Cuckoo-shrikes

(Campephagidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Campephagidae

Thumbnail description
Small to medium-sized birds with broad-based bills, moderately long tails, and erectile rump feathers; some species are brightly colored

Size
5.5–14.5 in (14–37 cm); 0.2–6.3 oz (6–180 g)

Number of genera, species
9 genera; 74 species

Habitat
Forest, woodland, savanna, scrub, and mangroves

Conservation status
Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 3 species; Near Threatened: 9 species; Data Deficient: 1 species

Distribution
Sub-Saharan Africa, southern and Southeast Asia to Australasia and the western Pacific islands

Evolution and systematics

Traditional classifications place the family Campephagidae between the wagtails and pipits (Motacillidae) and the bulbuls (Pycnonotidae). Nine genera are recognized: cuckoo-shrikes (Pteropodocys, Coracina, Campochaera, Chlamydochaera, and Campephaga), trillers (Lalage), minivets (Pericrocotus), flycatcher-shrikes (Hemipus), and woodshrikes (Tephrodornis).

DNA-DNA hybridization studies have suggested that the cuckoo-shrikes' closest relatives are the Old World orioles (Oriolidae). In 1990 Sibley and Monroe included both groups in the tribe Oriolinae within the expanded family Corvidae. This revision has not gained general acceptance, and in 1994 Christidis and Boles retained Campephagidae and Oriolidae as separate families pending further study. Sibley and Monroe also placed the genus Tephrodornis in the Corvidae, subfamily Malaconotidae, and tribe Vangini (helmet-shrikes). This radical rearrangement requires further investigation.

While the genus Chlamydochaera is retained within the Campephagidae, it has the distinctive syrinx morphology of true thrushes (formerly Turdidae) and muscicapine flycatchers (now united in the subfamily Muscicapinae), while DNADNA hybridization studies also suggest a turdine relationship. Storrs Olson in 1987 described skeletal features that confirm the proper placement of Chlamydochaera in the Muscicapidae.

Physical characteristics

Cuckoo-shrikes are small- to medium-sized birds. The bill is broad at the base, notched and slightly hooked, and rictal bristles are well developed. The wings are rather long and pointed, and the tail is moderately long, rounded or graduated. In most genera the back and rump feathers have very stiff shafts and soft tips, and are partially erectile. These spine-like feathers are easily shed and may act as a means of defense.

The minivets are a distinctive group. Most species have brilliantly colored plumage; males are striking red and black, and females are yellow or orange and black or gray. Most other cuckoo-shrikes are less brightly colored, and the female is often a paler, washed-out version of the male. Male flycatcher-shrikes and trillers are typically black and white, while females have the black replaced by gray or brown; female trillers are often barred below. Most Coracina species (often called gray-birds) are gray or gray and white.

In four Campephaga species, males are glossy black with brightly colored gape wattles, while females are olive-yellow and white, most with strong blackish barring. The other two species are sometimes separated into a different genus (Lobotos) in view of their predominantly green, yellow, and orange plumage, prominent facial wattles, and lack of strong sexual dimorphism.

Distribution

The family is confined to the Old World, from Africa through south and Southeast Asia to Australasia and the western Pacific islands. The genus Campephaga is endemic to Africa, where four endemic Coracina species also occur, while

the western Indian Ocean islands of Madagascar, Mauritius, and Reunion each have one endemic Coracina species. The remaining 34 Coracina species are distributed through the Oriental and Australasian regions. Twenty-four species occur only in Australasia, where several species have very restricted island distributions.

The ground cuckoo-shrike (Pteropodocys maxima) is endemic to Australia. Of the other monospecific genera, the golden cuckoo-shrike (Campochaera sloetii) is endemic to New Guinea, and the black-breasted triller (Chlamydochaera jeffreyi) to Borneo. The genus Lalage is predominantly Australasian in distribution. Only three of its nine species occur in the Oriental region, while two species inhabit Pacific islands east of Western Samoa.

The remaining three genera (Hemipus, Tephrodornis, and Pericrocotus) are predominantly birds of southern and Southeast Asia. The 11 minivet species are widely distributed in southern Asia. The rosy minivet (Pericrocotus roseus) and the long-tailed minivet (Pericrocotus ethologus) occur as far west as eastern Afghanistan, and the ashy minivet (Pericrocotus divaricatus) ranges east to eastern Siberia and Japan.

