Australian honeyeaters

(Meliphagidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Meliphagidae

Thumbnail description
Mostly small, but some tiny and others jaysized; typically dull greenish, olive, or brown; often seen probing flowers for nectar with decurved bill; typically active, sometimes noisy and aggressive

Size
3–20 in (7–50 cm); 0.25–7 oz (7–200 g)

Number of genera, species
42 genera; 182 species

Habitat
Tropical, subtropical, and temperate rainforests, eucalyptus forest, monsoonal forest, woodlands with eucalyptus, casuarina, native pine, and acacia, semi-arid woodland and scrub, desert shrub-steppe, and coastal and upland heaths; generally absent from grassland; several species are common in parks and gardens

Conservation status
Near Threatened: 1 species, 4 subspecies; Endangered: 2 species; Critically Endangered: 2 species, 1 subspecies; Vulnerable: 5 species; Data Deficient: Many Indonesian species

Distribution
Throughout Australia, New Guinea, Melanesia, Moluccas, and Lesser Sundas; west to Bali, Micronesia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand; through Polynesia to Hawaiian Islands; sugarbirds occur in southern Africa

Evolution and systematics

Honeyeaters belong to the Australo-Papuan lineage of passerines. Their nearest relatives are probably fairy wrens (Maluridae) and Australian warblers (Acanthizidae). The sugarbirds (Promerops) of South Africa have been classified as honeyeaters but are probably starlings. The dwarf and long-bill honeyeaters of New Guinea have been shown by molecular analysis to be more closely related to flowerpeckers (Dicaeidae) than to honeyeaters, whereas the Bonin Island honeyeater (Apalopteron familiare) is a white-eye (Zosteropidae). However, MacGregor's bird of paradise (Macgregoria pulchra) appears to be a honeyeater on the basis of mitochondrial DNA.

Relationships within the honeyeaters have not yet been fully unraveled. A few genera, such as Myzomela, Meliphaga, and Lichenostomus, contain numerous very similar species, whereas others are artificial and contain unrelated species. Honeyeaters of New Zealand and Hawaii do not have obvious close relatives in Australia or New Guinea, and perhaps some are not honeyeaters. Most genera with more than one or two species are centered in Australia. However, Lichmera and Philemon have many species in Wallacea (Moluccas and Lesser Sundas). Myzomela is the most widespread genus, occurring from Australia to Sulawesi, Micronesia, and Fiji.

Physical characteristics

Many smaller honeyeaters are olive, green, or brown and often have yellow on the underparts, as an ear patch, or as neck plumes. Several smaller species are black and white. Almost half of the species are notably sexually dichromatic. Some of the larger species are gray, black, dark green, or streaked brown. Some honeyeaters have distinct juvenal plumages, although in many species the differences from adults are subtle.

Most honeyeaters have colored bare skin in the form of a discrete eyepatch, a somewhat swollen gape, elaborate wattles, knobs on the bill, or a bald head. Many of these features change in color or conspicuousness with age, and sometimes there are seasonal changes in relation to breeding.

Bill and legs may also be distinctively colored. The bill ranges from short and straight to slightly decurved to quite long and markedly decurved. All honeyeaters have a brush tongue, which is quadrifid, with numerous bristles at the tip; this morphology is an adaptation to feeding on nectar and other sugary solutions. Digestion of sugary solutions is very rapid, and most sugar is absorbed before watery feces are expelled. Honeyeaters have strong legs and feet and often have sharp claws.

Distribution

One or more species occurs everywhere in Australia, except in extensive grassland with no trees and shrubs. The greatest diversity of species occurs in eastern Australia, where many habitats occur close together, and in the rainforests of New Guinea. Tasmania has four endemic species, all with fairly clearly identifiable relatives in mainland Australia. A few species that are widespread in New Guinea have a toehold in extreme north Queensland. Within New Guinea there is a changeover of species with altitude. Sulawesi has three honeyeaters and Timor has six, with from one to four species elsewhere on each Lesser Sunda or Moluccan islands.

Two of the honeyeaters in New Zealand are quite widespread in native vegetation and less commonly in modified vegetation. The other species is restricted to offshore islands. New Caledonia, Bougainville and Kadavu Island in the Fiji group all have endemic honeyeaters. All of the main Hawaiian islands once had honeyeaters, but most are extinct.

The two species of sugarbirds are found in a limited area of southern Africa.

Habitat

Honeyeaters occur in subalpine scrub in New Guinea, through all forest types to the mangroves. In Australia three species are largely restricted to mangroves. It is not uncommon to find ten or more species at a location in forests and coastal heathlands. Woodlands, mallee, and other semi-arid scrubs can also be rich in species. Within forests and woodlands, most species occupy the canopy, with some of the more nectarivorous species feeding more in the shrub layer. Most of the Wallacean and Pacific island honeyeaters are found in rainforest or monsoonal woodland. Honeyeaters in many parts of their range have successfully colonized suburban areas, especially where native vegetation remains or has been replanted. African sugarbirds occupy fynbos (equivalent to coastal Australian heaths), which are dominated by the Proteaceae.

Behavior

Honeyeaters are rarely solitary and often occur in family groups or loose flocks. Miners occupy colonies that have a complex structure. Migratory species may occur in large flocks. Large aggregations gather at rich nectar sources such as ironbarks (e. g., Eucalyptus sideroxylon), banksias, and bottlebrushes (Callistemon). These groups are frequently noisy, with much chasing and displacement. Larger species such as wattlebirds and friarbirds often dominate such gatherings, with smaller species being displaced to less rich areas. Aggression is often displayed to other nectar feeders. While breeding and also when molting (which follows breeding), even aggressive species can become quiet and inconspicuous.

