African treefrogs

(Hyperoliidae)

Class Amphibia

Order Anura

Family Hyperoliidae

Thumbnail description
Most species are typical treefrogs with webbing and digital discs, and live in trees or on reeds; a few are toadlike and live on and in the ground

Size
From 0.5 in (12 mm) in body length for the smallest adult male (Hyperolius minutissimus) to 4.3 in (110 mm) for the largest female (Leptopelis palmatus)

Number of genera, species
19 genera; 240 species

Habitat
Forest, woodland, and savanna

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 3 species

Distribution
Sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and Seychelles

Evolution and systematics

Hyperoliidae was formerly regarded as part of the family Rhacophoridae, the Asian treefrogs, which are very similar in morphology and ecology. Based on small morphological differences, such as the shape of the metasternum, it was postulated that most of the African and some of the Madagassan members of the Rhacophoridae deserved their own family. Further studies have shown that Rhacophoridae and Hyperoliidae are not closely related, but have developed independently from the true frogs, the Ranidae.

African treefrogs are separated into four subfamilies—Hyperoliinae, Kassininae, Leptopelinae, and Tachycneminae— but the affinity of several of the genera to subfamily is disputed.

Hyperoliinae

Hyperoliinae, the largest subfamily, is distributed throughout the range of the family, except on the Seychelles. Most members are small, and most males possess vocal sacs and associated gular glands.

There are 12 genera. Hyperolius is the largest genus, with at least 85 species, but many subspecies are recognized, and new species and subspecies continue to be found. All have a horizontal pupil, a character separating them from the similar genus Afrixalus. Hyperolius has been called by museum zoologists "the most difficult of all frog genera" because they are so similar in morphology, but it is quite easy to separate the species by their calls and their habitat preference and color pattern, features not apparent in museum specimens. They are small, 0.5–1.6 in (1.2–4 cm). Most Hyperolius fall in two phases, the nature of which is not well understood. The newly metamorphosed froglets of both sexes, and some—in most species the majority—of adult calling males have the "juvenile" phase, a subdued yellow to brownish color with darker stripes or a darker hourglass pattern on the back. All adult females found at the breeding localities, as well as some of the males, have the "female" phase, which normally is very colorful and shows the characteristic color pattern of the species.

A number of small genera are similar to Hyperolius and probably closely related. Nesionixalus, with two species from the Atlantic islands (Bioko, Saõ Tomé) may not really be distinct from Hyperolius. Acanthixalus (two species), with a diamond-shaped pupil, is found in the forests of Cameroon and eastern Ivory Coast. Alexteroon (three species, horizontal pupil), Arlequinus (one species, diamond-shaped pupil), and

Chlorolius (one species, horizontal pupil) are Hyperolius-like frogs from Cameroon. Chrysobatrachus (one species, horizontal pupils) and Callixalus (one species, vertical pupils) are endemic to the highlands of central Africa, whereas Cryptothylax (one or two species, diamond-shaped pupils) is found in the western part of Central Africa.

The only genus of Hyperoliidae on Madagascar, Heterixalus (11 species; vertical diamond-shaped pupils), is very like Hyperolius in body shape and color pattern.

The genus Afrixalus, distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, consists of very small to medium-sized frogs 0.6–1.6 in

(1.5–4.1 cm). These frogs have vertical, diamond-shaped pupils. Almost all species have a pattern in dark brown and light gold, and the pattern is normally diagnostic for the species. Males and females are the same size, an unusual feature among treefrogs. Kassinula (one species) is superficially very similar to a tiny Kassina, but is probably more related to the Hyperoliinae. Its voice is quite different from that of Kassina.

Kassininae

Kassininae, with four or five genera, occurs nearly throughout tropical Africa. Kassina (12 species) are quite large frogs 1–2.5 in (2.5–6.4 cm). Most are terrestrial. They tend to run rather than leap, and are sometimes called running frogs. Their hind legs are not much longer than their forelegs. Their characteristic voice is a very brief whistle or popping sound with a fast rising frequency.

