The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood

by Howard Pyle

THE LITERARY WORK

A novel based on British legend; set in England from about 1154-1247, spanning the reigns of kings Henry II, Richard the Lion Hearted, and John I; published in 1883.

SYNOPSIS

Robin Hood and his band of outlaws live in Sherwood Forest, where they often steal from passing nobles and give part of their plunder to the poor. Robin Hood and his group of warriors experience a series of adventures, many of which pit them against their chief foe, the Sheriff of Nottingham.

Events in History at the Time the Novel Takes Place

The Novel in Focus

Events in History at the Time the Novel Was Written

For More Information

Howard Pyle was a well-known children’s author and illustrator during the late 1800s. He was the first graphic artist in the United States to be associated with high artistic standards. One of the first American artists to train solely in the United States instead of Europe, Pyle eventually founded the Brandywine school of art in Delaware. He was fascinated by the Middle Ages and immersed himself in English history and legend.

Events in History at the Time the Novel Takes Place

Angles, Saxons, Normans

The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes were originally Germanic tribes who made inroads into England around the fifth century, when the lands were controlled by a weakening Roman Empire. An early form of English was spoken by these West Germanic invaders, who combined to form the Anglo-Saxon peoples. This group developed a rich Anglo-Saxon culture from the seventh to the eleventh centuries.

In the mid-eleventh century, however, William the Conqueror led an invading force from France. The Norman people conquered the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 at the Battle of Hastings. The Normans, who were of Viking stock, were the last successful invaders of England, and their conquest had immediate political, social and cultural consequences.

Although only 10,000 Normans lived among a hostile population of one or two million people, the Normans successfully took over the majority of Anglo-Saxon institutions. The influence of the invaders was soon noticeable in nearly all aspects of English society and culture. Norman French became England’s official language, despite the fact that most common people still spoke English. English politics became part of French politics, and English culture came to be dominated by the French, especially under the rule of King Henry II (1154-1189) and Eleanor of Aquitaine. In the church, Norman bishops replaced old Saxon bishops. Land was redistributed as well, and many Anglo-Saxon thanes—freemen who held the king’s land—lost their possessions. Meanwhile, the Normans built numerous castles. By 1207, 80 percent of the property owners in Winchester were Normans, a sharp rise from the earlier figure of 30 percent. As one historian notes, “It is hardly surprising, then, that generations of patriotic Englishmen should have looked upon the Battle of Hastings as a national catastrophe” (Gillingham, p. 108).

Comments made by the characters in Robin Hood reflect disputes between the Saxons and the Normans. A palmer (pilgrim), for example, laments to David of Doncaster, one of Robin’s men, that: “It grieves my heart to see one as gallant as this Stutely die, for I have been a good Saxon yeoman in my day, ere I turned palmer, and well I know a stout hand and one that smiteth shrewdly at a cruel Norman or a proud abbot with fat money-bags” (Pyle, Merry Adventures of Robin Hood, p. 34). Despite the grievances of the Saxons, however, the Norman Conquest also led to the beginning of a strong royal government, the emergence of English common law, population growth, and the expansion of agriculture.

Services rendered and taxes paid

English society was broken into many levels during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. In rural areas, most people lived under the manorial system. Under this system, lords and abbots received land from the king that they paid for not with money but instead with promises of loyalty to the Crown. This allegiance meant that they would fight and die for the king if necessary. The lords and abbots then exacted goods, services, and loyalty from the villeins, or peasants, who worked the manorial land. Villeins worked very hard to earn a living. Records show that some villeins, for example,

1. Ploughed four acres of land for the lord in the spring;
2. Supplied two oxen for the lord’s plough team for three days in winter, three days in the spring, and one day in the summer;
3. Worked three days a week on the lord’s land or paid a yearly toll;
4. Had to follow the lord to war and uphold justice as determined by the lord’s courts;
5. Paid inheritance taxes to lords and were subject to their commands about using the mill, oven, and winepress.

