After the parade, Donald, Arnold, and both of their families go to Angel Island in San Francisco Bay to fly the 108 model airplanes. The tiny planes, which have taken years to build, are all destroyed in just a few minutes. Donald starts to understand the idea his father has shared with him: that nothing lasts forever. He also begins to accept his Chinese heritage and begins to see that it is something of which he can be proud.

Donald’s anti-Chinese feelings in the novel

Throughout the novel, one of the most compelling themes that continues to surface is Donald’s anti-Chinese sentiment. At several points in the story Donald has fantasies that he is white. He also does everything he can to throw off his Chinese background and remove himself from the Chinese culture surrounding him. On the first page of the novel, Donald is already fantasizing about becoming different than what he is. Chin writes, “Donald Duk wants to live the late night life in old black-and-white movies and talk with his feet like Fred Astaire, and smile Fred Astaire’s sweet lemonade smile” (Donald Duk, p. 1). Later in the novel, Donald can’t understand why his father is happy being Chinese. After all, Donald’s grandparents did everything they could to become Americanized, even rejecting their culture when they immigrated to the United States, so why doesn’t his father do the same? As the novel points out, “Dad’s parents didn’t want to be Chinese. Donald Duk doesn’t want to be Chinese. Why does Dad want to be Chinese? Doesn’t he know everybody talks about him funny?” (Donald Duk, p. 47). Donald’s father, who realizes how Donald feels about his heritage, comments on the inner turmoil: “I think Donald Duk may be the very last American-born Chinese-American boy to believe you have to give up being Chinese to be an American” (Donald Duk, p. 42). This tension between Donald and his father over Donald’s anti-Chinese feelings resurfaces later in the novel during one of Donald’s dreams. In the dream, Donald’s father says, “I can’t believe I have raised a little white racist. He doesn’t think Chinatown is America. I tell you one thing, young fella, Chinatown is America” (Donald Duk, p. 90).

The root of Donald’s shame in being Chinese seems to lie in the stereotypes presented in the world around him. At school, the history teacher Mr. Meanwright constantly makes unfavorable remarks about the Chinese. When describing early Chinese immigrants, Meanwright says, “From their first step on American soil to the middle of the twentieth century, the timid, introverted Chinese have been helpless against the relentless victimization by aggressive, highly competitive Americans” (Donald Duk, p. 2). Even in Chinatown, Donald is surrounded by images that make the Chinese seem inferior or dependent on American white culture. Donald’s dance teacher dubs himself “the Chinese Fred Astaire” (Donald Duk, p. 66) and a local Chinese actress calls herself “the Chinese Marilyn Monroe” (Donald Duk, p. 134). Instead of simply existing independently as Chinese citizens of the United States, these figures in the novel seem in this way to subordinate their own talents to those of non-Chinese role models. Fortunately for Donald, he begins to understand more about his culture and ancestors through both his dreams and his conversations with Uncle Donald. After learning about the heroic actions of the nineteenth-century railroad workers and the daring deeds and bravery of the 108 heroes of the Water Margin stories, Donald seems much more at ease with his culture and begins to feel proud of his Chinese heritage.

Sources

Frank Chin was born in Berkeley, California, and grew up in the San Francisco Bay Area. Much like Donald Duk, whose great-great-grandfather worked on the Central Pacific, Frank Chin’s own grandfather worked in the steward-service of the Southern Pacific railroad. Frank Chin himself worked as the first Chinese American brakeman on the Southern Pacific railroad, an experience that, along with the experience of his grandfather, most likely inspired Chin’s interest in the early Chinese immigrants’ role in building the railroads. Donald’s feelings of inferiority and shame in being Chinese are inspired by the author’s own feelings of frustration that so much of Asian American culture seems to focus on the American aspect alone. In his essay, Come All Ye Asian American Writers, Chin writes, “What do we Asian Americans, Chinese Americans, Japanese Americans, Indo-Chinese, and Korean Americans have to hold us together? What is ’Asian American,’ ’Chinese American,’ and ’Japanese American’?... no matter how white we dress, speak, and behave, we will never be white” (Chin in Chan, p. 2). This same sentiment prompts the invention of characters in the novel whose personas rely on white America—the dancer called the “Chinese Fred Astaire,” the actress identified as the “Chinese Marilyn Monroe,” and a photographer known as the “Chinese Richard Avedon.” The novel refutes such stereotypes of mainstream white American culture as well as negative attitudes held by some Chinese Americans toward their own heritage.

Critical reaction

Donald Duk made a favorable impression on critics because of the issues it raised, and critics felt moved by Donald’s plight in the novel. However, some pointed out a certain roughness in other areas. In his New York Times review, Tom De Haven writes of the novel: “Throughout ’Donald Duk,’ Mr. Chin’s energy is high and his invention lively, but all too often the narrative seems rushed, filled with first-draft bursts of staccato prose.” De Haven also finds the novel inconsistent. In the same review, he writes, “For every scene that reads true or funny, there’s another that seems arbitrary or forced, and occasionally ... meanspirited” (De Haven, p. 9). Another reviewer, Janet Ingraham, commented on elements of the novel that make it entertaining as well as politically potent. She notes that “Chin spices his first novel with a flip, clipped, present-tense narrative voice, slapstick dialog, and kinetic dreamscapes. The result is a tart social comment packed into a cartoon, with verbal energy verging on hyperactivity” (Ingraham, p. 220).