Whereas some honeyeaters are sedentary, most species show some seasonal movements; these may consist of local wandering outside the breeding season to visit flowering or fruiting trees and shrubs. Quite likely there are fairly sedentary and more mobile components to the populations of many species. A few species show clear migratory behavior with large flocks flying north in autumn and south in spring. Many honeyeaters, especially those of arid and semi-arid habitat, have been described as nomadic. Whereas their movements may be complex, they are probably not random but may follow fairly predictable routes. Where the birds settle, though, probably depends on the availability of nectar or other food sources.

The calls and songs of honeyeaters range from beautiful to harsh and grating. Smaller species have whistling calls and twittering songs. Medium-sized spiny-cheeked (Acanthagenys rufogularis) and striped (Plectorhyncha lanceolata) honeyeaters have attractive repertoires, whereas large wattlebirds emit harsh cackling and coughing calls. Tuis (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae) of New Zealand are regarded as one of the finest singers in the world, while the friarbirds and forest honeyeaters of the Pacific have loud bugling and even comical calls.

Feeding ecology and diet

All species of honeyeaters consume varying amounts of nectar and invertebrates, especially insects. Honeyeaters visit a wide range of native and exotic flowers, with eucalyptus, banksias, bottlebrushes, grevilleas, and mistletoes being among the most popular. Sugarbirds favor proteas. Other sweet food sources include honeydew from bugs (Hemiptera), manna (sugary exudate from damaged foliage), and lerp (the sugary coating on scale insects of the family Psyllidae). Honeyeaters also consume sap exuding from scars on branches caused by gliding possums. Smaller honeyeaters may consume tiny insects that they capture in flight, and they also glean caterpillars and beetles from foliage. Strong-billed (Melithreptus validirostris) and white-eared honeyeaters (Lichenostomus leucops) frequently probe bark for insects and honeydew. Spiders are also taken, and more unusual foods include crustaceans and small lizards. A few larger species prey on eggs and nestling birds. Miners (Manorina) and tawny-crowned honeyeaters (Phylidonyris melanops) often forage on the ground and walk well. Fruit is a major food for honeyeaters in the wetter forests, especially in New Zealand and New Guinea.

Reproductive biology

Many, possibly most, honeyeaters are monogamous, although polygamy or a mixed mating system seems likely in species with great sexual dimorphism and in colonial species. Perhaps a third of species are cooperative breeders, ranging from occasional helpers to complex colonies.

Honeyeaters generally have long breeding seasons. Most Australian species have breeding seasons for six or more months. Breeding tends to peak in late winter to late spring (August to October) for many species. However, in areas where nectar is most abundant in winter, breeding may peak in July and August. Several of the friarbirds have a short breeding season, as do the arid-inhabiting black (Certhionyx niger) and pied (C. variegatus) honeyeaters. Some species show differences in breeding season in different parts of their range (typically earlier in the north than in the south) and from year to year.

The placement of honeyeater nests ranges from low bushes, sometimes almost on the ground, to the tops of tall trees. Most nests are carefully woven and placed in forks or suspended from foliage. Spider webs, plant down, animal hair, wool, feathers, artificial materials, and even human hair may be added to nests. The stitchbird (Notiomystis cincta) of New Zealand and at least one of the Hawaiian honeyeaters are hollow nesters. Eggs range in color from white to pale pink, with

purple, red, brown, or black spots and blotches. The typical clutch size for most species is two eggs, but miners and friarbirds usually lay three or four eggs and some species lay only one. Eggs are probably laid at intervals of about 24 hours and are incubated, mostly by the female, for 12 to 17 days.

Both parents and often helpers feed the young; insects compose most of the diet, but the young of some species are fed nectar. The fledging period ranges from 11 to 20 days, but it may be as long as 32 days in the hollow-nesting stitchbird. Success rate of nests varies widely among species, years, and locations. Most failures are due to predation by corvids, currawongs (Strepera), butcherbirds (Cracticus), and a range of other birds, as well as snakes and introduced mammals. Honeyeaters themselves occasionally destroy eggs. Ants also attack nestlings, as do the parasitic maggots of bot flies (Passeromyia). Nests are sometimes blown down in storms or drenched by heavy rain. A range of cuckoos are brood parasites.

Conservation status

Many species of honeyeaters have declined due to the clearing of forests and woodlands or to the degradation of their habitat in other ways. Avian malaria, carried by introduced mosquitoes, contributed to the decline and extinction of the Hawaiian honeyeaters, whereas introduced mammals have affected the stitchbird and to a lesser extent the two other honeyeaters in New Zealand. The brown tree snake Boiga irregularis, from Australia has affected the Micronesian honeyeater (Myzomela cardinalis) on Guam.

Regent honeyeaters (Xanthomyza phrygia) have become rare in southeastern Australia, but habitat is being protected and replanted and a captive population has been established. Black-eared miners (Manorina melanotis) have hybridized with yellow-throated miners (M. flavigula), and few pure colonies of the former remain. However, release of captured birds into new areas of good habitat has proved successful.

Some of the larger honeyeaters have adapted well to fragmented habitat and to urban and suburban areas. Noisy (M. melanocephala) and bell miners (M. melanophrys) have become locally abundant and pose a threat to other honeyeaters and insectivores, which they drive out of their colonies.

Significance to humans

Honeyeaters are a conspicuous part of the avifauna, especially in Australia where many species are common in gardens and parks. Several species are regarded as minor pests of grapes and other fruit crops. A few of the larger honeyeaters have been hunted by humans. Feathers from the stitchbird and the Hawaiian honeyeaters were used in Polynesian cloaks. Bell and noisy miners are sometimes culled where they are perceived to be a threat to other birds. Honeyeaters are major pollinators of many native plants. They also disperse seeds, including some exotic weeds. They consequently play an important role in the ecosystems that they occupy.