Semnodactylus from Southern Africa (one species), have a voice quite different from Kassina, and are terrestrial frogs superficially similar to Kassina. Tornierella, from Ethiopia (two species), and Phlyctimantis, (four species), from the forests from Tanzania to Sierra Leone, are very similar to Kassina in biology, appearance, tadpoles, and voice, and the two are probably closely related, although Phlyctimantis is arboreal. Opisthothylax (one species, vertical pupil), is very much like Afrixalus, and may not belong to the Kassininae.

Leptopelinae

Leptopelinae consists of the African genus Leptopelis. A large genus, with at least 45 species, these frogs are medium to large 1–4.3 in (2.5–11 cm). Some species live on or under ground; at the other extreme are species that live in the treetops. Other species live in bushes in the savannas, others in open forest, and many inhabit the dense evergreen forest. Most terrestrial species have a warty skin, and lack webbing and digital discs. The morphology follows the biology, in that species in more dense forest are smoother skinned, and have more webbing and larger digital discs. Most Leptopelis occur in two phases, a green juvenile phase, which in some species is retained by many adult specimens, and a much more subdued brownish adult phase.

Tachycneminae

Tachycneminae consists solely of Tachycnemis. This one species is the only treefrog on the Seychelles.

Physical characteristics

Most hyperoliids are typical treefrogs, with well-developed webbing and digital discs, but a few terrestrial species lack discs and webbing and are more toadlike. The digital discs are offset by an intercalary element between the distal and penultimate phalanges, and the pectoral girdle is firmisternal, a condition in which two elements in the breastbones are jutted together, bracing the frog against the jar of landing after jumps. Males have a well-developed vocal sac (pouch). Except in Leptopelis, the pouch has an area of thickened skin, as well as a gular flap or gular gland, the shape of which may differ among species. African treefrogs are similar in appearance, ecology, and anatomy to two other large families of treefrogs, Rhacophoridae, with one genus (Chiromantis) in Africa and two genera (Boophis and Aglyptodactylus) on Madagascar; and Hylidae, with one species in Africa north of the Sahara where the Hyperoliidae does not occur. The Hyperolius nasutus group is similar in appearance to Centroleniidae in tropical America, but Centroleniidae and Hylidae differ from Hyperoliidae by having arciferal pectoral girdles. Hyperoliidae range in size from 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in body length for the smallest adult male (Hyperolius minutissimus) to 4.3 in (11 cm) for the largest female (Leptopelis palmatus).

Distribution

Hyperoliidae occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, except in the central and western parts of South Africa and the dry parts of Namibia. Heterixalus is endemic to Madagascar, and Tachycnemis to the Seychelles.

Habitat

Like most frogs, hyperoliids congregate at breeding sites in the beginning of the rainy season. Breeding sites are selected on criteria based on the surrounding vegetation, so that the different species can be grouped into distinct faunas, or guilds, associated with vegetation. Three major faunas are recognized: savanna, high forest, and farmbush (or bushland) fauna.

The savanna fauna is found over a wide spectrum of landscapes, from open, treeless grassland to dense bush with many shrubs and trees. Savannas have great fluctuation in humidity and temperature, with very low humidity and high temperature in the daytime throughout most of the year, even during dry spells in the rainy season, whereas the forest has a more stable, cooler, and more humid microclimate.

The high forest fauna is found in the moist evergreen forest or rainforest in the southern parts of West Africa, Cameroon, and the Congo basin, and as a few isolated forests outside this area, most notably the Eastern Arc Forests in Tanzania.

The farmbush, or bushland, fauna is distinct from the savanna fauna and the high forest fauna, although it occurs in the same areas. In the savanna belt, this fauna is found in the gallery forests and in the rather dry, semideciduous forests in the coastal areas of eastern Africa. In the high forest belt, this fauna is found in clearings with farmland, or where abandoned farmland is in the process of returning to forest. This vegetation is widespread in the forest belt of Africa, so the farmbush fauna is much better known than the high forest fauna, which today is confined to isolated pockets of forest.

