Dippers

(Cinclidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Cinclidae

Thumbnail description
Medium-sized passerines with plump bodies, rounded wings, short tails, and sturdy legs, adapted to an exclusively aquatic existence in rushing mountain streams

Size
5.5–9 in (14–23 cm); 1.3–3.1 oz (38–88 g)

Number of genera, species
1 genus; 5 species

Habitat
Mountain streams

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 1 species

Distribution
Eurasia, from Ireland, Scandinavia to east Siberia, Japan, west China, north India, central Asia, Caucasus, Turkey, southern Europe, northern Africa, western North America, Central America, western South America to northern Argentina

Evolution and systematics

Dippers are a most unusual family; there are only five species, but all five are very uniform in shape, habits, habitat, and nesting behavior, yet are spread across five continents and a huge geographic area. Linnaeus in 1758 named the Eurasian dipper, the only species that he could have observed personally, as a starling, but for most of their history dippers have been regarded as an off-shoot of the wren family. Given their rounded body-shape, short wings and tail, and the domed nests with side-entrance, all also typical of wrens, this would seem a very reasonable classification. Recent DNA studies, however, indicate that the closest relatives of dippers are, in fact, the thrushes, and resemblance to wrens is coincidental.

There are widely different views as to the geographic origins of dippers. Wrens are undoubtedly of New World origin, and when dippers were regarded as wrens a similar geographic origin was unarguable. However, with the overturning of this relationship the facts become very cloudy, with different authorities arguing for origins in eastern Asia, followed by colonization of the New World via the Bering land-bridge, and almost the precise opposite: an origin in western North America followed by colonization of Eurasia and South America as land-bridges became available. The fossil record is of little help since it is essentially non-existent; the mountain-stream habitat of dippers is hardly conducive to deposition of remains for fossilization.

Physical characteristics

All the species of dipper are extremely similar in physical form. All are stocky birds, with short, rounded wings with a concave lower surface (the ninth to seventh, or eighth to sixth, primary feathers being the longest), a short tail with broad, round-tipped feathers, sturdy legs and powerful feet, and a short, compressed bill without rictal bristles. The preen gland is unusually large for a passerine bird and the body-feathers are water-repellant. Some species, such as the American and brown dippers, have an almost uniformly colored plumage; others, like the Eurasian and white-capped dippers, are strikingly marked with white. Bright colors are absent; plumage is usually gray or brown, sometimes strongly rufous, but blues, greens, and yellows are not found. All species have white surfaces to the eyelids, conspicuous when the eyes are blinking, and prominent nictitating membranes.

Distribution

Dippers occur on five continents: the Americas, Eurasia, and marginally, in Africa. Because of their habitat requirements they are largely confined to mountainous regions with rushing streams. Hence they are absent from large lowland areas of all the continents on which they breed. In North America they occur throughout the western states and provinces, from the Arctic Circle in Alaska, south through Central America to Panama, but are, curiously, absent from the eastern two-thirds of the continent, including areas of apparently suitable habitat in eastern Canada, New England, and the Appalachians. In South America they occur exclusively in the Andes and adjacent mountains, from Venezuela and Colombia south to northern Argentina. In Europe, they occur from Scandinavia and the British Isles across to Greece, Turkey, Syria, and the Caucasus; they are also found in suitable habitat in North Africa. In Asia, they occur in isolated areas of the Ural mountains, central Asia from Afghanistan to eastern Siberia and Japan, south to Burma and north-western

Thailand. Dippers have not succeeded in colonizing suitable habitat in Africa south of the Sahara, southern India, or Australasia; in these areas their ecological niche is exploited by birds of several families, none of which, however, has evolved the unique structural and behavioral characteristics of dippers.

Habitat

The habitat requirements of all the dippers are extremely uniform throughout the genus; they need fast-flowing, well-oxygenated streams, not usually very deep, with generally clear water with little sediment or turbidity. So long as there remain large enough areas of unfrozen water they can withstand very severe conditions, being found in winter in central Asia in temperatures dropping to −40°F (−40°C) or lower. Where too much of their habitat freezes they may move to lower altitudes or migrate to warmer areas. Dippers also occur, especially outside the breeding season, on the shores of mountain lakes, in beaver ponds, and occasionally on rocky sea-shores.

A second habitat requirement is rock-faces with crevices for siting of nests; artificial sites such as bridge trestles frequently suffice for this purpose.

Behavior

Dipper behavior is very uniform throughout the genus. Dippers are rarely found more than a few feet from a stream and are usually seen perched on a boulder surrounded by rushing water, or flying rapidly (with a peculiar resemblance to an enormous bumble-bee) with whirring wing-beats a few inches above the surface. A characteristic activity of a perched dipper is a rapid series of bowing movements, which in whitechested species emphasizes that feature; bowing, or, "dipping," becomes more frequent and intense when birds are agitated or during territorial disputes. Dippers also blink rapidly, showing the white upper surface of the eyelid.