Species accounts

List of Species

Red wattlebird

Anthochaera carunculata

taxonomy

Merops carunculata Shaw, 1790, Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Wattled honeyeater, gillbird; French: Méliphage barbe-rouge; German: Rotlappen-Honigfresser; Spanish: Filemón Rojo.

physical characteristics

14 in (35 cm); 4 oz (120 g). Female noticeably smaller than male. Buff underparts with white streaks and yellowish patch on belly. Upper feathers darker and white-tipped. White patch under eye with thin red band across chin.

distribution

Southern Australia, with possible gap across Nullarbor Plain; separate subspecies in southwest and Mount Lofty Ranges of South Australia, Kangaroo Island, and eastern Australia. Vagrant to New Zealand.

habitat

Woodland and open forest, typically with eucalyptus, mallee, heathland, parks, and gardens.

behavior

Occur in pairs and family groups and sometimes loose flocks. Can be noisy and aggressive but are quiet while breeding. Male makes a harsh, raucous cough, to which female replies with a

more musical plew…plew…plew call. Make other harsh rasping calls when nest or young threatened. Short distance migrant and nomad.

feeding ecology and diet

Take nectar from flowers, especially eucalyptus, but also mistletoes and a wide variety of shrubs. Also eat insects from foliage, bark, or the ground and by aerial capture. Eat fruit less commonly, and rarely take small reptiles and young birds.

reproductive biology

Long breeding season, mostly August to December. Lay two eggs in a stick nest in a tree. Both adults feed young, which hatch at about 16 days and fledge after a further 16 days. Parasitized by pallid cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

One of the few Australian passerines that was hunted for food, gillbird pie was once a favorite. They are sometimes shot when feeding on cultivated fruit. They are successful suburban birds.

Striped honeyeater

Plectorhyncha lanceolata

taxonomy

Plectrorhyncha lanceolata Gould, 1838, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Lanceolated honeyeater; French: Méliphage lancéolé; German: Strichelhonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar Gris.

physical characteristics

8.5 in (22 cm); 1.4 oz (40 g). Cheek and forehead to nape is dark with white stripes. Underparts a pinkish buff with grayish upperparts and tail.

distribution

Eastern Australia, from mid-north Queensland to northern Victoria and west to Yorke Peninsula, especially inland from Great Dividing Range.

habitat

Riparian woodland with Casuarina and mallee and other semi-arid woodlands with eucalyptus, acacia, and native pine.

behavior

In pairs or small groups, emit an attractive whistling song. Generally sedentary, but exhibit some, probably local, movements.

feeding ecology and diet

Take nectar from eucalyptus, mistletoes, and other plants, and occasionally eat fruits and seeds. Insects and spiders are gleaned from foliage and bark or captured in the air.

reproductive biology

Breed from August to January in nest suspended from drooping foliage, often near nests of gray butcherbird (Cracticus torquatus). Clutch from two to five eggs (usually three). Both parents apparently incubate and occasionally have helpers feeding young, which hatch at 16–17 days and fledge at 16–17 days. Parasitized by pallid cuckoo.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Occasionally regarded as a pest at orchards.

Noisy friarbird

Philemon corniculatus

taxonomy

Merops corniculatus Latham, 1790, Endeavour River, Queensland, Australia.

other common names

English: Leatherhead, four-o'clock; French: Polochion criard; German: Lärmlederkopf; Spanish: Filemón Gritón.

physical characteristics

13 in (33 cm); 3.4–4.4 oz (96–122 g). Bare black head and upright knob on bill. White throat, breast, and tail, with darker upperparts.

distribution

Eastern Australia from coast to edge of plains and along Murray River. Trans-Fly region of New Guinea. Separate subspecies in north Queensland and New Guinea.

habitat

Woodlands and open forests, coastal heathland, farmland, parks and gardens.

behavior

Can be noisy and quarrelsome at flowering trees, but also quiet and unobtrusive when breeding. Comical calls, like four o'clock, tobacco, chocka-lock, etc. by males. Calls become more complex when pairs chase around during breeding season. Pairs may duet. Also emit softer calls and harsh alarm calls. May strike predators, including humans, near nest.

feeding ecology and diet

Nectar of eucalyptus, mistletoes, or other plants; sometimes eat native or cultivated fruit. Insects and spiders taken by gleaning from foliage or capturing in flight, including large scarab beetles and cicadas. Exceptionally take eggs, young birds, and fish.

reproductive biology

May breed from August to March, but season can be short in any locality. Nests are large and conspicuous and globular, made of bark, grass, and often wool and placed on outer branches of eucalyptus and other trees or in saplings. Probably only female builds nest and incubates. Usually lay three eggs (occasionally two or four), which hatch after about 16 days. Young fledge at 16–17 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Sometimes shot at wineries and orchards when feeding on fruit.