During his reign, King Henry II developed extensive laws to govern the possession of land and curb the excesses of the great lords. Several lords had become tyrants who often violated and abused the customs that governed their relationship with their tenants. Henry II also experimented with new taxes to increase his income. He encouraged his own vassals (lesser lords who held land from him) to substitute a payment of money, called scutage, for their military service. Another source of income, the tallage, was a percentage tax of the total value of an individual’s movable property—this tax enabled the king to tap the riches of the growing towns. In order to pay for his wars in the Holy Land, Henry’s successor, King Richard the Lion-Hearted, imposed yet another tax on England, a land tax called a carucage. King Richard visited England only twice during his reign (1189-1199), and each time it was to raise money.

The ruler most notorious for raising taxes during the time of Robin Hood, however, was King John I (ruled 1199-1216). John has been portrayed throughout history as a greedy, cruel, and poor leader—he is considered one of England’s worst kings. In 1203 John lost his holdings and raised taxes to recover the lost inheritance. At about the same time a string of price hikes in England plunged many families and religious houses into financial difficulties. The population blamed the king for the situation, paying little attention to other economic causes. Price hikes further reduced the value of John’s royal tax income. He reacted by levying new taxes and tightening up the laws governing the forest, actions that made him even more unpopular.

The forests

The Normans had created the royal forests, an institution that grew especially strong under King Henry II. Laws governing the forests were considered different than regular laws. Some historians contend that as early as the twelfth century, separate courts may have been established to consider violations of forest law apart from violations of general law.

Forest laws protected the king’s hunting rights. It was forbidden for anyone to hunt animals such as deer and wild boar. Poaching of the king’s deer was regarded as a serious matter, and penalties for violations of forest law became known for their severity. Those who broke forest laws were sometimes blinded, emasculated, or even killed. In later years, the king’s exclusive rights to the forests at the expense of other people came to be regarded as an abuse of royal power.

The outlaw Robin Hood and his men lived in Sherwood Forest. They had no other means of getting food, and so they illegally poached the king’s deer. The hunting skill of Robin Hood and his band, however, enabled them to poach deer without being apprehended. The royal forest was an extensive game preserve which, at its greatest size, covered as much as one quarter of England.

Law and outlawry

Outlawry, one of the most ancient of legal charges, places a person outside of the law. The concept of outlawry, which dates back to at least the tenth century, is commonly found in governments with a weak central authority. Originally, charges of outlawry were leveled against accused felons who ran away from the law instead of facing trial. Such flights took place after the wronged party launched an appeled against an accused person. If the accused person could not be found, the sheriff demanded that he appear at one of the next four court sessions. If the accused have been partially motivated to show to the sheriff pronounced him an “outlaw.” Out-lawry was commonly called “bearing the wolfs head,” and the sentence of outlawry was punishable by death, for the outlaw’s flight was viewed as an act of defiance against the king and community. Members of the community were duty-bound to kill an outlaw, and it was a crime to harbor a person who had been labeled as such. The accused thus fled the community, which was licensed to pursue the fugitive. Robin Hood was one of the outlaws who fled to Sherwood Forest to escape punishment. His practice of giving money to the poor might have been partially motivated by a desire to make friends with people who otherwise might have captured or killed him for a reward.

The number of outlaws rose dramatically during the time of Robin Hood, because of changes in English law. These changes allowed the king (as well as a wronged party) to institute an appeal against an alleged criminal, and they obligated juries to furnish the names of suspects in a legal case.

Games

Games were an important part of life in England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries because they were a means of proving skill as well as establishing status and dominance. In Pyle’s version of Robin Hood Robin and his ban continually compete with each other and outsiders in both formal competitions and among themselves. Archery and quarterstaff fencing are the most common modes of competition for the band of outlaws.