In addition to this separation into three faunas, a few species are confined to higher altitudes in mountains, but the

montane taxa can also be separated into grassland or savanna species and forest forms.

Behavior

Hyperoliids are nocturnal and emerge around dusk, either to seek food or breeding. Some species in savannas are fossorial (adapted to digging), but others spend the hot, dry daytime immovable on leaves. It is not known whether the fossorial species spend most of the dry season dormant underground, as is known for some other frogs, or emerge to hunt in the early morning when the humidity is high. In the dry season in savannas, Leptopelis may estivate underground; they have been dug up completely covered by a cocoon of dry shed skin. In the dry season, the Hyperolius viridiflavus group has an almost waterproof skin, thanks to a layer of mucus, and younger individuals can survive a water loss of up to half their body weight. Some waste products are stored in the skin rather than being excreted, and this also conserves water.

Feeding ecology and diet

Most treefrogs will eat any small animal of a suitable size, but they mostly feed on insects. The two species in the Ethiopian genus Tornierella and the Cameroonese Leptopelis brevirostris feed on snails. The East African Afrixalus fornasinii have be observed eating the eggs of Hyperolius and Chiromantis. A. fornasinii will stick its head into the foam nest of Chiromantis and eat some of the eggs. This behavior of feeding on immobile objects is unusual, because frogs normally react on movements of their prey, and in fact are believed to be unable to observe things that do not move.

Tadpoles of African treefrogs are probably omnivorous, eating all suitable material, primarily algae and bacteria on stones and plants, but also decomposing plants and animals.

Reproductive biology

The Hyperoliidae gather near small, temporary waterholes in the beginning of the rainy season, sometimes even before the waterholes have been formed. The males start calling and thereby attract the females. The temporary waterholes contain fewer predators than permanent waters and make it less likely for the tadpoles to be eaten by fish (although some fish in Africa also live in temporary waters). Normally, many species of frogs gather at the same ponds. The females are attracted to the voices of males of their own species, as are other males. Although almost all tadpoles live in water, there is a general tendency to keep eggs and the very young tadpoles out of reach of the many dangers in water. Most Hyperoliidae thus place their eggs out of water, glued to leaves above a pool. The tadpoles drop into the water when they start wriggling with their tails.

The common name for the genus Afrixalus, leaf-folding frogs, refers to their way of depositing their eggs. The male and female will place a small number of eggs on a leaf above water and fold this leaf around the eggs. The egg-jelly is sticky enough to hold the leaf together until the eggs hatch, when the small tadpoles wriggle down into the water. The tadpoles have a characteristic sharklike appearance and are agile plant eaters. Acanthixalus breeds in small water-filled holes in forest trees. Kassina places the eggs in water, and the tadpoles have a high fin. Opisthothylax is the only member of the family that makes a foam nest. Leptopelis bury their large, yolkfilled eggs in the soil, sometimes 33 ft (10 m) or more from the nearest waterhole. The tadpoles stay in the egg until the yolk is used and they have become strong enough to wriggle, eel-like, down to the water. One forest species, L. brevirostris, has probably foregone the free-living tadpole stage; the tadpoles metamorphose before leaving the egg.

Alexteroon has parental care; the female guards the eggs and helps the tadpoles break free of the jelly. In the South African Afrixalus delicatus, females can mate with several males on the same night (or several days apart), ensuring a more genetically diverse offspring. Another species, A. brachycnemis, has a voice consisting of a zip and a trill. The zip serves to keep the other males at a distance, the trill serves to attract the female. The other species in the genus have a similar division of the call, probably with a similar function.

Satellite males have been observed in some Afrixalus. These males sit quietly some distance away from a calling male and intercept and mate with an approaching female.