Regent honeyeater

Xanthomyza phrygia

taxonomy

Merops phrygius Shaw, 1794, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Warty-faced honeyeater; French: Mélephage régent; German: Warzenhonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar Real.

physical characteristics

9 in (22.5 cm); 1.4–1.6 oz (39–45 g). Dark head with orange eye patch; dark wings and tail with yellowish tips; white under-parts with black scaly pattern.

distribution

Southeastern Australia from near Brisbane to central Victoria. Vagrant into Adelaide region and in many parts of range. Main breeding populations are on northwest slopes of New South Wales, west of the Blue Mountains, and in northeast Victoria.

habitat

Open forests and woodlands, especially with ironbark, riparian woodland, coastal heathland, and tall eucalyptus forest.

behavior

Often occur in small groups, formally in large flocks, and may roost communally. Active and sometimes aggressive at flowering trees, but also unobtrusive at times. Vocalizations include bubbling, tinkling, soft song, bill snaps, trilling, mewing, and sometimes mimicry of other honeyeaters. Display complex movements that involve some regularity, particularly to breeding areas, but also more nomadic outside breeding season.

feeding ecology and diet

Nectar of eucalyptus, especially ironbarks, mistletoes, banksia, grevillea, and other shrubs. Sometimes eat fruit as well as lerp and manna. Insects are taken from foliage and by sallying.

reproductive biology

Breeding season July to January, but mostly September to November, occasionally at other times. May be loosely colonial. Nest of sticks and bark in high branches and forks of tall trees or in mistletoes. Clutch of two to three eggs are incubated for 14 days. Young are fed insects, nectar, and lerp and fledge at about 16 days.

conservation status

Endangered. Populations have declined greatly in abundance during the twentieth century, with contraction in breeding range out of South Australia and western and central Victoria. Some critical habitats are protected or are being reestablished, but habitats and foods used in nonbreeding season are poorly known, which makes conservation difficult. Breed well in captivity, and releases of captive-bred birds into the wild have exhibited short-term success.

significance to humans

Formerly shot as a pest in orchards, but their striking coloration and endangered status make them high profile birds. The New South Wales town of Barraba has adopted the regent honeyeater as its emblem.

Bell miner

Manorina melanophrys

taxonomy

Turdus melanophrys Latham, 1802, Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Bellbird; French: Mélephage à sourcils noirs; German: Glockenhonigfresser; Spanish: Manorina Campanera.

physical characteristics

7.3 in (18.5 cm); 0.9–1.25 oz (25–35 g). Mostly olive-green with darker wings and yellow-orange eye patch.

distribution

Southeastern Australia from north of Brisbane to Melbourne.

habitat

Eucalyptus forests in the ranges and coastal plains, typically in wet gullies with a good shrub layer. Less commonly in eucalyptus woodlands.

behavior

Highly colonial, with intense aggression keeping out most other small and medium-sized birds. Larger birds and mammals are mobbed. Colonies are easy to locate with the constant bell-like calls and chipping and chucking calls. Highly sedentary, with only occasional movements out of the colony.

feeding ecology and diet

Glean insects, especially psyllids and their lerp, from foliage. Less commonly forage on bark. Feed on nectar when available in their colony.

reproductive biology

Coteries in colonies are groups of breeding pairs, among which there is strong cooperation. May breed at any time of year but mostly June to November in the north and August to January in the south. Nests are typically placed in the understory at 3–10 feet (1–3 m) high and are made of grass and twigs and are built only by the female. Usually two eggs (occasionally one or three), which are laid and incubated by the female for about 14 days. About half of feeding visits to the young are by the parents; the remainder are by numerous helpers, mostly male, some of which are breeding themselves. Young fledge at 12 days.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Bellbirds' aggressive behavior means that they can deter threatened species from remaining in an area.

Yellow-tufted honeyeater

Lichenostomus melanops

taxonomy

Turdus melanops Latham, 1801, Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Black-faced honeyeater, golden-tufted honeyeater; French: Méliphage cornu; German: Gelbstirn-Honigfresser; Spanish: Melífago de Moño Amarillo.

physical characteristics

6.5–8.3 in (16.5–21 cm); 0.8–1.3 oz (22–36 g). Black head with yellow crest to nape and chin to throat. Grayish underparts and dark secondary wing feathers fading to yellowish primaries.

distribution

Southeastern Australia from southeastern Queensland to extreme southeast South Australia. One well-defined subspecies (L.m. cassidix; helmeted honeyeater) near Melbourne has been regarded as a separate species, and several other subspecies exist.

habitat

Woodland and open forest dominated by eucalyptus, typically with well-developed understory and often in gullies. Sometimes in heathland, mallee, or woodland with native pine.

behavior

Often found in loose colonies in which birds may cooperate to drive out other honeyeaters and small birds and mob predators.

Mostly sedentary although some movements occur. The single note calls tsup or see emitted frequently may act as a territorial call. They also emit a trilling flight call. Noisy calls when birds gather into corroborees.

feeding ecology and diet

Take insects, lerp, and manna from eucalyptus foliage and sometimes exudates from trunks and branches. May sally and hover. Also take nectar from eucalyptus and shrubs and occasionally eat fruit.

reproductive biology

May breed throughout the year but mostly September to November. Apparently monogamous, though with helpers at the nest. Nests are in shrubs a few feet above the ground. Usually lay two eggs (occasionally one or three). Females do most incubation, for about 15 days. Young are fed by both parents and helpers on nectar and insects and fledge at about 16 days.

conservation status

Critically Endangered helmeted honeyeaters are confined to one population of about 100 adults east of Melbourne. Other subspecies are not threatened.

significance to humans

Helmeted honeyeater is Victoria's state bird.

