Chapter One
Protecting and Preparing

On September 11, 2001, armed only with small knives, nineteen al-Qaeda terrorists were able to hijack four aircraft, in one of the worst disasters in U.S. history. After the attacks an obvious first step was to make sure that terrorists could never again turn aircraft into guided missiles. To that end all cockpit doors on passenger aircraft were fortified to prevent intrusion. Airport baggage screeners were replaced with specially trained federal employees. Passengers became subjected to more thorough random searches. Air marshals—armed, specially trained agents of the Transportation Security Administration—were dispatched to ride aboard more flights. "I don't know if you're ever going to get a 100 percent secure system," says Dale Oderman, an aviation expert at Purdue University, "but we are definitely safer than we were."¹¹ Preventing another hijacking has become a priority.

Similarly a central part of U.S. homeland security strategy is a myriad of protective measures designed to make it so that the next attempted terrorist attack—whether a hijacking or something else—will fail. Homeland security experts agree that terrorists are unlikely to attempt a simple repeat of September 11 because many of the vulnerabilities—the so-called "holes"—in airline security have been addressed. Rather than targeting the airlines again, terrorists are more likely to search for other vulnerabilities to exploit. As the Bush administration's National Strategy for Homeland Security

explains: "Terrorists are opportunistic. They exploit vulnerabilities we leave exposed…. Increasing the security of a particular type of target, such as aircraft or buildings, makes it more likely that terrorists will seek a different target."¹² A fundamental part of homeland security, therefore, is the ongoing effort to identify and eliminate vulnerabilities before terrorists can take advantage of them. While the United States is preparing first responders and government agencies to respond to another attack, it is also taking steps to prevent such an attack from occurring in the first place.

Protecting Critical Infrastructure

Protecting critical infrastructure is a top priority of those charged with homeland security. The term infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities that allow a town, a city, a state, or a nation to function. For example a city's critical infrastructure includes roads, power plants, electrical and phone lines, and water mains. The USA Patriot Act (the first major homeland security legislation passed after September 11) defines critical infrastructure as "systems and assets … so vital to the United States that the incapacity or destruction of such systems and assets would have a debilitating impact on security, national economic security, national public health or safety, or any combination of those matters."¹³ A wide range of facilities—including America's transportation and communication networks; its ability to provide people with food, water, and power; and key economic and government centers—are all vital to the functioning of U.S. society.

The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) identifies thirteen critical infrastructure sectors worthy of protection. Among the most critical of these are agriculture, food, and water. The United States already has in place well-functioning food and water safety systems to protect against

unintended contamination; the challenge for Homeland Security officials is to improve these systems' ability to protect against and respond to deliberate terrorist attempts at corruption through chemical or biological attack. Such attempts would not only inflict harm on individuals, but incite panic and cause long-term damage to the economy.

Some critical infrastructure sectors that need safeguarding are particularly vital for homeland security efforts. For example both first responders and state and federal governments depend heavily on the telecommunications sector, which includes phone, television, radio, and Internet services. The public health and emergency services sector is another key part of the nation's attack-response capability. A terrorist attack that damages or destroys a hospital or other public health facility could significantly reduce an area's ability to effectively respond.

Two critical infrastructures that are particularly hard to protect are energy and transportation. Protecting the energy sector involves guarding vulnerable dams and nuclear plants that generate electricity as well as oil and natural gas pipelines, while the transportation sector encompasses aviation, maritime traffic, ports, railroads, highways, trucking and busing, and public mass transit. The very size and diversity that make America's energy and transportation networks so vital to the nation's economy and national security also make these networks impossible to safeguard entirely.

Finally the attack on the World Trade Center showed that terrorists may hope to harm America's economy. Protecting the banking and finance sector involves not just physically guarding financial markets, banking operations, and major office buildings, but also ensuring that financial institutions and markets can quickly resume operations in the wake of an attack.