Archery dates back to ancient times. The Anglo-Saxons used bows and arrows well before the Norman Conquest, although archery seems to have been reserved as a hunting skill or as a recreational pastime. The Normans, however, developed archery into a military skill. During the age of chivalry the skillful use of a bow and arrow was seen as part of the required education of young men. Talented archers, noted and admired for their expertise, became featured characters in many English ballads. As proficiency with bow and arrow assumed greater importance, the value and significance of archery equipment increased as well. One historian observed that “an old ballad of Robin Hood says, that he and his followers had an hundred bows furnished with strings, and an hundred sheafs of goose arrows, with bright burnished heads; every arrow was an ell long, adorned with peacocks’ feathers and bound at the notching with white silk” (Strutt, p. 60).

Another, less familiar, activity practiced by Robin and his men was quarterstaff fencing. A quarterstaff (also called a cudgel) is a long, heavy, wooden stick that was used both as a weapon of attack and a weapon of defense by fighters in England during the 1100s and 1200s.

Formal competitions for sports such as quarterstaff fighting and archery were arranged so that men could determine who was the best. Competition hosts often offered a prize for the winner in an effort to attract contestants. Nottingham’s matches, for instance, provided a cask of ale to the winner of one match and a golden arrow to the winner of the other. While distinctions between the upper and lower classes were significant during the Middle Ages, everyone attended such competitions, albeit in separate and unequal manners. Matches were thus a festive and communal affair.

The Novel in Focus

The plot

The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood details the exploits of Robin Hood and his band of merry men. According to Pyle’s version, Robin Hood never intends to become an outlaw, but his temper and pride lead him into trouble. When Robin Hood is eighteen years old, he meets a group of drunken men who poke fun at him and challenge him to an archery contest. Robin wins by illegally shooting one of the king’s deer. As Robin departs, one man fires an arrow after him. The arrow misses, but an angry Robin shoots back and kills the man. The now doubly guilty Robin flees into the forest. Shortly thereafter a €200 bounty is set upon his head.

A FESTIVE DAY FOR ALL

A fair sight was Nottingham Town on the day of the shooting-match. All along upon the green meadow beneath the town was stretched a row of benches, one above the other, which were for knight and lady, squire and dame, and rich burghers and their wives; for none but those of rank and quality were to sit there…. Across the range from where the seats for the better folk were raised was a railing to keep the poorer people from crowding in front of the target. Already, while it was early, the benches were beginning to fill with people of quality, who kept constantly arriving in little carts, or upon palfreys that curveted gayly to the merry tinkle of silver bells at bridle reins; with these came also the poorer folk, who sat or lay upon the green grass near the railing that kept them from the range. (Merry Adventures of Robin Hood. p. 25)

In Sherwood Forest Robin gathers together a group of Anglo-Saxon men—including famous characters such as Little John and Friar Tuck—who swear their loyalty to him. Robin’s band vows to despoil their Norman foes and other oppressors and take back the money that had been squeezed from the poor through unjust taxes, land rent, or wrongful fines:

To the poor folk they would give a helping hand in need and trouble, and would return to them that which had been unjustly taken from them. Besides this, they swore never to harm a child nor to wrong a woman, be she maid, wife or widow; so that, after a while, when the people began to find that no harm was meant to them, but that money or food came in time of want to many a poor family, they came to praise Robin and his merry men, and to tell many tales of him and of his doings in Sherwood Forest, for they felt him to be one of themselves.
(Merry Adventures of Robin Hood, p. 5)

The band becomes famous for its archery and fighting skills as well as its ability to strip the wealthy of their money. One strategy employed by Robin and his men consists of “invitations” to wealthy people to visit Sherwood Forest. Once inside, these guests are treated to a huge feast and entertainment. Payment for the festivities is then demanded. On such occasions Robin Hood typically appropriates one-third of the guest’s money for his men and one-third for the poor, leaving the hapless traveler with one-third of his original sum. In this way, Robin becomes known as a most courteous and gentlemanly thief.

Robin’s main adversary is the Sheriff of Nottingham. The sheriff is a greedy villain who cheats people, abuses his power, and is determined to capture Robin and collect the reward. In one famous incident, the sheriff sponsors a shoofing match in Nottingham in order to trap the outlaw. He reasons that since Robin Hood is regarded as the best archer, he will enter the contest to show his skill. Robin Hood does indeed enter the contest, but in a cunning disguise. He wins the first prize, a golden arrow, without being recognized by the sheriff.