Habitat

All species except the ground cuckoo-shrike are predominantly or exclusively arboreal, and many are found mainly in the canopy of tall trees. Habitats include the interior and edge of forest (swampy, humid, or dry), woodland, savanna, and scrub. Some species, such as the golden cuckoo-shrike, and the wattled cuckoo-shrikes (Campephaga lobata and oriolina) of Africa, are restricted to the forest interior, but many are more typical of forest edge, secondary growth, riparian or gallery forest, gardens, or coastal vegetation (including mangroves).

Most Campephaga species inhabit forest and woodland areas, but the black cuckoo-shrike (Campephaga flava) also frequents acacia savanna, semi-arid bushland, scrub, and exotic plantations. Coracina species inhabit many forest types, as well as savanna, woodland, scrub, farmlands, gardens, and plantations, as do the trillers and the flycatcher-shrikes. Minivets are predominantly birds of the treetops in forest, woodland, urban areas, and sometimes mangroves.

Behavior

Most species are seen singly, in pairs, or in family groups. Mixed-species bird parties of forest or woodland often contain one or more species from this family. In the nonbreeding season, many species, especially the minivets, associate in monospecific parties or flocks, and in Australia the yellow-eyed cuckoo-shrike (Coracina lineata) roosts communally.

Most cuckoo-shrikes tend to be unobtrusive and quite silent, although many have loud calls. These whistles or rather raucous squawks are not uttered frequently. However, flocks of minivets, with their bright colors and musical contact calls, are much more obvious. The cicadabird (Coracina tenuirostris) has a cicada-like call. Several species have male-female duets.

Some cuckoo-shrikes have a habit of perching motionless on a branch, often in an upright stance and sometimes for long periods. The larger species have the habit of shuffling or refolding their wings on alighting.

Many species, especially those of forested regions, are sedentary. However, other species, especially in Africa and Australia, show local or limited seasonal movements. Three minivet species of central/eastern Asia are long-distance migrants, wintering south to Southeast Asia. The ashy minivet reaches the Philippines.

Feeding ecology and diet

Food is predominantly insects and other arthropods, and many species take caterpillars, including hairy ones. Many species also eat fruit, while some take seeds and other vegetable matter. The black-breasted triller is apparently entirely frugivorous, while the varied triller (Lalage leucomela) and the yellow-eyed cuckoo-shrike are particularly attracted to figs. Minivets eat predominantly insects, buds, and berries.

Most species take insect prey by gleaning in the foliage of trees, bushes, and creepers, while some also search trunks and branches. Many species also make aerial flycatching sallies, while some occasionally take prey from the ground. The ground cuckoo-shrike feeds mainly on the ground on large insects such as grasshoppers, which it runs to catch.

Reproductive biology

Monogamy is prevalent, and some species are thought to be permanently territorial. The breeding and breeding seasons of many species are poorly known or undescribed. Most species nest solitarily but the white-winged triller (Lalage sueurii) often nests in loose colonies and the ground cuckoo-shrike also nests communally. Males of some of the larger cuckoo-shrike species have a courtship display in which the bird lifts each wing alternately, calling strongly while doing so.

The nest is a small, shallow cup of fine twigs, roots, bark, grasses, lichens, or moss, often bound together and sometimes lined with spider webs. It is usually placed on a fork or horizontal branch high in a tree and is difficult to see from below. In many species both sexes build the nest, but in the genera Campephaga and Pericrocotus nest-building is done chiefly by the female, assisted by the male.

The clutch is one to five eggs, usually two or three. In many species only the female incubates; in others both sexes share incubation duties. The incubation period varies from 14 to 25 days, and in many species is three weeks or more. The nestling period is of similar length (13–24 days). Both sexes care for the young. Most species for which information is available breed during or just after the rains.

Conservation status

Only four species are considered threatened. The Reunion cuckoo-shrike (Coracina newtoni) is Endangered. In 2000 it had a population of 120 pairs and a very small range of 6.2 mi² (16 km²) in increasingly degraded forest habitat. Of the three Vulnerable species, the Mauritius cuckoo-shrike (Coracina typica) has a very small range. However, it has responded well to rehabilitation of native ecosystems, and its small population is increasing. The white-winged cuckoo-shrike (Coracina ostenta) of the Philippines is declining through destruction of its forest habitat.

Nine species are Near Threatened and six of these occur only in Indonesia or the Philippines, where forest destruction has been severe.