Uniquely among the passerines, dippers spend much of their time in water, frequently totally submerged for several seconds at a time. Birds may wade in shallow water; in deeper water they may dive head-first from a boulder or even from flight. Birds may also escape pursuing hawks by diving straight into water from mid-flight. Under water, birds overcome their natural buoyancy with rapid beating movements of the wings; although pebbles are occasionally grasped with the feet, wing movements are the main way that birds keep themselves on the bottom. Submerged birds have a silvery appearance due to entrapped air on their waterproof plumage.

Songs of dippers tend to be loud bubbling warbles; in the absence of loud water noise, they are audible at considerable distances; both sexes sing. Calls are sharp "zitting" sounds, audible above the sound of rushing water.

Feeding ecology and diet

Food consists almost entirely of aquatic invertebrates such as may fly and caddis fly larvae; the latter build themselves a substantial protective case of tiny pebbles, which dippers break by hammering them on a rock. Some small fish such as minnows are consumed, as are fish eggs and some vegetable matter. Some species have been observed to glean torpid insects from snow-banks.

Reproductive biology

The nesting habits of all the dipper species are very similar. Nests are domed structures with a wide side-entrance,

made of mosses, grass-stems, and leaves, with an inner cup of finer material and hair. Both sexes build the nest but the female usually completes it and builds the cup. Nests are usually situated close to water, most often actually above it, and sometimes behind waterfalls, in crevices in rock-faces, or in artificial situations such as under bridges. Eggs are white, up to seven in temperate populations but frequently only two in the tropics. Incubation is mainly or entirely done by the female, usually for about 16 days; young are fed by both parents. Fledging period (where known) is usually about 22 days. Temperate populations frequently produce double broods.

Conservation status

Dippers require clear flowing water and consequently are rather vulnerable to many human-made changes. They can tolerate only a modest amount of pollution, whether domestic or farm, industrial or mining, and frequently abandon degraded habitats; even the planting of conifers close to streams can be detrimental. On the other hand, man-made structures such as bridges may enhance dipper populations by providing nest-sites. Generally, dipper populations have diminished in the face of human activity over most of their ranges, though in some cases (for example, in the United Kingdom) some populations have recovered as the decline of the mining industry has reduced stream pollution. One race of the Eurasian dipper (C. c. olympicus), formerly of Cyprus, is extinct, and several other populations, for example those in North Africa, are very small. One species, the rufous-fronted dipper of northern Argentina and southern Bolivia, is classified as Vulnerable with a total world population in the probable range of 1,000 pairs.

Significance to humans

Dippers have no economic significance per se apart from infrequent reports of nuisance predation in fish-hatcheries. Their main significance is as an indicator species for an undegraded habitat.

Species accounts

List of Species

Eurasian dipper

Cinclus cinclus

taxonomy

Sturnus cinclus Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden.

other common names

English: English dipper, white-throated dipper, white-breasted dipper, water ousel; French: Cincle plongeur; German: Wasseramsel; Spanish: Mirlo Acuático.

physical characteristics

6.7–7.9 in (17–20 cm); weight, male 1.9–2.7 oz (53–76 g), female 1.6–2.5 oz (46–72 g). Dark brown above. Throat and chest pure white, belly dark brown or rufous according to race, lower belly dark brown. Some Asiatic races have largely white underparts.

distribution

Numerous disjunct populations in hilly areas of Europe from Ireland, northern Norway, Iberia, central and southern Europe to Italy and Greece, Urals and Caucasus, northern Africa, Turkey, central Asia to Tibet and western China. Largely sedentary, but some Scandinavian birds winter in the Baltic States, Poland, and adjacent Russia, and the Urals population appears to be partially migratory.

habitat

Rushing mountain streams, occasionally rocky lakeshores.

behavior

Behaves as others of the genus; territorial, lives in pairs along streams. Hunts in and under water. Song is a sweet, rippling warble; both sexes sing. Call is a loud penetrating "zit-zit."

feeding ecology and diet

Bulk of prey aquatic invertebrates, but also fish eggs and fry, almost all taken underwater from streambeds.

reproductive biology

Nest typical of genus, domed with a side entrance, built by both sexes, of mosses, grass, etc., situated in rock crevices or in

artificial sites such as bridges, always close to and frequently directly over water. Nests early; eggs unmarked white, one to seven, usually four or five, incubated by female alone, 12–18 days, usually about 16. Young fed by both sexes, fledging 20–24 days, usually about 22. Frequently double—occasionally triple— brooded. Generally monogamous, but polygamy does occur.

conservation status

Not threatened. Generally widespread in suitable habitat, but most populations have shown declines, some serious. Will recolonize previous habitat if pollution ceases or water quality improves. Race olympicus in Cyprus Extinct.

significance to humans

No economic significance; has great appeal as a symbol of beautiful and unspoiled mountain countryside.