Conservation status

Hyperoliids are strictly bound to their preferred habitat, and although hard data on population sizes and population trends are lacking, it is safe to assume that populations are declining as their preferred habitat is reduced. Thus species living in threatened habitats are themselves threatened. This is especially true for the rich, unique fauna in the isolated Eastern Arc Forests in Tanzania, where 35 endemic species of amphibians occur, 10 of them hyperoliids. The small, dwindling forests in Ethiopia are also threatened, and so is the habitat for a number of species in South Africa with very restricted distributions. Three species are listed by the IUCN as Vulnerable: the South African Hyperolius pickersgilli and Leptopelis xenodactylus; and Tachycnemis seychellensis from the Seychelles.

Significance to humans

In the wet season treefrogs gather in swamps and lakes in great numbers, where they eat huge numbers of insects, especially mosquitoes. Because mosquitoes transfer one of the primary plagues of Africa, malaria, one must assume that treefrogs play an important role for humans, although studies of their importance in this respect are lacking. Apart from that, direct significance to humans is small. None of the species are eaten by humans.

Species accounts

List of Species

African wart frog

Acanthixalus spinosus

subfamily

Hyperoliinae

taxonomy

Hyperolius spinosus Buchholz and Peters, 1875, Cameroon. No subspecies are recognized.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Both sexes attain lengths up to 1.4 in (3.6 cm). The dorsum is very warty, grayish to brown, with transverse darker bands.

distribution

The species occurs in the northern part of the Cameroon-Congo rainforest.

habitat

This frog inhabits dense rainforest.

behavior

Acanthixalus spinosus seems to spend life in small holes filled with water in tree trunks and branches. Adults spend the days submerged with their nostrils just above water and may emerge to forage at night. If attacked, the frog closes its eyes, keeps its limbs close to the body, and sticks out its orange tongue.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known, although the diet most likely consists of arthropods of a suitable size.

reproductive biology

This frog apparently is mute. Eight to 10 eggs are placed in a sticky jelly just above water in a small water body in a tree. The tadpoles fall into the water, where they grow very slowly (for a tropical frog), probably because of scarcity of food. Up to three months are required before metamorphosis.

conservation status

Nothing is known about the conservation status of this frog, but the forests in its range are degrading rapidly.

significance to humans

None known.

Greater leaf-folding frog

Afrixalus fornasinii

subfamily

Hyperoliinae

taxonomy

Euchnemis fornasini Bianconi, 1849, Mozambique. No subspecies are recognized.

other common names

English: Banana frog.

physical characteristics

Afrixalus fornasinii is the largest member of the genus. Both sexes have a body length of up to 1.6 in (4.1 cm). The ground color is dark brown with a pair of silverish, broad stripes, leaving a dark mid-dorsal band. In the northern half of this frog's distribution, up to half the specimens lack the dark mid-dorsal stripe, so that the back is entirely silverish.

distribution

This species is found in eastern Africa, from the coast of Kenya to the east coast of South Africa, and inland to eastern Zambia and Zimbabwe.

habitat

These frogs are typical members of the savanna community of the eastern lowlands, from the coast of Kenya to the northeastern coast of South Africa. The species is associated with rather large ponds containing reeds.

behavior

Little is known aside from the feeding and reproductive biology.

feeding ecology and diet

Other than small insects of suitable size, A. fornasinii eat the newly laid eggs of Hyperolius and of Chiromantis xerampelina, a treefrog that lays its eggs in a foam nest above water.

reproductive biology

The call is a creaking sound followed by a series of unmelodic clicks. It has been compared with the stuttering of a small machine gun. The eggs are placed on vegetation above water, and leaves are glued around the egg mass. The tadpoles later wriggle down to the water.

conservation status

These frogs are very common over a large area.

significance to humans

None known.

