Albatrosses

(Diomedeidae)

Class Aves

Order Procellariiformes

Family Diomedeidae

Thumbnail description
The largest flying seabirds, with exceptionally long narrow wings adapted for gliding and distinctive hooked bill and plumage ranging from all dark to mostly white

Size
Wingspan 62.3–106 in (190–323 cm); 3.74–26.25 lb (1.7–11.9 kg); length: 20–80 in (50–200 cm)

Number of genera, species
4 genera; 14 species

Habitat
Oceanic, generally only approach land for breeding on remote islands

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 8 species; Lower Risk: 4 species; Data Deficient: 1 species.

Distribution
The north and south Pacific, Indian, and south Atlantic oceans

Evolution and systematics

A range of fossil albatrosses are evidence of a wider and more cosmopolitan distribution than those extant today. The earliest identified are from the Oligocene in Germany and South Carolina. Species approaching the characteristics of modern albatrosses are from the Northern Hemisphere (Europe and both coasts of North America) in the Miocene and Pliocene, but deposits are known from Australia, South Africa and Argentina in the predominantly marine Southern Hemisphere. Albatrosses were probably widespread in the north Atlantic until the late Tertiary.

The taxonomic status of albatrosses was fragmented and confusing until long-term field studies started during the 1930s. The collation of morphological, biological, and distribution data from breeding locations, with various genetic analyses from the 1990s, suggests a division into 4 genera and 24 taxa, a term that applies to both the species and subspecies of this order (Phoebastria with three taxa; Diomedea, 7 taxa; Thalassarche, 12 taxa; and Phoebetria, two taxa). Most of the 24 recognizable taxa (by combined morphology and genetics) may warrant species status and can be considered as distinct conservation units. In this treatment, however, the more traditional count of two genera will be applied: Diomedidae, which encompasses the proposed genera Phoebastria and Thalassarche; and Phoebetria, the two species of sooty albatross. A more positive resolution of the species question awaits data from poorly studied species in remote locations.

Physical characteristics

The great albatrosses (Diomedea) are the largest, with wingspans that can exceed 9.8 ft (300 cm). They lack a dark back except as juveniles. All have a white underwing. The upper wing of the northern royal albatross (D. epomophora sanfordi) is always black, while that of the wandering albatross (D. exulans) and the southern royal albatross (D. epomophora) grow increasingly white with age, especially among males. When Antipodean (D. antipodensis) and Amsterdam albatrosses (D. amsterdamensis) breed, especially females, they are almost as dark as in as juveniles. In the wandering royal albatross (D. exulans), Tristan albatross (D. dabbenena) and Gibson's albatross (D. gibsoni), body plumage whitens with age, and females may retain dark markings on the chest, flank, and back. Otherwise the body is chiefly white in the royal and northern royal albatrosses. The long (5.5–7.5 in; 140–190 mm) pale, horn-colored bill has a distinctively hooked tip, and it flushes pink in adults rearing chicks.

The Northern Pacific albatrosses include four medium to small taxa with wingspans of 6.2–7.9 ft (190–240 cm), and all have short, black tails. The two largest, i.e. the short-tailed albatross (D. albatrus) and the waved albatross (D. irrorata), have distinctive yellow/golden plumage on the head and nape. Of the two smallest, the Laysan albatross (D. immutabilis) has a pinkish bill, white body, and dark upper wing, while the black-footed albatross (D. nigripes) has a black bill and is mainly dark brown, except for a white patch at the rump and a variably pale face.