In addition to critical infrastructure, the federal government's homeland security strategy identifies another category—key assets—that encompasses noncritical structures and resources that may be likely targets for attack. Key assets

include sites that have symbolic importance, such as national monuments, tourist attractions, and centers of government and commerce, as well as sites where large numbers of people regularly congregate, such as sports stadiums. As Brian Michael Jenkins, an adviser to President Bush, says: "Targets offering high symbolic value or killing fields"¹⁴ are particularly vulnerable to attack.

Security Strategies

Clearly, protecting the nation's critical infrastructure is no small task. The United States is home to countless potential terrorist targets, and security vulnerabilities abound. U.S. News & World Report writer Thomas Omestad warns that when infrastructure is concentrated in a small area, it makes things even worse. For example, "just 12 bridges across the Mississippi River are said to carry half of the nation's fiberoptic traffic. Just five feedlots supply virtually all of the nation's beef."¹⁵ However, it would be impossible—and prohibitively expensive—to protect every potential target all the time. Instead, strategies have been developed to make the most use out of limited security resources. "We can't just do all, be all, for all," says police chief Joseph Samuels Jr. of Richmond, California, "but that which we choose to do, we want to do it well."¹⁶

One strategy is to make security as visible as possible, since terrorists are less likely to try to attack sites or smuggle weapons through areas that are obviously guarded. To this end there has been increased police presence at high-profile events such as the Super Bowl and the New Year's Eve celebration in New York City's Times Square, as well as at sporting events, parades, speeches, public gatherings, and special events. The hope is that the mere presence of law enforcement personnel will be enough to deter would-be terrorists.

Another strategy is to make security efforts variable. For example air marshals are assigned to random flights so that terrorists cannot know in advance which flights are guarded and which are not. The overall goal is to ensure that terrorists cannot take advantage of security measures that are routine and unchanging. According to Tim Daniels, Missouri's Director of Homeland Security, studies of past al-Qaeda operations indicate that "they spend a lot of time on reconnaissance."¹⁷ Much like a thief "casing" the building he plans to break into, it is believed that al-Qaeda operatives carefully study their targets and plan their attacks accordingly. U.S. intelligence authorities estimate that the September 11 attacks took years to plan. So, explains Daniels: "If they see police doing a roadblock in some place they've never seen [them] before, it's very disruptive to their plans."¹⁸

To further keep terrorists guessing, many of the specifics about U.S. vulnerabilities, and the security measures designed to protect them, are being guarded with more secrecy than before September 11. Public documents containing information about, or maps of, power plants, dams, gas and oil pipelines, chemical-storage sites, government buildings, and national monuments have been removed from government websites. And, in general, homeland security officials are hesitant to divulge specific information about attack-preparedness efforts and emergency-response plans so that terrorists cannot look for vulnerabilities in those efforts.

Sounding the Alarm

Again, however, a central tenet of homeland security measures is that, despite all the efforts being made to protect critical infrastructure and key assets, it is impossible to protect everything all the time. A terrorist attack may still be successful. Thus one of the most important parts of homeland security is the ability to quickly sound the alarm when a terrorist attack has taken place or is likely to occur.

Implementing a national warning system was one of the first steps that the federal government took after September 11. Homeland Security director, Tom Ridge, unveiled the advisory system in March 2002, well before the DHS was officially created. The advisory system designates five color-coded levels—ranging from green for "low" to red for "severe"—to inform federal agencies, state and local governments, and the public about possible terrorist threats.

However, for security purposes, the steps that are to be taken when the threat level is raised have only been described by the DHS in very general terms. At green alert, which indicates a low risk of attack, government agencies are advised to assess vulnerabilities in their jurisdictions. At blue alert, which indicates a general risk of attack, agencies are advised to review and update their emergency-response plans and keep the public informed. At yellow alert, which indicates an elevated risk of attack, authorities are to increase surveillance at critical locations and implement emergency-response plans. At orange alert, which indicates a high risk of attack, law enforcement authorities are to coordinate with the armed forces and increase precautions at public events. Government agencies are also advised to restrict their workforce to essential personnel. At red alert, which indicates a severe risk of attack, emergency personnel are to be mobilized, public transportation is to be curtailed, and public and government facilities are to be closed.