Betsileo reed frog

Heterixalus betsileo

subfamily

Hyperoliinae

taxonomy

Eucnemis betsileo Grandidier, 1872, Betsileo, Madagascar. No subspecies are recognized.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

This is a small treefrog; males are 0.75–1.1 in (1.9–2.8 cm), while females are 0.75–1.14 in (1.9–2.9 cm). The webbing is extensive, and the discs on fingers and toes are well developed. The frogs are green to yellow with yellow or white dorsolateral lines.

distribution

This species is found in the central plateau in Madagascar, at heights above 2,625 ft (800 m), and at lower altitudes in the western part.

habitat

This frog is common on the savanna and in cleared parts of the forests.

behavior

Little is known aside from the reproductive biology.

feeding ecology and diet

Not known.

reproductive biology

Breeding starts early in the wet season; breeding sites are open stagnant waters where males call in large choruses. The eggs are deposited in vegetation just above water.

conservation status

The species is common over a large area.

significance to humans

None known.

Sharp-nosed reed frog

Hyperolius nasutus

subfamily

Hyperoliinae

taxonomy

Hyperolius nasutus Günther, 1864, Duque de Braganca, Angola. Several subspecies have been described, but currently none are recognized.

other common names

English: Long reed frog.

physical characteristics

H. nasutus is a small frog, very slender and sharp-nosed; both sexes are 0.75–0.94 in (1.9–2.4 cm). The color is a transparent green, with light dorsolateral lines in males. This line sometimes also appears in females.

distribution

H. nasutus occurs in the savanna of tropical Africa, with the exception of the western part of West Africa, but there is some suspicion that more than one species is involved. A similar species, H. benguellensis, with a different voice, has been distinguished in southern Africa.

habitat

This frog inhabits rather dense, humid savanna.

behavior

This delicate-looking little frog can survive harsh conditions in the dry season, probably by hiding in stems of grass and emerging only when humidity is high.

feeding ecology and diet

This frog probably feeds on arthropods of a suitable size.

reproductive biology

The eggs are placed in water, a rare feature in Hyperolius, in batches of about 200. There are indications that males are born early in the rainy season metamorphose and grow so quickly that they can reproduce later in the same season.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Painted reed frog

Hyperolius viridiflavus

subfamily

Hyperoliinae

taxonomy

Eucnemis viridiflavus Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Abyssinia; Hyperolius marmoratus Rapp, 1842, Natal; H. marginatus Peters, 1854, Macanga, Mozambique; Rappia tuberculata Mocquard, 1897, Lambarene, Gabon. About 40 subspecies are recognized.

other common names

English: Reed frog, sedge frog.

physical characteristics

H. viridiflavus is a characteristic and abundant reed frog on the savanna, and its call—a chorus sounding like small bells or xylophones—is much more tonal than other Hyperolius calls. All members have a blunt snout and much webbing. Males have a very large gular sac; females have a transversal gular fold, a feature which is otherwise rare in the genus. In contrast to this morphological uniformity, the color pattern varies wildly. As a result of this variation, the group is usually subdivided into subspecies. However, the number of subspecies and the boundaries between them are not settled, and it can even be disputed whether the classical subspecies concept is appropriate here. More than 100 names have given to subspecies in this group, and more than 40 are commonly used.

These forms can be regarded as subspecies of one species, H. viridiflavus, but some researchers prefer to split them up into a small number of species belonging to a "superspecies." This is partly because there are a few cases of two "subspecies" occurring together, which indicates that they cannot interbreed and are thus not the same species.

The group is often split into three species: H. viridiflavus, distributed throughout West Africa and the northern part of Eastern Africa to southern Tanzania; H. marginatus, (sometimes called H. parallelus) found from southern Tanzania and northern Mozambique, and across Africa to Angola and the southern Congo; and H. marmoratus, found from the east coast of South Africa to southern Mozambique and Zimbabwe. However, the question of species relationship is far from settled. In addition to the savanna-living members of this group, Hyperolius tuberculatus exist in the forest in central Africa and at a single locality in West Africa. It is usually regarded as a member of the H. viridiflavus superspecies.

distribution

This frog is found throughout the savannas of sub-Saharan Africa.