Strong-billed honeyeater

Melithreptus validirostris

taxonomy

Haematops validirostris Gould, 1837, Tasmania.

other common names

English: Black-capped honeyeater; French: Méliphage à bec fort; German: Starkschnabel-Honigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Miel Picudo.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); 0.9 oz (25 g). Black head and chin with white band from eye to nape. White throat and buff belly with dull olive-brown upperparts.

distribution

Endemic to Tasmania, including King, Flinders, and Cape Barren Islands.

habitat

Eucalyptus forests, especially wet gullies, but also in dry forest, sometimes in cool temperate rainforest, and occasionally coastal heathland, parks, and gardens.

behavior

In pairs, family groups, or small flocks. Sometimes noisy and aggressive. Emit cheeping and churring calls. Sedentary, although exhibit local movements.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage on bark more than most honeyeaters do, probing into rough or peeling bark on trunks and branches of eucalyptus. Use long, sturdy bill to flake, lever, or tear off pieces or strips of bark to catch insects and spiders. Less commonly feed on nectar.

reproductive biology

Poorly known, but nests found from July to January. They suspend a nest in eucalyptus or tea-tree foliage. Usually lay three eggs that are incubated by both parents. Incubation and nestling periods not known. Probably cooperative breeders.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Stitchbird

Notiomystis cincta

taxonomy

Meliphaga cincta Du Bus, 1839, North Island, New Zealand.

other common names

English: Hihi; French: Méliphage hihi; German: Hihi; Spanish: Pájaro Puntado.

physical characteristics

7 in (18 cm); female 1.1 oz (30 g), male 1.3 oz (36 g). Dark head, throat, and upperparts with white patch behind eye. Yellow breast with white belly; wings black with yellow and white tips.

distribution

Once widespread on North Island, but the only natural population is on Little Barrier Island. They have been introduced to several other islands, including Hen, Cuvier, Kapiti, and Tiritiri Matingi off North Island and Mokoia Island in Lake Rotorua.

habitat

Warm temperate rainforest, especially in gullies.

behavior

In pairs in breeding season and small groups at other times. Male has an aggressive display with tail and ear-tufts raised and showing off golden shoulders. Although pairs usually mate in the conventional manner, males sometimes force the female to copulate by holding her on her back on the ground. Such males are typically not the partner, and this method of copulating is apparently unique among birds. High-pitched contact calls, males give a loud whistling song. Roost in cavities.

feeding ecology and diet

Insects are taken by gleaning and sallying. Forage extensively on nectar and fruit of a wide variety of trees and shrubs, with proportions varying seasonally.

reproductive biology

Breed as monogamous pairs but with frequent extra-pair copulations. Exceptional among honeyeaters in nesting in hollows of dead or living trees. Will use nesting boxes on islands with insufficient natural hollows. Complex nest built of sticks, fern rhizomes, and rootlets. The nest is mostly built by female (occasionally more than one), but male may also collect sticks. Two to five eggs are incubated solely by female for about 16 days. Young are fed by both parents and fledge at 26–32 days (an exceptionally long period for a honeyeater). Young join a creche one week after fledging and are not fed by their parents.

conservation status

Vulnerable, with population of about 5,000 on Little Barrier Island. Populations reestablished on other islands remain small and precarious. Previous threats included over-collection, loss of nesting hollows, and introduced predators such as black rats (Rattus rattus).

significance to humans

Feathers of a large number of these birds were incorporated into Maori ceremonial cloaks.

Red myzomela

Myzomela cruentata

taxonomy

Myzomela cruentata Meyer, 1875, Arfak Mountains, New Guinea.

other common names

English: Red honeyeater; French: Myzomèle vermillion; German: Bluthonigfresser; Spanish: Meloncillo Rojo.

physical characteristics

4 in (11 cm), 0.25–0.30 oz (7–9 g). Small bird with entirely scarlet plumage, with exception of dark undertail and wing coverts.

distribution

Mountains of New Guinea from 2,000–4,800 feet (600–1,500m), Yapen Island, Bismarck Archipelago. One subspecies in New Guinea and five more on different islands of the Bismarcks.

habitat

Rainforest.

behavior

Generally quiet and inconspicuous. Emit a high-pitched tseet.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on flowers in tall forest trees as well as in sago. Insects captured in the air and by probing into moss on high tree branches. Typically forage in the forest canopy.

reproductive biology

Poorly known.

conservation status

Not threatened; locally common.

significance to humans

None known.

Brown honeyeater

Lichmera indistincta

taxonomy

Meliphaga indistincta Vigors and Horsfield, 1827, King George Sound, Western Australia.

other common names

English: Least honeyeater, warbling honeyeater; French: Méliphage brunâtre; German: Braunhonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Miel Castaño.

physical characteristics

4.3–6.3 in (11–16 cm); 0.3–0.4 oz (9–11 g). Drab olive-brown upperparts with a whitish patch behind eye. Underparts fade from light brown throat to whitish belly.

distribution

Most of Australia, except for the southeast, southern coast, and parts of the center. Trans-Fly region of southern New Guinea, Aru Islands, and Lesser Sundas from Tanimbar Islands west to Bali. The only honeyeater to cross Wallace's Line. The form found in the Lesser Sundas is sometimes regarded as a distinct species (L. limbata). Three subspecies recognized in Australia.

habitat

Mangroves, paperbark, and eucalyptus forests and woodlands, heathlands, semi-arid shrublands in Australia; also in parks and gardens. Mangroves, monsoon woodlands, scrub, secondary growth, and cultivated areas in Lesser Sundas, from sea level to 8,000 feet (2,600 m).

behavior

Usually singly or in pairs, sometimes in small groups. Present year-round in many areas but also show local movements in response to flowering, and occasionally found outside normal range. A renowned singer with loud song described as rich, cheerful, pleasing, and musical.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on nectar from flowers of trees and shrubs, including mangroves, eucalyptus, tea trees, and grevilleas. Insects are taken from foliage and by aerial capture.

reproductive biology

Long breeding season, although birds in northern Australia breed in the dry season from April to September and those in the south breed in spring and summer (July to January). Tightly woven cup-shaped nest is usually within 6 ft (2 m) of the ground. Clutch of two (occasionally one or three) eggs. Probably only the female incubates, but both sexes feed young. Incubation period lasts 12–14 days, and fledging occurs at about 14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened; common in many parts of range.

significance to humans

Successful in towns, where their song is appreciated by many.