The steps to be taken at each alert level are so vague in part because, as DHS spokesperson, Brian Roehrkasse, explains: "There are too many different threats and potential scenarios for the government to offer anything other than such general precautions ahead of time."¹⁹ Roehrkasse emphasizes that the Homeland Security Advisory System is primarily a way for the federal government to alert state and local homeland security agencies and that, in the event of an attack, the public should turn to local authorities first. For example Spenser Hsu of the Washington Post reports that: "Code Red won't be declared unless an attack occurs or is

imminent, and that announcement will be intended mainly as a guide for the nation's homeland security agencies, government officials and such first responders as police and firefighters."²⁰

Preparing the Public

While the Homeland Security Advisory System is designed to be most useful when an attack has occurred or is imminent, a number of other programs exists to provide more specific advice on how the general public can make their homes and families safer from terrorism. The American Red Cross, for example, offers disaster-preparedness classes around the country. The Department of Education has published a variety of preparedness materials for schools, and the DHS has launched www.ready.gov, an informational site that outlines

steps that offer advice on how individuals and families can prepare for an attack. The website offers information on making an emergency-preparedness kit, creating a family disaster plan, and special steps that individuals should take in the event of chemical, biological, or other attacks using weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

Other programs are designed to train members of the public to assist, or even act in place of, first responders. Citizen Corps, for example, helps coordinate volunteer activities that make communities safer and better prepared to respond to emergency situations. One of the programs that Citizen Corps helps coordinate is the Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) program, which is run by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). CERT members complete twenty hours of training on disaster preparedness, basic disaster medical operations, fire safety, light search and rescue, and other topics. Michael D. Brown, undersecretary of DHS Emergency Preparedness and Response, says: "Through the CERT program, citizens are better able to respond to an emergency or disaster. This is an essential way for citizens to help secure the homeland by supporting the work of our professional first responders."²¹ In May 2003 the DHS announced that it would be providing $19 million in grants to strengthen the CERT program, an increase over the $17 million provided in 2002.

Preparing First Responders

The multitude of homeland preparedness measures that were taken around the country were so diverse that no single government agency could list them all. "Since September 11, even those who operate full-time in the field of domestic preparedness have found it difficult to keep track of the money, the programs, and the policies enacted in the flurry of activity,"²² reports the Executive Session on Domestic Preparedness (ESDP), a government-sponsored task force. There are, however, some common themes in local preparedness efforts, most of which center around improving the capabilities of first responders.

To do their jobs effectively, first responders need the proper equipment and materials. Since the attacks of September 11, during which communications problems hampered some first responders, many cities have upgraded their first responders' communications networks. To prepare for chemical and biological attacks, communities stocked up on antibiotics, vaccines, chemical weapons antidotes, gas masks, and hazardous materials (hazmat) suits. Some also supply first responders with Geiger counters and other devices that can detect radiation.

Just as important as the equipment and supplies is the training to use them effectively. Before September 11, dealing with nuclear, radiological, chemical, and biological weapons was outside most first responders' purview. Now it has become part of the job. "Our mission has really expanded," says firefighter Steve Zomosky. The ESDP task force suggests that there should be a national standard for training in WMD:

WMD response should be made part of the training that firefighters, police, HazMat (hazardous materials) workers, public health personnel, doctors, and nurses are required to complete before employment. While this instruction is conducted locally and is sometimes private, federal legislation should mandate that standards for training be set by the relevant federal agencies, and that training academies be trained directly by the federal experts.²³

First responder training programs vary widely from state to state and city to city. A first step toward what ESDP suggests is the Weapons of Mass Destruction Certificate Program offered through the Internet by the U.S. Department of

Justice, Center for Domestic Preparedness (CDP) in conjunction with American Military University. The CDP trains approximately twenty thousand first responders and homeland security planners annually in WMD preparedness at its site in Anniston, Alabama, and the online program is designed to reach thousands more. The five-part program focuses on the special threats posed by WMD attacks and the logistical challenges of coordinating all the different first responders and government agencies that respond to WMD attacks.