habitat

Most forms are strictly confined to the savanna, but one group (H. tuberculatus) occurs in clearings in the forest belt.

behavior

The savanna-living members of the H. viridiflavus group can sit exposed in the glaring sun, even in the dry season. Their skin is almost waterproof thanks to a thin layer of dried mucus, and the young are able to tolerate a water loss of up to one-half their body weight. Some waste products can be stored in the skin as a pigment, so that the skin becomes chalky white in the dry season.

feeding ecology and diet

This frog most likely feeds on all suitable arthropods.

reproductive biology

Observations in captivity show that members of this group have a great capacity for producing repeated clutches of eggs with intervals of a few weeks, but whether that is also the case in nature is not known. The newly metamorphosed frogs are very large compared to the adult and to other Hyperolius juveniles, and are themselves able to reproduce the following rainy season, perhaps even sometimes late in the same season. At least one observer has noted the ability of this species to change sex from female to male while still maintaining the ability to produce eggs, but this remarkable observation has not been made by the many people keeping this species in terraria.

conservation status

This species is widespread and common, but some subspecies are very localized.

significance to humans

The Masai in East Africa believe that cattle will die if they eat H. viridiflavus. It may be that the very bright colors of some subspecies are a warning coloration, and their often exposed resting places during the day may enhance the warning effect.

Bubbling kassina

Kassina senegalensis

subfamily

Kassininae

taxonomy

Cystignathus senegalensis Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Galam, Senegal. Several subspecies have been described, but presently it is regarded as monotypic.

other common names

English: Running frog.

physical characteristics

These frogs are of medium size, with both sexes growing to about 1–1.9 in (2.5–4.9 cm); different populations differ much in size. The hind legs are not much longer than the forelegs, so the frogs will crawl or run rather than jump. The frogs are striped in gray and black, or spotted in part of southern Africa. There are differences in sizes and patterns throughout the vast range. However, the significance of this difference is not well understood, so K. senegalensis is regarded as monotypic.

distribution

This frog occurs throughout the savannas of Africa.

habitat

K. senegalensis lives on the ground in the savanna.

behavior

The most typical night sound in the African savanna in the rainy season is the popping, melodious whistle of K. senegalensis. Hearing the frog is easy, but finding it is very difficult. The frog sits quietly on the ground, and its gray and black stripes and spots makes it very hard to find among the grass.

feeding ecology and diet

This frog's diet consists most likely of arthropods of a suitable size.

reproductive biology

The male calls from the ground, often at the edge of shallow waterholes. The eggs are placed in water, and adhered to the vegetation. The tadpoles have a very high fin and swim gracefully in midwater.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

This species pleases humans with its melodious voice.

Toad-like treefrog

Leptopelis bufonides

subfamily

Leptopelinae

taxonomy

Leptopelis bufonides Schiøtz, 1967, Bolgatanga, Ghana. No subspecies are recognized.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

A small Leptopelis; males are 1.1–1.3 in (2.9–3.3 cm), while females are 1.4–1.6 in (3.6–4.1 cm). The skin is warty, and the fingers and toes are without web and digital discs.

distribution

L. bufonides is known only from a few localities in the northern, dry part of the West African savanna, but is probably widespread in those places.

habitat

This frog inhabits open, dry savanna.

behavior

L. bufonides lives on the ground and is unable to climb. It spends most of its time—perhaps the entire dry season—underground in burrows, where the humidity is not too low.

feeding ecology and diet

Not known.

reproductive biology

Not known.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Big-eared forest treefrog

Leptopelis macrotis

subfamily

Leptopelinae

taxonomy

Leptopelis macrotis Schiøtz, 1967, Gola Forest Reserve, Sierra Leone. No subspecies are recognized.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

L. macrotis is a large Leptopelis; males are 1.6–1.8 in (4.1–4.6 cm), while females are up to 3.3 in (8.4 cm). This frog is smooth-skinned, and has fully webbed feet and large digital discs.