The mollymawks, which include 11 small to medium size taxa, are the most diverse group of albatrosses with wingspans of 5.9–8.4 ft (180–256 cm). All have black upper wings and back, variable amounts of black on the underwing, and white body. All have a variable gray eyebrow with heads and necks varying from mainly white to dark gray, some with pronounced paler cap. The shy albatross, white-capped albatross, Salvin's, and Chatham mollymawk (D. cauta, D. cauta cauta, D. salvini and D. cauta eremita) all have chiefly white underwings, while all others have variable amounts of black reaching into the underwing from the leading edge. All mollymawks have distinctive bill structures and colors which, when combined with head color, help identification. The black-browed mollymawk (D. melanophris) and the Campbell black-browed mollymawk (D. impavida) have golden yellow bills with pink tips. The gray-headed mollymawk (D. chrysostoma) has a dark gray head and bill, with a yellow culmen and pink nail, yellow lower mandible stripe and black intervening sides to the bill. Buller's mollymawk (D. bulleri) and the Pacific mollymawk (D. platei) have similar bills without the pink nail and have gray, with paler-capped, heads. The smallest mollymawks (D. chlororhynchos) have a gray washed head, and the eastern yellow-nosed mollymawk (D. bassi) has a chiefly white head. Both taxa have bills with a yellow culmen stripe and pink nail. All mollymawks have a colorful pink/orange fleshy facial stripe from gape to ear which is exposed during displays.

The two sooty albatrosses (Phoebetria), with a wing span of 6.0–7.15 ft (183–218 cm), and the longest and most pointed tails of all albatross taxa, have mainly dark bills, plumage, and legs. However, the light-mantled sooty albatross (P. palpebrata), normally has a paler brown mantle than the dark-mantled sooty albatross (P. fusca).

Distribution

Three albatrosses, namely the short-tailed, the Laysan, and the black-footed, are confined to the northern Pacific ocean. The waved albatross is tropical, mainly found from the Galápagos Islands to the coasts of Ecuador and Peru. All other albatrosses are found in the Southern Hemisphere in a circumpolar band mainly from 65°S to 20°S, but north to 15°S on the coast of southern Africa and 5°S on the west coast of South America.

Habitat

More than 70% of an albatross' life is spent on or over the ocean, while foraging, migrating, or resting. With the exception of the waved albatross, albatrosses avoid the relatively windless tropical doldrums. Though ranging widely at sea from breeding islands and during non-breeding time, significant differences in distribution can occur within and between species or between sexes. Some species are found to forage locally over continental shelves, while others roam widely to obtain food. Significant concentrations of birds can be found in areas of ocean richness near major currents, gyres and upwellings around South America (e.g. Humbolt current), Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (Benguela current) and in the north Pacific (Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska). The remaining time is spent ashore at the usually windswept, remote island breeding locations for courtship, nesting and chick rearing. Diomedea species are more commonly found on grassy slopes or plains where nests are often far apart, and rebuilt each nesting attempt, but located within sight of neighbors. The northern royal albatross uses the flat scrubby tops of small rocky islets, while Phoebetria species are usually widely spaced along steep grassy slopes and cliff ledges.

Behavior

Albatrosses cannot fly in calm weather, needing a good breeze to effect the soaring and tacking pattern of flight which enables large distances to be covered with little effort. Generally silent at sea, or in social resting or washing flocks. However, breeding colonies (especially close-nesting mollymawks) can be noisy with buzzing cries, clattering bills, and wailing screams accompanying a wide repertoire of body displays associated with recognition, threat, and courtship. While there are common components of display throughout the family, the dances and wing displays of the northern Pacific albatrosses have no equivalent in the Southern Hemisphere. The most intense courtship display sequences are seen among adolescent pre-breeders, often in small groups or gams. Some displays are between similar sexes within such groups. Birds that develop a pair-bond remove themselves from the group to a potential nesting site where the displays become shorter, gentler and more mutual without the flamboyance of courtship. Some (e.g. the sooty albatrosses) indulge in courtship flying interspersed with synchronous calling from both sexes both on the ground and in the air. Albatrosses generally defend small spaces associated with the nest site or territory. Fighting is not a regular occurrence, with a reliance on threat displays and charging, but the hooked bill can damage bills and eyes. Chicks at the nest site clapper their bills to discourage intruders (e.g. predatory skuas, Catharacta), followed by regurgitation of oily stomach contents if approached too closely. Considerable time is spent in self and mutual

preening of plumage by adults, and of the growing chick by the parents.