New Holland honeyeater

Phylidonyris novaehollandiae

taxonomy

Certhia novaehollandiae Latham, 1790, Port Jackson, New South Wales, Australia. Five subspecies.

other common names

English: Yellow-winged honeyeater, white-bearded honeyeater, white-eyed honeyeater; French: Mélephage de Nouvelle-Hollande; German: Weissaugen-Honigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar de Alas Amarillas.

physical characteristics

6.3–7.9 in (16–20 cm); 0.7 oz (20 g). Black head and upperparts, white spots above and below eye. Black wings have yellow at tips. Underparts black under bill fading to white under belly.

distribution

Southwestern Australia and southeastern Australia north to about Brisbane, Tasmania.

habitat

Open forest and woodland with dense understory, heathland, mallee heath.

behavior

One of the best-studied honeyeaters. They are conspicuous, active, and aggressive. Breeding males defend areas near the nest by perching in conspicuous locations, calling, and chasing intruders. May perform corroborees where up to about a dozen birds gather closely together with much calling and wing fluttering. This may involve intraspecific interaction or be a response to potential predators. Other displays involve spreading the white ear-plumes, holding the bill open, and tail flicking. Show complex but probably mostly local movements in response to pattern of flowering. Calls mostly simple whistles, with stronger calls during corroboree and in response to predators, and a warbling song flight.

feeding ecology and diet

Take nectar from a wide range of native plants, including eucalyptus, banksias, heaths, and mistletoes. May defend feeding territories. Insects mostly taken by sallying, although sometimes taken from foliage or bark. Also take manna, lerp, and honeydew.

reproductive biology

May breed at almost any time of year but is mostly concentrated in late winter to spring (July to September) with a secondary peak in autumn in some years and places. Several attempts are made per year. The cup-shaped nest is placed in a low shrub. Clutch size is typically two, sometimes three, and occasionally one egg. Incubation and fledging periods last about 14 days. Parents are occasionally helped by other birds.

conservation status

Not threatened; abundant in many areas.

significance to humans

A well-known honeyeater in parks and gardens in southern Australia.

Rufous-banded honeyeater

Conopophila albogularis

taxonomy

Entomophila albogularis Gould, 1843, Port Essington, Northern Territory, Australia.

other common names

English: Rufous-breasted honeyeater; French: Méliphage à gorge blanc; German: Rostband-Honigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar de Bandas.

physical characteristics

5.1 in (13 cm); 0.4 oz (12 g). Black head, wings, and upperparts with some yellow on wings. Underparts white, with wide rufous band at breast.

distribution

North of Northern Territory and Queensland. Patchily distributed in lowland New Guinea and on Aru Islands.

habitat

Riparian forests of paperbark (Melaleuca), eucalyptus woodlands, mangroves, vine thickets, town parks, and gardens.

behavior

Poorly known. Territorial in breeding season, unobtrusive at other times. Resident, but some evidence of local nomadism. Emit an attractive, melodious, but squeaky song. Other calls include zzheep, twittering, and chipping.

feeding ecology and diet

Highly insectivorous, foraging from outer foliage, especially of wattles. Also take nectar from eucalyptus and paperbark flowers and eat the arils that attach wattle seeds to the pod.

reproductive biology

May breed at any time but main peaks are in late dry (September–November) and late wet (January to March) seasons. The purse-shaped nest is suspended from outer twigs of wattle or paperbark, often over water. Usually two to three eggs (occasionally one or four) that are incubated for about 14 days. Both adults feed young that fledge at 14 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Very common in suburban Darwin.

significance to humans

None known.

Western spinebill

Acanthorhynchus superciliosus

taxonomy

Acanthorhynchus superciliosus Gould, 1837, Perth, Western Australia.

other common names

English: Western spinebilled honeyeater; French: Méliphage festonné; German: Buntkopf-Honigfresser; Spanish: Pico de Espina Occidental.

physical characteristics

5.5 in (14 cm); 0.35 oz (10 g). Head black, back and wings grayish. Rufous band behind neck, and from throat to breast. Underparts light gray with black and white bands below breast. White bands behind bill and eye.

distribution

Southwestern Australia.

habitat

Heathland, woodland, and open forest with heathy understory. Sometimes in mallee, rarely in gardens.

behavior

Active. White outer tail feathers conspicuous in flight. Produce audible wing beats. Exhibit flight displays, frequent rapid and erratic chases, and male displays to female by fanning tail. Emit twittering and whistling calls and song. Poorly understood movements, perhaps local and in response to flowering patterns of plants.

feeding ecology and diet

Probe flowers of banksias, eucalyptus, and numerous shrubs, including Dryandra, Grevillea, Adenanthos, and Calothamnus, as well as kangaroo paws (Anigozanthos). Also take insects, mostly captured in the air but also gleaned from plants.

reproductive biology

Breed July to December, occasionally later. The rounded cupshaped nest is placed in a shrub or small tree. Female mostly incubates the clutch of one or two eggs, but both parents feed young. Incubation and fledging periods not known.

conservation status

Not threatened, but has declined in northeastern part of range due to extensive clearing of habitat; also adversely affected by fire.

significance to humans

None known.