Simulated Attacks

Finally an integral part of first responders' attack preparedness is testing. Exercises in which emergency workers respond to simulated terrorist attacks can help spot weaknesses in both local emergency-response plans and in first responders' training. The largest full-scale drills that government agencies had ever staged to test their reactions to a terrorist attack was TOPOFF2, a series of exercises conducted in May 2003. Short for Top Officials 2, TOPOFF2 was a sequel to the original TOPOFF exercises conducted in May 2000. In TOPOFF2 a fictitious terrorist organization unleashed a two-pronged attack on Seattle and Chicago.

The TOPOFF2 drills began on Monday, May 12, with the mock explosion of a "dirty bomb" attack in Seattle. A dirty bomb is a regular bomb laced with harmful radioactive material. In the TOPOFF2 exercise, fake clouds of radiation were released into the surrounding area to simulate a dirty bomb's effect. The pretend explosion occurred near the city's Space Needle, in accordance with the expectation that terrorists will strike at high-profile targets. Plumes of smoke were released into the air, buses were overturned, and around 150 actors faked death or injury to simulate the devastation of the attack. Firefighters wearing protective gas masks decontaminated "victims" with water from fire hydrants before ambulances rushed them to nearby hospitals. The drill tested both Seattle's first responders and the federal DHS, as DHS director Ridge, organized a federal response to the mock attack. Canadian agencies also participated because of the proximity of Vancouver to the attack.

Then, on Thursday morning, May 14, Chicago first responders scrambled to deal with two more simulated catastrophes: the mock collapse of a building (responders found a real pile of rubble at the site of the pretend collapse) and the pretend release of harmful chemicals in suburban Chicago. Thursday night Chicago first responders dealt with over one hundred simulated casualties after the fictitious terrorist organization crashed a helicopter into a grounded Boeing 757 passenger jet.

Meanwhile, since Tuesday that same week, actors posing as patients had been reporting to Chicago hospitals complaining of fever, chills, and aches. By Thursday drill participants diagnosed the pretend ailment as bubonic plague. The TOPOFF2 exercises culminated late Thursday night in a raid on a make-believe biological lab in downtown Chicago that had been identified as the source of the epidemic. FBI units, along with Chicago SWAT (Special Weapons and Tactics) and Special Operations teams, raided the facility and decontaminated the site.

There were several lessons learned from the TOPOFF2 exercises. For example in Seattle some police officers rushed into the scene of the attack before the site was tested for radiation. In Chicago, homeland security officials learned how valuable volunteers can be in relieving overworked medical personnel by distributing medicines. "We push the envelope in these types of scenarios," says Ridge. "We push decisionmaking at all levels—local, state, and federal…. We look to uncover communication and coordination and other problems."²⁴

Many states are performing similar exercises on a smaller scale. For example in May 2003 New York City's Office of Emergency Management administered a five-hour exercise called Operation Winter Sun. In the exercise over 250 actors posing as victims pretended to suffer the effects of chemical,

biological, or radiological attacks, testing first responders' ability to identify the effects of these types of attacks and decontaminate and treat victims. Seven hospitals and over seven hundred first responders participated in the exercise.

All these preparedness efforts are aimed at improving the nation's response to possible future terrorist attack. Until such an attack occurs, it is difficult to gauge which of these exercises and measures will be most effective. Ultimately, preparing to respond to unseen and unpredictable enemies is part of what homeland security is all about.