Feeding ecology and diet

Various species of squid seem to provide the main component of the albatross diet. Many of these species are bioluminescent, and can be caught during the night. Some localised feeding spots provide a regular annual supply of carrion (e.g. during the annual die-off of Sepia cuttlefish on the eastern Australian coast) along established migration routes for some species. The diet also inlcudes a wide range of fish including small flying-fish, lampreys (Geotrea), pilchards (Sardinops) and crustaceans such as krills (Euphausia sp.), amphipods, copepods and crabs. Other recorded prey items include salps, seaweeds, barnacles, and fish spawn. Other small seabirds (prions, diving-petrels, and penguins) have been found in stomach contents as have examples of carrion from dead whales and seals. Some species can feed during the breeding season within a few hundred miles (kilometers) of the breeding place, as is the case with the northern royal albatross and the shy and Chatham mollymawks. Most food is gathered at the surface, but some of the smaller mollymawks may plunge and swim a short distance (up to 16 ft [5 m]) below the surface after prey. Kleptoparisitism has been recorded among waved albatrosses chasing boobies (Sula spp.), black-browed albatrosses from Phalacrocorax, and among eastern yellow-nosed albatrosses chasing shearwaters. Food is also obtained by some species from human fisheries offal, discards, and stolen baits.

Reproductive biology

Albatrosses usually build bowl-shaped nesting mounds with grasses and small shrubs bound together with soil, peat, or even penguin feathers where no vegetation is available. The waved albatross does not build nests, and the other northern Pacific albatrosses have very rudimentary ones that are rebuilt each season. Many Buller's mollymawks and black-footed albatrosses nest under trees in open forest. Most mollymawks nest in tight colonies just out of pecking range from neighbors, and reuse previous nest mounds.

Albatrosses are generally monogamous and most are annual breeders. Albatrosses lay one large white egg with reddish brown spots at the largest end weighing 7.0–18.2 oz (200–510 g) ranging from 5 to 10% of female body weight. First eggs are narrower and lighter. Incubation lasts 65–85 days with both sexes sharing the incubation stints, which may range from one day to as long as 29 days according to species foraging methods and locations. Hatching takes 2–5 days. Immediately after hatching, during the brooding (guard) stage of chick growth (15–40 days), one parent remains with the chick at the nest. Chicks fledge at 120–180 days for all small

albatrosses, while Diomedea have a range of 220–303 days. Though breeding success can vary according to species and breeding season, fledging may be as high as 80% of eggs laid. Long-term averages can range from 25 to 67%, with the waved albatross being the lowest.

Recruitment of fledglings into the breeding population occurs at 5–15 years of age with 15–65% of those fledged surviving to breed. Biennial breeders take longer to become sexually mature. Annual mortality rates for adults range from 3 to 9%. The oldest known albatross was a northern royal albatross, still breeding at over 62 years old.

Conservation status

Albatrosses are long-lived, with delayed maturity and low reproductive output and adult mortality. This strategy ensures that only a small proportion of the population is breeding at any one time, with the remainder often in other parts of their range as adolescents or resting adult breeders. This mitigates the effects of localized disasters, but may disguise for some years any detrimental effects on populations or age groups which are more widespread. Threats which affect breeding birds have the most immediate impact, and recorded increases in adult mortality of 1–5% have significantly affected some colonies. Of the nearly 2 million breeding pairs of albatrosses worldwide in 24 recognizable taxa, 14 have populations of less than 20,000 breeding pairs. At the most populous level, the black-browed and the black-footed albatrosses have total populations that exceed 600,000 breeding pairs. However, some of these populations are fragmented, with a third of discrete groups having fewer than 100 breeding pairs. Most species have populations where there is not enough data to determine the rate of increase or decline, but have evidence of being exposed to known threats. The most vulnerable populations are those which are confined to one breeding locality. The high degree of philopatry of both juveniles and adults limits any ability to colonize new sites when facing adversity at their natal colony. Most factors adversely affecting populations involve human activities. However, climatic events have been seen to cause changes in habitat, which severely reduced breeding productivity in the northern royal albatross. Changing sea temperatures may also contribute to decline by changing food distribution and availability.

Significance to humans

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, by S.T. Coleridge (1798), has done much to determine the popular conception of the albatross. The family name is derived from the name of the Greek hero of the Trojan War, Diomedes, whom the gods exiled to an isolated island, turning all of his deceased companions into large, white birds.