Tui

Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae

taxonomy

Merops novaeseelandiae Gmelin, 1788, Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand.

other common names

English: Parson bird; French: Tui cravate-frisée; German: Tui; Spanish: Pájaro Sacerdote.

physical characteristics

10.5–12.5 in (27–32 cm); male 4.3 oz (120 g), female 3 oz (85g). Dark, iridescent plumage with two white throat tufts. Back and flanks dark reddish brown. White collar and wing bars.

distribution

New Zealand, including North Island, western and southeastern South Island (patchy on the rest of South Island), Stewart Island, other offshore islands, Chatham Islands, Raoul Island in Kermadecs, and possibly vagrant on Snares and Auckland Islands.

habitat

Podocarp, broadleaf, and beech forest, including remnants and regrowth. Also in dense exotic vegetation and in parks and gardens.

behavior

Hold breeding territories and occur in loose groups outside breeding season, when males dominate females and tuis dominate other honeyeaters. May perform corroborees in small groups near the ground. Resident, but with local movements; more common in winter in urban areas. Males display song flights. Song is highly complex, and tuis have been deemed among the best singers in the world. The song is rich, melodious, and includes soft liquid warbling notes, bell-like calls, and chimes interspersed with sighs, sobs, coughs, laughs, sneezes, etc. Noisy flight is due to wing slots.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on nectar from a wide range of plants, including Metrosideros, Fuchsia, and New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax). Glean insects, especially from foliage, and even sandhoppers (Amphipoda). Fruit is also an important component of the diet from late summer to winter. Honeydew is consumed from scale insects on beech trees.

reproductive biology

Breed mostly October to January. The large, untidy nest is placed in fork or shrub or tree. The clutch of two to four (occasionally five) eggs is incubated by the female. Incubation and fledging periods are about 14 days. Young are fed by both parents, but more by female. Nests preyed on by introduced mammals and birds.

conservation status

Not threatened, but has declined in many areas during nineteenth and twentieth centuries due to habitat loss, hunting, and predation by introduced mammals and birds.

significance to humans

Hunted by Maoris, especially consumed at feasts, and Europeans, who made pasties (pies) from them. Skins have been used in ladies' hats. Occasionally kept as pets.

Bishop's oo

Moho bishopi

taxonomy

Acrulocercus bishopi Rothschild, 1893, Molokai Island, Hawaii.

other common names

English: Molokai oo; French: Moho de Bishop; German: Ohrbüschelmoho; Spanish: Oo Obispo.

physical characteristics

12 in (31 cm). Smoky black neck, back, and underparts with narrow white shaft lines on feathers. Wings and tail black. Tufts of golden feathers at ear coverts, undertail, and axillary.

distribution

Maui Island, formerly Molokai Island, Hawaiian Islands.

habitat

Dense rainforest in mountains.

behavior

Inquisitive but timid and alert. Very loud owow, owow-ow call. The long graduated tail of male oos may have been used, along

with the yellow feathers on wing, neck, and tail coverts, to display to the female.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed on nectar from lobelia flowers. Also take insects from upper canopy.

reproductive biology

Not known, but possibly a hollow nester like the Kauai oo.

conservation status

Critically Endangered, last seen on Molokai in 1904. Rediscovered on Maui in 1981. Probably wiped out on Molokai due to habitat loss and introduced malaria. Perhaps restricted to highest parts of Maui due to introduced malaria in the lowlands.

significance to humans

Snared by native Hawaiians for its yellow plumes, which were used for ceremonial cloaks.

Greater Sulawesi honeyeater

Myza sarasinorum

taxonomy

Myza sarasinorum Meyer and Wiglesworth, 1895, Matinan Mountains, north Celebes (Sulawesi).

other common names

English: White-eared myza, greater streaked honeyeater, spot-headed honeyeater; French: Méliphage à points; German: Sarasinhonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar de Cabeza Moteada.

physical characteristics

8 in (20 cm); weight about 1 oz (30 g). Long body and long, decurved bill. Head black with pinkish white patch behind eye.

Rufous from chin to vent, with breast and back mottled rufous brown. Brown rump and tail.

distribution

Sulawesi, with separate subspecies in northern, central, and southeastern parts of the island.

habitat

Montane and elfin moss forest, at 5,000–8,500 ft (1,700–2,800 m).

behavior

Occur singly or in pairs, active and pugnacious. Described as squirrel-like in the way that they scurry about the branches of moss-draped trees. Wide variety of calls, including zunk, kep, kik, kuik, zip, and tuck. Also emit a high-pitched squeaky song.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage from the understory to the treetops, taking arthropods from epiphytes and probing flowers, especially flowers of gingers.

reproductive biology

Not known.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in suitable habitat.

significance to humans

None known.

Puff-backed meliphaga

Meliphaga aruensis

taxonomy

Meliphaga auriculata Salvadori, 1881, Utanata River, New Guinea.

other common names

English: Puff-backed honeyeater; French: Méliphage bouffant; German: Aruhonigfresser; Spanish: Melífago de Lomo Inflado.

physical characteristics

6.7 in (17 cm); 1.1 oz (30 g). Olive-green upperparts with narrow yellowish rictal spot on sides of head; blackish lores; and gray underparts washed yellow, darker on flanks. Feet dull gray, bill blackish brown.

distribution

New Guinea from sea level to 4,000 ft (1,200 m), Aru, Yapen, West Papuan, D'Entrecasteaux, and Trobriand Islands.

habitat

Lowland rainforest, especially in dense regrowth after disturbance in both secondary and primary forest.

behavior

Shy, usually hidden and very hard to identify from several similar meliphagas with which they may occur. Voice is a rapid series of mellow staccato notes.

feeding ecology and diet

Take fruit, nectar, and insects by gleaning in the understory and lower canopy.

reproductive biology

Breeding recorded March through April and August through December. The cup-shaped nest of dead leaves and bark is suspended

in shrub or sapling. Female incubates one or two eggs, and both adults feed young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Belford's melidectes