Detailed information is lacking on the current status of most species, but many have suffered from habitat loss. A few species have adapted to modified or degraded habitats. In New Guinea, the white-bellied cuckoo-shrike (Coracina papuensis) has invaded some urban areas, where it is locally abundant.

Significance to humans

Although some cuckoo-shrikes are brightly colored and many are vocal, almost all are relatively unobtrusive and often overlooked by humans. They have little or no significance in either a cultural or agricultural context.

Species accounts

List of Species

Western wattled cuckoo-shrike

Campephaga lobata

taxonomy

Ceblepyris lobatus Temminck, 1824, Gold Coast (Ghana).

other common names

English: Ghana cuckoo-shrike; French: Echenilleur à barbillons; German: Westlicher lappenraupenfresser; Spanish: Oruguero Occidental.

physical characteristics

8.3 in (21 cm); 1.0–1.3 oz (29–37 g). Male has glossy black head and black bill with orange wattles on gape. Breast and flanks orange-yellow, wings greenish yellow. Female slightly duller with greenish forehead and crown.

distribution

East Sierra Leone, Liberia, west Côte d'Ivoire, south Ghana, one record in southeast Nigeria.

habitat

Upper Guinea forest zone, in the canopy of primary or tall lowland rainforest, often near rivers, and in open swamp-forest. Also recorded in logged forest, Terminalia plantations, disturbed forest, and managed forest.

behavior

Usually seen singly or in pairs, often with a mixed bird party; inconspicuous.

feeding ecology and diet

The diet includes caterpillars, grasshoppers, mantids, and seeds.

reproductive biology

Descriptions of the nest and eggs are not available. Birds from Liberia are known to be in breeding condition in February and during the months of August to November.

conservation status

Although it has apparently adapted to secondary habitat, this bird is seriously threatened by massive forest destruction throughout its range. It is therefore considered Vulnerable. In 2000, it was locally rare to uncommon over much of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Mauritius cuckoo-shrike

Coracina typica

taxonomy

Oxynotus typicus Hartlaub, 1865, Mauritius.

other common names

French: Echenilleur de Maurice; German: Mauritiusraupenfänger; Spanish: Oruguero de Mauricio.

physical characteristics

8.7 in (22 cm); one male 1.5 oz (43 g). Gray upperparts and grayish white below with blackish wings; females orange-brown above and rich orange rufous below.

distribution

South Mauritius.

habitat

Canopy of moist tropical evergreen forest above 1,500 ft (460m); also adjacent degraded or altered forest.

behavior

Lives solitarily or in pairs; territorial throughout the year. Unobtrusive and secretive, but may be located by its melodic trill and harsh call-note.

feeding ecology and diet

It eats mainly large arthropods, including caterpillars, mantids, stick insects, and beetles, and also geckos.

reproductive biology

Highest density 25 territories/km². Breeds from September to March, during the rains. Monogamous. The nest is a shallow cup of fine twigs, lichens, and spider webs, and is attached to a horizontal tree branch. Both sexes build the nest. The female lays two eggs; incubation is by both sexes for 24–25 days.

conservation status

Habitat loss and degradation have caused a long-term decline in the population cinced human colonization and remains a long-term threat. The species is considered Vulnerable because of its very small range and population (300–350 pairs in 2000). Since 1975, its range and density have increased, thanks to conservation action to rehabilitate native ecosystems.

significance to humans

None known.

Blue cuckoo-shrike

Coracina azurea

taxonomy

Graucalus azureus Cassin, 1852, Sierra Leone.

other common names

French: Echenilleur bleu; German: Azurraupenfänger; Spanish: Oruguero Azul Africano.

physical characteristics

8.5 in (21.5 cm); 1.5–1.8 oz (43–51 g). Bright blue plumage with black mask, flight feathers, and tail. Eyes red. Female has duller, green-blue forehead and wings.

distribution

Sierra Leone, Liberia, southwest Côte d'Ivoire, south Ghana and south Nigeria to southwest Cameroon, Gabon, southwest Central African Republic, north and central DRC and northwest Angola.

habitat

Canopy of lowland primary and secondary forest; also open woodland and sometimes clearings.

behavior

Territorial. Unobtrusive and easily overlooked despite its bright blue color, but its powerful "peeeoo" calls advertise its presence. It joins mixed-species bird parties.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats caterpillars, grasshoppers, termites, beetles, snails, and occasionally small fruit. Forages like a flycatcher, snatching prey in the air and from foliage; also gleans.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeds November–March, when rainfall is relatively low. Nest is a loose bowl of lichens and spider webs on a horizontal tree branch.