The preponderance of albatrosses breeding in locations remote from human habitation may indicate that closer populations were historically extirpated by humans. Certainly harvesting of eggs or chicks continues legally or illegally in a few locations today. During the past 250 years since the first naming of an albatross by Linnaeus, these legendary birds have been directly or indirectly exploited at sea and at their breeding colonies by those on boats—mariners, sealers, and whalers as food and artifacts, passengers as sport, and science as specimens.

Species accounts

List of Species

Royal albatross

Diomedea epomophora sanfordi

taxonomy

Diomedea epomophora sanfordi Murphy, 1917, Chatham Islands.

other common names

English: Toroa; French: Albatros royal; German: Königsalbatros; Spanish: Albatros Real.

physical characteristics

Wingspan 8.85–10.0 ft (270–305 cm); 13.75–18.1 lb (6.25–8.2 kg); length: c. 45 in (115 cm). Large white bodied albatross with upper wing surface black. Eyelids black, spotted white in oldest birds.

distribution

Breeds only on New Zealand South Island (Taiaroa Head), Chatham Islands (Sisters and Forty-Fours Islands), and Enderby Island. The only albatross to have a circumpolar range when not breeding.

habitat

Marine, breeding on exposed tops of small islets or headlands.

behavior

Extensive repertoire of mutual and group displays at the breeding site, some of which are occasionally performed in the air or on the water. Once pair bond is formed the most extravagantly spread wing displays are not used.

feeding ecology and diet

Most food taken by surface seizing. Mainly cephalopods, with some fish, salps, and crustaceans. During the breeding season, feeding occurs over continental shelf breaks within 620 mi (1,000 km) of the colony. Probably an opportunistic feeder when migrating.

reproductive biology

Lays one egg 27 October to 8 December with laying time fixed according to parentage. Nest a raised bowl of soil and vegetation rebuilt after each nesting attempt. Will also lay on bare rock with rock chips, but egg failures then are greater than 90%. On average, incubation is 79 days and fledging 240 days. Biennial breeder if successful. Monogamous, pairing usually for life. Breeding starts at 8 years and the average age of the breeding population is 20 years. Adult annual mortality is 4–5%.

conservation status

Endangered. Total population c. 7,700 pairs, restricted to a tiny breeding range; the habitat supporting 99% of the population in Chatham Islands was severely degraded by storms in the 1980s. The resulting reduced productivity suggests a predicted 50% decline will occur over three generations unless the habitat improves significantly.

significance to humans

At Taiaroa Head the efforts of L.E. Richdale enabled protection of the fledgling colony by 1950. Public viewing started in 1972, and by 2001 more than 100,000 persons annually viewed the nesting colony.

Wandering albatross

Diomedea exulans

taxonomy

Diomedea exulans Linnaeus, 1758, Cape of Good Hope. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Snowy albatross, white-winged albatross; French: Albatros hurleur; German: Wanderalbatros; Spanish: Albatros Viajero.

physical characteristics

Wingspan 9.2–11.5 ft (280–350 cm); 13.7–25 lb (6.25–11.3 kg). One of largest albatrosses with variable plumage developing from chocolate brown. Back and belly whiten first, followed by head and rump. Wing whitens from center. Oldest males are whitest.

distribution

D. exulans breeds in high latitudes of the southern oceans at South Georgia, Marion and Prince Edward Islands, Crozet Island, Kerguelen Island, Heard and Macquarie Islands. Juveniles are thought to disperse northwards from these locations before developing regular downwind migrations.

habitat

Marine and highly pelagic over deep waters away from coastal continental shelves.

behavior

Extensive repertoire of group and mutual displays accompanied by a wide range of screams, whistles, moans, grunts, and bill clappering.

feeding ecology and diet

Most food taken by surface seizing, but may make shallow plunge dives. Feeds primarily on cephalopods, deepwater and bioluminescent squid at night, but also fish and crustaceans. Feeds on carrion more than other albatrosses and is an extensive follower of ships for galley scraps, and fishing vessels for offal, discards, and baits. During breeding, feeding flights over deep ocean areas may be for as long as 25 days and covering some 13,000 miles (20,800 km).