While Robin Hood had long before incurred the wrath of King Henry and others, he becomes a favorite of the next king, Richard the Lion-Hearted. One day King Richard, who had heard of Robin’s talents, passes by Sherwood Forest disguised as a friar. Unaware of the stranger’s identity, Robin Hood takes King Richard into Sherwood Forest to entertain him with a feast and demand money of him. Richard instead tests Robin’s loyalty to the king and eventually reveals his identity, after which he employs Robin and his merry men as fighters in the Crusades.

Robin Hood eventually becomes an earl and retires from his life in the forest. After the death of Richard the Lion-Hearted, however, Robin begs King John to let him visit Sherwood Forest. The king gives permission for a short visit, but upon returning to Sherwood Forest in 1247 Robin decides to forgo the easy life of an earl and stay. Furious with this decision, King John swears that he will capture Robin dead or alive and sends the Sheriff of Nottingham after him. A great battle ensues and Robin falls sick. He seeks out his cousin, a prioress (nun), to have her bleed him, utilizing a common ancient medical practice in which people purposefully shed a little blood because they believed it would make them well. Robin’s cousin, however, is furious with Robin for throwing away his wealth. Fearful that the king will turn on her because she is Robin’s cousin, she cuts his artery and Robin Hood bleeds to death.

The king and the law

In one of Robin’s many adventures, Queen Eleanor summons him to participate in a royal shoofing match despite his status as an outlaw. Robin Hood presents himself before the queen immediately:

Here am I, Robin Hood. Thou didst bid me to come, and lo, I do thy bidding. I give myself to thee as thy true servant, and will do thy commanding, even if it be to the shedding of the last drop of my life’s blood.
(Merry Adventures of Robin Hood, p. 185)

Queen Eleanor has wagered with King Henry that her archers will beat his. Concerned that no harm should befall Robin Hood, the queen makes King Henry promise that if her archers are victorious, they will be free to roam for forty days even if they are outlaws. The king agrees, unaware that Robin Hood and two of his band are scheduled to shoof on behalf of the queen. Robin wins the tournament and reveals his identity. King Henry is outraged, for his earlier promise means that he is unable to capture a famed outlaw who is now within his grasp. Afraid of looking like a fool, King Henry breaks his promise to the queen and sends many men to hunt down Robin Hood. Unable to return to Sherwood Forest, Robin grows desperate and throws himself upon the mercy of the queen.

King Henry’s utter disregard for his promise aptly characterizes the power of the crown in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. While the king proclaimed laws for others to follow, he himself was not bound to anyone. There was no check on his power, and nobody could force him to keep his promises or obey his own laws. This absolute power angered many people, especially the barons and nobles who wanted more power for themselves. When King John came to the throne, they seized an opportunity to correct what seemed to them a grossly unjust situation.

John was a weak king with many enemies. His hold over his barons, who chafed under his rule, became a tenuous one. In 1215 they revolted, refusing to pay yet another tax and insisting on political reform. The financially desperate king withered under the pressure of a hostile kingdom. On June 19 he was forced to sign a document called the Magna Carta. The Magna Carta stated that the law itself was the highest power in the land and stipulated that even the king himself must obey the laws of the kingdom. King John believed that he would eventually regain his previous degree of power. He never intended to uphold the Magna Carta. The king remained weak for the rest of his reign, however, and by the time of his death the Magna Carta was firmly established. It became one of the most important political documents of all time.

Sources

The modern image of Robin Hood was largely constructed by writers and actors of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The figure of Robin Hood, however, appears in texts prior to those eras; early allusions to the notorious outlaw can be found in medieval ballads and a handful of historical references. One of the earliest texts that mentioned Robin Hood was the second edition of William Langland’s Piers Plowman, which appeared around 1377. The work cites a priest who declares that he can recite the rhymes of Robin Hood and Randolph, the earl of Chester. Other references to Robin Hood can be found in literature, ballads, and records throughout the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. While in some instances Robin Hood is not prominently featured, in other cases he is a central character.