distribution

L. macrotis is known from the forest of West Africa, from Ghana westward to Sierra Leone. It is probably widespread in West Africa, but very few people have looked for it, so the species is known only from few specimens and few localities. Very closely related and similar species occur in Cameroon (L. rufus and L. millsoni) and on Ihlo do Principe, an island off the Cameroon coast (L. palmatus).

habitat

This frog inhabits dense rainforest, where it lives high up in trees.

behavior

Not known.

feeding ecology and diet

This frog feeds most likely on arthropods of a suitable size.

reproductive biology

L. macrotis calls from high-up branches of trees near small watercourses. The frogs most likely emerge to the ground only to bury their large, yolk-filled eggs in the moist soil not far from water.

conservation status

Although not listed by the IUCN, this species is threatened to the extent that its habitat, dense forest, is disappearing.

significance to humans

None known.

Seychelles treefrog

Tachycnemis seychellensis

subfamily

Tachycneminae

taxonomy

Eucnemis seychellensis Duméril and Bibron, 1841, Seychelles. No subspecies are currently recognized, but the four discrete populations might deserve subspecific recognition.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

This is a large treefrog; males are 1.3–2 in (3.3–5.1 cm), while females are 1.8–3 in (4.6–7.6 cm). The pupils are vertical. There are differences in size, coloration, and other characters between the four island populations. On Mahé Island and Praslin, males are brown and females are green; both sexes are green on Silhouette and La Digue.

distribution

T. seychellensis is the only treefrog on the isolated Seychelles Islands in the Indian Ocean. It occurs on the four largest of these granitic islands, Mahé, Silhouette, La Digue, and Praslin.

habitat

A forest species, this frog occurs along forest watercourses in the breeding season.

behavior

Nothing is known aside from the reproductive biology.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known.

reproductive biology

T. seychellensis forms breeding aggregations; depositing 100–500 eggs on the ground or on stems of plants near streams or ponds, or in places to be flooded. The tadpoles are eel-shaped with a long, strong tail. They are similar to tadpoles of Leptopelis in morphology and dentition, and like them probably able to migrate to water over damp soil.

conservation status

This species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Carruthers, V. C. Frogs and Frogging in Southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik, 2001.

Channing, A. Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001.

Passmore, N. I., and V. C. Carruthers. South African Frogs. Johannesburg: Southern Book & Witwatersrand U. P., 1995.

Rödel, M. O. Herpetofauna of West Africa. I. Amphibians of the West African Savanna. Frankfurt: Chimaira, 2000.

Schiøtz, A. The Treefrogs of Eastern Africa. Copenhagen: Steenstrupia, 1975.

——. Treefrogs of Africa. Frankfurt: Chimaira, 1999.

Stewart, M. Amphibians of Malawi. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1967.

Periodicals

Blommers-Schloesser, R. M. A. "Observations on the Malagasy Frog Genus Heterixalus." Beaufortia 32 (1982): 1–11.

Drewes, R. C. "A Phylogenetic Analysis of the Hyperoliidae." Occasional Papers of the California Academy of Science 139 (1984): 1–70.

Laurent, R. F. "Le genre Afrixalus en Afrique centrale." Annales du Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale 235 (1982): 1–58.

——. "Les genres Crypthothylax, Phlyctimantis et Kassina au Zaire." Annales du Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale 213 (1976): 1–67.

——. "Le genre Leptopelis au Zaire." Annales du Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale 212 (1972): 1–62.

Liem, S. S. "The Morphology, Systematics and Evolution of the Old World Treefrogs." Fieldiana Zoology 57 (1970): 1–145.

Nussbaum, R. A., and Sheng Hai Wu. "Distribution, Variation and Systematics of the Seychelles Tree Frog, Tachycnemis seychellensis." Journal of Zoology, London 236 (1995): 1–14.

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Schiøtz, A. "The Treefrogs of West Africa." Spolia Zoologica Musei Hauniensis 25 (1967): 1–346.

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Arne Schiøtz, DSc