reproductive biology

Lays one egg between 10 December and 5 January. The nest is a raised bowl of soil peat and grassy vegetation rebuilt at each nesting. On average, incubation lasts 79 days, fledging 271 days. Usually a biennial breeder. Monogamous, pairing usually for life. Productivity c. 70%. Adolescents return by 6 years. Breeding starts at 11 years. Only c. 30% of fledglings survive. Adult annual mortality averages 5–7% with females being higher than males.

conservation status

Vulnerable. The main populations are at South Georgia (2,100 pairs annually), Marion and Prince Edward Island (3,000), Crozet (1,700), and Kerguelen Island (1,400). All colonies have experienced declines in breeding populations which have been attributed to mortality associated with long-line fisheries in different parts of the southern oceans.

significance to humans

None known.

Light-mantled albatross

Phoebetria palpebrata

taxonomy

Phoebetria palpebrata J.R. Forster, 1785, south of Cape of Good Hope. Monotypic.

other common names

English: Light-mantled sooty, gray-mantled albatross; French: Albatros fuligineux; German: Graumantel-Rußalbatros; Spanish: Albatros Tiznado.

physical characteristics

Wingspan 6.0–7.15 ft (183–218 cm); 6.1–8.1 lb (2.5–3.7 kg). Small, all dark albatross with paler mantle and a partial white eye-ring. Bill black with pale blue sulcus line.

distribution

Widely distributed throughout the southern oceans breeding at South Georgia, Marion, Prince Edward, Crozet, Kerguelen, Heard, Macquarie, Auckland, Campbell, and Antipodes Islands. Distributed at sea generally south of 40° latitude to the edges of Antarctica.

habitat

Marine. Generally breeding in isolated nests on sheltered steep slopes or cliff ledges close to a rock face.

behavior

Aerial displays and formation flying are a distinctive feature of courtship and pair-bonding behavior. Mutual calling modulated in tone by the position of the head is an essential part of the displays. Does not have open or extended wing displays, but uses the long tail in display more than other albatrosses.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly solitary at sea, feeding by surface seizing or surface plunging, chiefly for cephalopods and krill. Sometimes fish and carrion including remains of birds at sea. Some observed inter-action with commercial fishing.

reproductive biology

Lays one egg between October and November with the 2 week laying period being shorter than other albatrosses except the dark-mantled sooty albatross. Incubation lasts for 65–72 days. Have the longest incubation shifts of any albatross. Hatching takes 3–5 days. Chicks are guarded by a parent for the first three weeks. Mean fledging varies between 140 days (Macquarie) and 170 days (Marion Island). Productivity variable. Monagamous. Generally classed as a biennial breeder. Starts breeding at 8–15 years. Adult annual mortality probably about 3%.

conservation status

Data Deficient, not globally threatened. Tentatively estimated to have a world population of 30,000 breeding pairs. Main causes of nesting failure seem to be starvation and desertion by parents, which along with the length of foraging stints suggests a species with distant and restricted food sources. Incidence of fisheries bycatch not large.

significance to humans

None known.

Chatham mollymawk

Diomedea cauta eremita

taxonomy

Diomedea cauta eremita Murphy, 1930, Pyramid Rock, Chatham Islands.

other common names

English: Chatham Islands albatross; shy albatross; French: Albatros des Chatham; German: Chatham albatros; Spanish: Albatros de Chatham.

physical characteristics

The "shy" mollymawks are the largest mollymawks. D. eremita is the smallest (6.8–10.4 lb; 3.1–4.7 kg) and darkest of the "shy" mollymawks. White body, dark gray head and mantle, black upper wing and tail, underwing white except for wingtip and small dark patch at base of wing leading edge. Bill chrome yellow with dark spot at tip of lower mandible. Orange cheek stripe.

distribution

Breeds only at The Pyramid, a small rocky cone (650 ft; 200 m high) in the Chatham Islands. Rarely recorded at sea away from breeding location. During the breeding season mainly found within 190 mi (300 km) of the colony on and along the edge of the continental shelf.

habitat

Marine. Small pedestal nests of soil and limited vegetation, which may collapse in periods of extended drought, on mainly bare steep rocky slopes, crevices and ledges.