Robin Hood and his colorful career remain the subject of much debate. Some scholars consider him an outlaw, others regard him as a murderer, and still others view him as just a kindly robber. In any case, while it is generally believed that the legend of Robin Hood is probably founded on a historical person or persons, the character’s origins remain mysterious. Some historians contend that the legendary Robin Hood is based on the exaggerated deeds of a now-anonymous leader of a band of outlaws, which were plentiful in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Some speculate that he was really the Earl of Huntingdon, while others identify him as Robert Hood or Robert Fit-zoofh. It is also possible that the stories about Robin Hood originate from the exploits of two or more figures.

Other aspects of the Robin Hood legend are a subject of debate as well. Some versions of the tale state that Robin Hood was a noble who aligned himself with the common people, while other versions state that he was of moderate origins but had noble qualities. Robin Hood’s exact dwelling is more easily traced. Apparently he (or they) originally inhabited Barnsdale, which is located fifty miles north of Nottingham.

As an “outlaw hero,” Robin Hood represented a different type of profagonist than the aristocratic and romantic heroes to which audiences of the later Middle Ages were accustomed. Robin Hood was not a noble yet clearly possessed aristocratic manners. He was a poor man’s hero and represented the beginnings of a tradition of “noble bandits.” The earliest known depictions of Robin Hood, however, did not portray him as

A ROBIN HOOD BALLAD

Lithe and lysten, gentylmen.
That be of frebore blode;
I shall you tell of a good yeman.
His name was Robyn Hode.
Robyn was a proude outlawe,
Whyles he walked on grounde,
So curteyse an outlawe as he was one
Was never none yfounde.
Robyn stode in Bernysdale,
And lened hym to a tree,
And by hym stode Lytell Johan,
A good yeman was he;
And also dyde good Scathelock.
And Much the millers sone;
There was no ynche of his body,
But it was worth a grome.
Than bespake hym Lytell Johan
All unto Robyn Hode,
Mayster, yf ye wolde dyne betyme,
It wolde do you moch good.
Then bespake good Robyn,
To dyne I have no lust,
Tylee I have some bolde baron.
Or some unketh gest,
[Or els some byshop or abbot]
That may paye for the best;
Or some knyght or sume squyere
That dwelleth here by west.
(Ritson, pp. 2-3)

overly concerned with the well-being of the poor. In these stories, the principal figure whom Robin helps is a poor Lancashire knight, and his concern are with the people who enforce the laws of the forest.

Events in History at the Time the Novel Was Written

Lore, life and art

Howard Pyle was born to a Quaker family in Wilmington, Delaware, on March 5, 1853. As a young child, his parents often read to him aloud, and he immersed himself in the various books of fables and literature found in his parents’ home. The young reader matured into a person with a penchant for drawing, a love of heroes and fantasy, a keen eye for observation, and an unmistakable sense of spirituality, all of which were later reflected in his works.

Pyle was one of the first purely American-trained artists. During the middle of the nineteenth century, aspiring writers and artists considered Europe the center of culture. Most American artists studied in places such as Paris, France. Howard Pyle’s parents could not afford to send him to Europe, however, so he trained in Philadelphia. At the time, Europeans generally ignored American art and artists, a stance that irritated Pyle. Unable to decide whether to become a writer or an illustrator, Pyle became both. Despite his American training—or perhaps because of it—his art eventually earned respect on both sides of the Atlantic.

Pyle was also a mystic and a realist. His mysticism stemmed from his Quaker background and was further fueled by the writings of Emanuel Swedenborg, the Swedish mystic. Quaker practices were not concerned enough with art in Pyle’s view, yet such Quaker characteristics as “usefulness” manifested themselves in his life. Instead of working as a canvas painter, he chose to become a print illustrator, creating art that reached the entire population instead of a select few.

The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood was Pyle’s first lengthy project of any kind. While his illustrations for magazines usually contained obviously American material, Pyle’s books demonstrated that his imagination ran far beyond continental borders despite the fact that he traveled very little.