Melidectes belfordi

taxonomy

Melirrhophetes belfordi De Vis, 1890, Mount Knutsford, New Guinea. Seven subspecies.

other common names

English: Belford's honeyeater; French: Méliphage de Belford; German: Belfordhonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Miel de Belford.

physical characteristics

10.7 in (27 cm); female 2.1 oz (60 g), male 2.6 oz (74 g). Light blue bare face skin and whitish wattles. Crown, lores, cheeks, and throat black, with white brow stripe and broad white streaks at side of throat. Gray underparts with brownish belly and undertail.

distribution

Central ranges of New Guinea from 5,250 to 12,500 ft (1,600 to 3,800 m). They also hybridize with yellow-browed melidectes (M. rufocrissalis) in the eastern part of range.

habitat

Mountain rainforests, extending into pockets of shrubbery in subalpine grasslands.

behavior

Boisterous and aggressive toward other species at flowering trees. Sail across openings with wings held widely spread, with infrequent flaps. Noisy, loud, and repeated calls, with gurgling, coughing, cackling, cawing, and piping notes.

feeding ecology and diet

Feed in canopy on nectar, arthropods, and some fruit. Glean from vines and foliage and probe into moss and epiphytes.

reproductive biology

Breeding season April to July or later. The deep cup-shaped nest is made of moss, twigs, and hairs from the fronds of tree ferns. Egg apparently undescribed.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Common smoky honeyeater

Melipotes fumigatus

taxonomy

Melipotes fumigatus Meyer, 1886, southeast New Guinea.

other common names

English: Common melipotes, smoky honeyeater; French: Méliphage enfumé; German: Aschbrust-Honigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar Común.

physical characteristics

8.6 in (22 cm); female 1.9 oz (52 g), male 2.1 oz (58 g). Orange-yellow face skin and ear wattle; blackish brown upperparts. Underparts

are dark gray-brown, paler on throat and abdomen. Bill blackish; legs sooty gray.

distribution

Central ranges of New Guinea, and Kumawa, Fakfak, Foya, and Cyclops ranges, at 3,000–13,000 ft (1,000–4,200 m).

habitat

Montane rainforest, forest edge, secondary growth, and gardens.

behavior

Quiet and sluggish for a honeyeater, although sometimes aggressive. Call is a weak, monotonous swit…swit…swit….

feeding ecology and diet

Feed mostly on small fruits in mid-story and canopy. Also eat small insects by gleaning and sallying.

reproductive biology

Nest August to October. The nest is loose and cup-shaped and made of leaves and moss and is held together with black fibers from a fungus. Females lay one egg. Young are fed on fruit.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Cape sugarbird

Promerops cafer

taxonomy

Merops cafer Linnaeus, 1758, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.

other common names

English: Sugarbird; French: Promérops du cap; German: Kaphonigfresser; Spanish: Pájaro Azúcar de el Cabo.

physical characteristics

Females 9.5–11.5 in (24–29 cm), males 14.5–17 in (37–44 cm), including long tail; 1.5 oz (42 g). Rufous head and breast. Distinctive long bill and long, brownish tail feathers. Chin is white with a moustachial dark streak. Abdomen is whitish, vent yellow.

distribution

South Cape Province, South Africa.

habitat

Fynbos (coastal heathland).

behavior

Single or paired, sometimes in small flocks. Males in breeding season perform aerial displays in which wings are clapped together and tail is held high. Both sexes defend flowering bushes from other sugarbirds and sunbirds. Song is a sustained jumble of discordant notes. Emit harsh alarm call of chicks and clatters. Show local and altitudinal movements in response to flowering of proteas.

feeding ecology and diet

Forage on nectar, especially of Proteaceae, and on insects captured in flight or gleaned from plants.

reproductive biology

Breed from February to August, but varies with local timing of flowering. The deep cup-shaped nest is placed in a bush or low tree and is made from grass and twigs and lined with plant down. Lay two buff to reddish brown eggs with brown spots, streaks, and blotches.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Beehler, B.M., T.K. Pratt, and D.A. Zimmerman. Birds of New Guinea. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986.

Ford, H.A., and D.C. Paton. The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia. Adelaide: Government Printer, 1986.

Higgins, P.J., J.M. Peter, and W.K. Steele. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 5. Tyrant-flycatchers to Chats. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Longmore, W. Honeyeaters and their Allies of Australia. Angus and Robertson: Sydney, 1991.

Periodicals

Ford, H.A., and S. Tremont. "Life History Characteristics of Two Australian Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae)." Australian Journal of Zoology 48 (2000): 21–32.

Franklin, D.C., and R.A. Noske. "Local Movements of Honeyeaters in a Sub-coastal Vegetation Mosaic in the Northern Territory." Corella 22 (1998): 97–103.

Franklin, D.C., and R.A. Noske. "The Nesting Biology of the Brown Honeyeater Lichmera indistincta in the Darwin Region of Northern Australia, with Notes on Tidal Flooding of Nests." Corella 24 (2000): 38–44.

Noske, R.A. "Breeding Biology, Demography and Success of the Rufous-banded Honeyeater, Conopophila albogularis, in Darwin, a Monsoonal Tropical City." Wildlife Research 25 (1998): 339–256.

Noske, R.A., and D.C. Franklin. "Breeding Seasons of Land Birds in the Australian Monsoonal Tropics: Diverse Responses to a Highly Seasonal Environment." Australian Biologist 12 (1999): 72–90.

Wilson, K., and H.F. Recher. "Foraging Ecology and Habitat Selection of the Yellow-plumed Honeyeater, Lichenostomus ornatus, in a Western Australian Woodland: Implications for Conservation." Emu 101 (2001): 89–94.

Hugh Alastair Ford, PhD