conservation status

Not threatened. Its known range is fragmented, and it has suffered considerably from habitat destruction. In the 1980s, it was still locally frequent to common in some parts of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-shouldered cuckoo-shrike

Campephaga phoenicea

taxonomy

Ampelis phoenicea Latham, 1790, Gambia.

other common names

French: Echenilleur à épaulettes rouges; German: Mohrenraupenfresser; Spanish: Oruguero de Hombros Rojos.

physical characteristics

8 in (20 cm); 0.8–1.3 oz (23–35.5 g). Male black with red or orange shoulder-patch; female heavily barred below.

distribution

South Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia east to Ethiopia and south to north DRC, Uganda, and west Kenya.

habitat

Bushes and small trees in forest patches, secondary growth, wooded grassland, and thickets in savanna.

behavior

Usually occurs singly or in pairs; unobtrusive and mainly silent. Flight is undulating and low between trees. Sedentary or nomadic. In Nigeria and Sudan, it moves north to breed during rains.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats caterpillars and other insects, especially Orthoptera and Hemiptera. Forages mainly by gleaning from leaves and branches; also takes prey on ground and in flycatching sallies.

reproductive biology

Breeds May–September, during rains. Monogamous. Nest is a small, shallow cup of moss, lichens, and spider webs, and is well concealed in fork of leafless tree. Lays two eggs.

conservation status

Widespread and uncommon to locally common; not threatened. There is no information on effects of habitat loss.

significance to humans

None known.

Golden cuckoo-shrike

Campochaera sloetii

taxonomy

Campephaga sloetii Schlegel, 1866, New Guinea. Two sub-species.

other common names

English: Golden triller; French: Echenilleur doré; German: Goldraupenfresser; Spanish: Oruguero Anaranjado.

physical characteristics

7.9 in (20 cm); 1.3–1.6 oz (36–46 g). Grayish white forehead and browline with olive-gray crown. Neck to uppertail-coverts

are orange-yellow, as is the abdomen. Black wings with two white stripes; throat and upper breast black.

distribution

C. s. sloetii: Arfak Mountains (foothills) and north New Guinea lowlands east to Wewak area. C. s. flaviceps: South New Guinea lowlands from Mimika River east to Port Moresby area.

habitat

Tall tree canopy of forest interior and edge.

behavior

Occurs in pairs or small parties. Active and noisy, with musical, high-pitched whistling calls. Duetting displays are recorded.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats fruit; reports of feeding on insects are unconfirmed.

reproductive biology

Unknown; it is thought to breed during the rainy season (November–March).

conservation status

Not threatened. The known distribution is rather patchy but the species was formerly regarded as not uncommon locally.

significance to humans

None known.

Varied triller

Lalage leucomela

taxonomy

Campephaga leucomela Vigors and Horsefield, 1827, Queens-land. Fifteen subspecies.

other common names

English: White-browed/pied triller; French: Echenilleur varié; German: Weißbrauenlalage; Spanish: Gorjeador de Cejas Blancas.

physical characteristics

6.7–7.1 in (17–18 cm); 0.8–1.3 oz (24–37.5 g). Males have black upperparts, dark gray rumps, and white markings through the wings. Their underparts are white with fine dark barring and a cinnamon vent. Females have browner upper-parts and barred, gray-buff underparts.

distribution

L. l. keyensis: Kei Islands; L. l. rufiventer: Melville Island and coastal Northern Territory; L. l. leucomela: North Bismarck Archipelago, East Queensland to North New South Wales; L.l. yorki: North Queensland; L. l. polygrammica: Aru Islands and east New Guinea; L. l. obscurior: D'Entrecasteaux Archipelago;L. l. trobriandi: Trobriand Islands; L. l. pallescens: Louisaide Archipelago; L. l. falsa: New Britain, Umboi Island, Duke of York Islands; L. l. karu: New Ireland; L. l. albidior: New Hanover; L. l. ottomeyeri: Lihir Island; L. l. tabarensis: Tabar Island; L. l. conjuncta: St. Matthias Island; L. l. sumunae: Djaul Island.

habitat

Canopy of tropical and subtropical rainforest, dense eucalyptus forest, forest edges, and secondary growth; sometimes in mangroves and dense savanna; also gardens.

behavior

Normally seen singly or in pairs, sometimes in threes. Inconspicuous but vocal, with a loud, rolling, repeated "brreeer" call; several birds may call together. Sometimes sits quietly on exposed perch. Sedentary over most of its range; some movements in Australia.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on insects (especially caterpillars), fruit, berries, and seeds; particularly attracted to figs.

reproductive biology

Assumed monogamous. Breeds during rains. Nest is a very small shallow cup of dry grass, twigs, rootlets, and spider webs on a horizontal branch or fork. Lays one egg; incubation/fledging unknown.

conservation status

Not threatened. Considered locally fairly common in New Guinea and North Australia.

significance to humans

None known.