The fascination of Europe was deeply imbedded in him. Although he sometimes rebelled against it, perhaps considering it a disloyalty to his Americanism, he could not erase those childhood hours spent poring over the old fables, folktales, and legends of Europe, nor his delight with reproductions of old pictures of sea monsters, ancient towns, great castles, men in armor, ancient ships and strange animals.

(Pitz, p. 68)

As Pyle grew older, he became so concerned with standards of American illustration that he founded the Brandywine school in Delaware. The school produced many renowned artists and gained a large following. When Pyle died in 1911, he was considered the greatest illustrator of the day.

Reviews

Pyle envisioned projects of grand scale well before he actually began work on Robin Hood. The concept of uniting art and literature had been important to him for a long time. When Robin Hood was published in 1883, it quickly received recognition in both England and the United States as a work of great quality. The public and critics immediately perceived that his text was not merely a frame for the pictures, nor were his pictures subordinate to the narrative. There was a type of discourse between the two; the illustrations rounded out the characters and vice versa. Pyle, in fact, gained the recognition of English illustrators whom he himself had long admired. Biographer Henry Pitz commented that “with the publication of Robin Hood, Howard Pyle established himself in the first rank of both writers and illustrators of children’s books. There was no uphill struggle for recognition, it came in abundance with this first book and remained with him to the end of his days and beyond” (Pitz, p. 70).

American frontier

The frontier has always played an integral role in the development of American character and in fueling the American imagination. The middle and late nineteenth century, however, brought the realization that the frontier was not limitless. By 1883 the railroad was an established entity that provided a direct link from one coast of America to the other. The image of the “wild west,” however, was still strong. Primitive western conditions made law enforcement difficult, if not impossible, and numerous bandits sought out the seemingly endless resources of California and the Rocky Mountains. The promise of gold and silver tempted both honest and dishonest men into parts of these lands well beyond the reach of eastern standards and practices. Such notorious figures as Billy the Kid, Black Bart, and Jessie James all gained notoriety during this time as road agents and train robbers. Some robbed miners of their hard-earned riches, while others engaged in cattle rustling or fought for control of the range. Law enforcement was often so weak that local groups called vigilantes took the law into their own hands. Suspected criminals were occasionally shot or hanged without a trial at the hands of vigilantes.

Despite their criminal status, however, many bandits were made into folk heroes and compared to such legendary outlaws as Robin Hood. Robin Hood lived beyond the law in Sherwood Forest; many of these men lived beyond the law on the frontier. The average frontier outlaw, however, did not steal from the rich to give to the poor. Instead, he generally stole from anybody and kept it all. Some of the legends that sprouted up around these western personalities, however, depicted characteristics such as bravery, battle prowess, and rebelliousness that were reminiscent of Robin Hood. Pyle, however, did not fantasize about or identify with the western frontier. His love lay with history and not with contemporary phenomena.

Battle for land

Some general conditions that characterized the American West during the time of Robin Hood’s publication might be compared to the conditions of early medieval Britain. Both eras were times of extreme upheaval and transition in which land was a central issue. The land of the Saxons had been wrested away by the Normans more than 100 years before Robin Hood’s arrival, yet the pangs of the conquest were still sharply felt. Similarly, American Indian tribes were losing the battle for their land against the onslaught of encroaching civilization in the 1800s. Unlike the Saxons and the Normans, however, America’s Indian and white populations did not manage to coexist. In fact, many American Indian tribes were decimated by the struggle.

For More Information

Briggs, Asa. A Social History of England. New York: Viking, 1983.

Gillingham, John. “The Early Middle Ages.” In The Oxford Illustrated History of Britain. Edited by Kenneth O. Morgan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984.

Pitz, Henry. Howard Pyle. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975.

Pyle, Howard. The Merry Adventures of Robin Hood. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951.

Ritson, Joseph. Robin Hood. London: Jon C Nimmo, 1885.

Rowling, Marjorie. Everyday Life in Medieval Times. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1968.

Strutt, Joseph. The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England. London: Methuen, 1903.