behavior

Similar to other mollymawks with harsh buzzing bray with open mouth used in both threat and courtship. A range of displays featuring fanning of the tail, mutual jousting of bills, and tympanic grunting over the back between partly raised wings.

feeding ecology and diet

Probably surface seizing of a mix of cephalopods, krill, floating barnacles, and fish. Scavenges behind fishing vessels for baits, discards and offal.

reproductive biology

Lays one egg between 20 August and 1 October. Incubation period 68–72 days shared by both parents with short stints rarely longer than 5 days. Fledging estimated at 130–140 days from hatching. Adolescents return from 4 years and first breeding recorded at 7 years. Productivity averages 60% of available nest sites. Crude estimates of annual adult mortality range between 4 and 15%. Breeds annually and seemingly monogamous, pairing for life.

conservation status

One of two albatrosses classed as Critically Endangered because of tiny single breeding place, and recent evidence of deterioration of habitat. With 5,300 occupied breeding sites, the breeding population is probably c. 4,200 pairs. No evidence of population decline between 1975 and 2001. Now protected, but sporadic small harvests of tens of birds still occur.

significance to humans

None known.

Black-browed mollymawk

Diomedea melanophris

taxonomy

Diomedea melanophris Temminck, 1828, Cape of Good Hope. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Black-browed albatross; French: Albatros à sourcils noirs; German: Schwarzbrauenalbatros; Spanish: Albatros Ojeroso.

physical characteristics

Wingspan c. 7.9 ft (240 cm); 6.4–10.3 lb (2.9–4.7 kg). Heavily built mollymawk with mainly all white body and head, black upper wings, mantle and tail, underwing black with variable amounts of central white. Eyebrow black.

distribution

The most plentiful of the albatrosses with 98% of breeding concentrated in the southern Chile at Diego Ramirez, Islas Ildefonso, Diego de Almagra (Chile), south Atlantic at Falkland Islands (12 islands) forming a distinctive genetic grouping; a second genetic grouping comprising South Georgia, small numbers at Crozet, Kerguelen, Heard, and McDonald Islands in the Indian Ocean and very small numbers at Macquarie, Bishop & Clerk, Antipodes, Campbell Islands and The Snares in the southwest Pacific. Most common straggler into North Atlantic.

habitat

Marine, not significantly pelagic, being found close to coast more than other albatrosses. Highly colonial breeder, can be in large colonies of thousands of nests. Often on coastal tussock slopes or ledges where nests are built of packed soil and grasses

and used in successive seasons. Largest colonies in the Falkland Islands are on gently sloping rocky terrain without vegetation.

behavior

Colonies actively noisy with strident territorial open mouthed bray with flagging of the head, and aggressive harsh cackling. Like other Mollymawks uses fanned tail extensively in display sequences.

feeding ecology and diet

Most food taken by surface seizing, with occasional shallow plunging, and swimming below surface. Mainly crustaceans, squid, fish, carrion, and fisheries discards or offal. Feeds extensively on large swarms of krill. Kleptoparisitism (prey theft) observed with stealing from surfacing shags. Sometimes follows whales. Often feeds aggressively among flocks of albatrosses and petrels.

reproductive biology

Annual breeder, laying one egg with laying period covering three weeks with a mean of 10 October at South Georgia, but three weeks earlier at Falklands/Crozet and Kerguelen Islands. Incubation is 68–71 days with a guard stage of 1–4 weeks following hatching, before fledging from 120–130 days. Overall productivity averages 27% for chicks fledged from eggs laid. Pairing usually for life. Adolescents return at 2–3 years old and breed at 10 years with c. 28% or less of fledglings surviving to breed. Adults have an annual mortality c. 8–9% with females surviving better than males.

conservation status

Not globally threatened, with a population of c. 600,000 breeding pairs, but with significant declines noted in some areas. But D. m. impavida (26,000 pairs) is classed as vulnerable as its breeding is restricted to one island.

significance to humans

None known.