Fiery minivet

Pericrocotus igneus

taxonomy

Pericrocotus igneus Blyth, 1846, Malacca. Sometimes considered a race of small minivet (P. cinnamomeus) but is morphologically distinct and marginally sympatric.

other common names

English: Small minivet; French: Minivet flamboyant; German: Feuerrotmennigvogel; Spanish: Minivete Chico.

physical characteristics

6–6.5 in (15–16.5 cm); 0.5–0.6 oz (14–16 g). Male has black upperparts and throat with red breast, belly, rump, and outer tail feathers. Female has gray upperparts with orange rump, yellow underparts, and black tail.

distribution

Malay Peninsula (south Burma, south Thailand, Malaysia), Sumatra, Borneo, and southwest Philippines (Palawan).

habitat

Canopy of forest and forest edges; also pine plantations and casuarinas. Occurs in lowlands, but lives in montane forest up to 8,900 ft (2,700 m) in Sumatra.

behavior

Has a rising "swee-eet" call. Joins mixed-species bird parties.

feeding ecology and diet

Not specifically described; probably insects, especially caterpillars and moths. Forages in the canopy.

reproductive biology

Probably monogamous. Breeds in Palawan in December (dry season) and in Malaysia in May (start of rains). Nest is not described; probably as for small minivet: a cup of fine twigs, stems, leaves, lichens, and spider webs on a tree branch. Lays two eggs.

conservation status

Not threatened. In the 1980s–90s regarded as locally quite common in Palawan and Sumatra but uncommon in Thailand.

significance to humans

None known.

Black-winged flycatcher-shrike

Hemipus hirundinaceus

taxonomy

Muscicapa hirundinacea Temminck, 1822, Java.

other common names

French: Echenilleur véloce; German: Schwarzflügelraupenschmätzer; Spanish: Minivete de Alas Negras.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); 0.4 oz (10 g). Black plumage with dusky white underparts and white rump.

distribution

Extreme south Thailand, peninsular Malaysia; Riau and Lingga Archipelagos to Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali.

habitat

Canopy of forest, including swamp forest and tall secondary growth; also mangroves, mature plantations, and wooded gardens. Lowlands to 3,600 ft (1,100 m), but to 4,900 ft (1,500 m) in Java and Bali.

behavior

Moves around in pairs or small parties; unobtrusive except for its short trilling or twittering calls

feeding ecology and diet

Eats small insects.

reproductive biology

In Sumatra, Borneo, and peninsular Malaysia, it breeds January– April and August–November. Monogamous. Nest is a truncated cone with a cup-shaped depression, consisting of lichens, bryophytes, and spider webs and placed on a horizontal branch. Lays two eggs; young are fed by both parents.

conservation status

Not threatened. Probably locally frequent to common, but was regarded as local and uncommon in Thailand in the 1980s–90s.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Ali, S., and S.D. Ripley. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Christidis, L., and W.E. Boles. The Taxonomy and Species of Birds of Australia and Its Territories. Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union Monograph 2. Hawthorn East: RAOU, 1994.

Keith, S., E.K. Urban, and C.H. Fry, eds. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 4. London: Academic Press, 1992.

Sibley, C.G., and B.L. Monroe. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Stattersfield, A.J., and D.R. Capper, eds. Threatened Birds of the World: The Official Source For Birds on the IUCN Red List. Cambridge: BirdLife International, 2000.

Periodicals

Olson, S.L. "More on the Affinities of the Black-Collared Thrush of Borneo (Chlamydochaera jefferyi)." Journal of Ornithology 128 (1987): 246–248.

Ripley, S.D. "Notes on the Genus Coracina." Auk 58 (1941): 381–395.

Voous, K.H., and J.G. van Marle. "The Distributional History of Coracina in the Indo-Australian Archipelago." Bijdragen Tot De Dierkunde 28 (1949): 513–529.

Barry Taylor, PhD