Laysan albatross

Diomedea immutabilis

taxonomy

Diomedea immutabilis Rothschild, 1893, Laysan Island. Monotypic.

other common names

French: Albatros de Laysan; German: Laysanalbatros; Spanish: Albatros de Laysan.

physical characteristics

Wingspan 6.4–6.7 ft (195–203 cm); 5.3–9.0 lb (2.4–4.1 kg). A slender white albatross, with underwing most similar to D. melanophris, but with black patches at wrist and elbow. Distinctive gray patch around eye and cheeks. Bill has yellowish orange broad base, blending to pinker horn and then black at tip.

distribution

The most plentiful of the north Pacific albatrosses. Almost all breed in the Hawaiian chain of islands with largest colonies at Midway and Laysan Island. Tiny new populations at Mukojima in Bonin Islands (west Pacific), and in eastern Pacific off Mexican coast at Islas Guadalupe, Benedicto and Clarion. During the breeding season regularly travels to the seas separating Japan from the western Aleutians.

habitat

Marine, combined pelagic and coastal shelves, but rarely approaches land except breeding islands.

behavior

Colonies actively noisy during daylight with distinctive brays, whistles, groans, and calls. Along with P. nigripes, has a wider range of displays than other albatrosses. There are actively energetic dances with birds circling about each other, walking and standing and prancing on extreme tiptoe, swaying and jousting motions of the head, combining with sideways lifting bent-wing postures similar to all north Pacific albatrosses.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly squid, but also fish and fish eggs, crustaceans and coelenterates. Does not often follow ships. Undertakes a mix of long and short foraging flights when chick rearing, to compensate for far distant feeding locations.

reproductive biology

Nest a scrape in ground, built up around rim by debris and sand with one egg. Annual breeder laying between 20 November and 24 December. Incubation lasts an average of 64 days, with longest stints at beginning of incubation lasting more than 3 weeks. Newly hatched chicks are guarded for c. 27 days and are then left alone except for feeding visits until fledging at c. 165 days. Productivity averages 64%, though 4–24% of chicks may die before fledging through dehydration, starvation, or wandering into other territories to beg for food. Only c. 14% of fledglings may survive to breed at 9 years, and adults have annual mortality of 5%.

conservation status

Not globally threatened with a world population of c. 607,000 breeding pairs, but some colonies may be decreasing. Drift gill-netting in the north Pacific has been a major source of mortality (17,500 in one year) and effects of longline fisheries not yet known. Have recorded high levels of contaminants which may affect breeding, as well as ingestion of plastic rubbish.

significance to humans

Like the oceanic "wanderer" of the Southern Hemisphere which has come to epitomize the albatross, so the "gooney" is the common image of the albatross in the countries surrounding the north Pacific.

Resources

Books

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, 2000.

Croxall, J.P. ed. Seabirds: Feeding Ecology and Role in Marine Ecosystems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds. Ostrich to Ducks. Vol. 1 of Handbook of the Birds of the World. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 1992.

Marchant, S., Higgins, P.J., eds. Ratites to Ducks. Vol. 1A of Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Robertson, G., R. Gales, eds. Albatross Biology and Conservation. Chipping Norton, Australia: Surrey Beatty, 1998.

Tickell, W.L.N. Albatrosses. Sussex: Pica Press, 2000.

Warham, J. The Petrels: Their Ecology and Breeding Systems. New York: Academic Press, 1990.

Warham, J. The Behaviour, Population Biology and Physiology of the Petrels. New York: Academic Press, 1996.

Periodicals

Cooper, J. ed. Albatross and Petrel Mortality from Longline Fishing International Workshop, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Report and presented papers. Marine Ornithology 28 (2000): 153–190.

Flint, E., K, Swift. eds. Second International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Albatrosses and other Petrels, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Abstract of oral and poster presentations. Marine Ornithology 28 (2000): 125–152.

Nicholls, D.G., C. J. R. Robertson, P. A. Prince, M. D. Murray, K. J. Walker, G. P. Elliott. Foraging Niches of Three Diomedea Albatrosses. Marine Ecology Progress Series 231 (2002): 269–77.

Organizations

BirdLife International. Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire CB3 0NA United Kingdom. Phone: +44 1 223 277 318. Fax: +44-1-223-277-200. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: <http://www.birdlife.net>

Christopher John Rutherford Robertson