Brown dipper

Cinclus pallasii

taxonomy

Cinclus pallasii Temminck, 1820, "Crimea," actually Okhota River, eastern Siberia.

other common names

English: Asian dipper, Pallas's dipper; French: Cincle de Pallas; German: Flusswasseramsel; Spanish: Mirlo Aquático Castaño.

physical characteristics

8.3–9.1 in (21–23 cm); weight (sexes not distinguished) 2.3–3.1 oz (66–88 g). Plumage uniformly dark brown.

distribution

Central Asia from Afghanistan, Kazakhstan to Tibet, Nepal, North Burma, North Vietnam; disjunctly northern India,

Siberia to Kamchatka, Japan from Kyushu northwards. Over most of its range largely sedentary, in some cases moves to lower altitudes in winter; some apparent migration from northern edge of range in China.

habitat

Rushing mountain streams and shores of mountain lakes.

behavior

Much as other members of the genus; spends all of its time in close proximity to fast-flowing water, diving and swimming down to the bed. Bobs and curtsies in a manner similar to the Eurasian species. Song is a loud bubbling warble; call a sharp "zit-zit."

feeding ecology and diet

Aquatic invertebrates, caddis fly and may fly larvae, etc., taken mostly underwater.

reproductive biology

Nest is spherical with a side entrance, the outer layer of moss, the inner of rootlets and leaf-webs, usually located in crevices in rock faces above flowing water; more rarely in artificial sites such as bridges. Both sexes build. Eggs three to six, usually five, incubation period 19–20 days, fledging period 23–24 days. Probably mostly single-brooded.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widespread and common; susceptible to habitat degradation, but much of its range has very sparse human habitation.

significance to humans

None known.

American dipper

Cinclus mexicanus

taxonomy

Cinclus mexicanus Swainson, 1827, Temescaltepic, Mexico.

other common names

English: Mexican dipper, water ouzel, waterthrush; French: Cincle d'Amérique, cincle américain; German: Grauwasseramsel; Spanish: Cinclo Norteamericano.

physical characteristics

6–7 in (15–17.5 cm); weight, male 2.0–2.3 oz (57–66 g); female, 1.5–2.3 oz (43–65 g). Plumage overall dark gray, paler on chin.

distribution

Western North America from Alaska (north to the Arctic Circle) and east Aleutians, south through western Canada to Arizona and Colorado; numerous disjunct populations from Mexico through Central America to Panama.

habitat

Rushing mountain streams; in winter also the fringes of lakes and beaver ponds, sometimes sea-shores. Sea-level in north to 11,000 ft (3,500 m); in Costa Rica 2,600–8,200 ft (800–2,500 m).

behavior

Very similar to Eurasian dipper; dives into and swims in fast-flowing water, usually to be seen perched on a mid-stream boulder or flying low above the water. Song is a medley of single notes, audible for long distances; call a sharp "dzik."

feeding ecology and diet

Most food is taken from boulders or stream-beds. Birds usually only remain submerged for 10 seconds or less. Prey almost entirely

aquatic invertebrates. Will occasionally fly-catch; has been seen to pick frozen insects off stream-side snowbanks and beach-hoppers out of cast-up seaweed.

reproductive biology

Nest is a spherical or elliptical ball with a side entrance, the outer layer grass or moss, inside a woven cup of grass, leaves and bark, usually located near or above flowing water in rock crevices; also, increasingly, in artificial sites such as bridges or nest boxes. Both sexes build. Eggs white, in North America usually four or five, in Costa Rica two to four. Incubation by female alone, 14–17 days, young fed by both sexes, 24–26 days. Sometimes double-brooded. Usually monogamous; males may, rarely, be polygamous.

conservation status

Not threatened. Frequently common in pristine habitat but susceptible to water pollution from activities such as mining. Some populations apparently augmented by provision of nest sites such as bridges or suitable nest boxes.

significance to humans

Occasionally accused of causing significant damage to fish hatcheries; otherwise no other direct economic significance.

White-capped dipper

Cinclus leucocephalus

taxonomy

Cinclus leucocephalus Tschudi, 1844, Junín, Peru.

other common names

French: Cincle à tête blanche; German: Weisskopf-Wasseramsel; Spanish: Pájaro de Agua.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); weight (sexes not distinguished) 1.3–2.1 oz (38–59 g). Plumage varies according to race; back black, chest white, eyestripe black, crown gray-white with blackish streaks (Peru and Bolivia), or back black with white center, chest and belly white, lower belly blackish, eyestripe blackish, crown gray with darker streaks, eyestripe blackish (Venezuela to Ecuador).

distribution

Andes of western South America, from northwest Venezuela, Colombia through Ecuador and Peru to northern Bolivia.

habitat

Fast-flowing mountain streams, 3,300–12,800 ft (1,000–3,900 m).

behavior

Typical of genus; territorial, living in pairs along mountain streams. Less inclined to dive with rushing water than Eurasian or American species; also forages in stream-side vegetation. Song is a loud musical trill; call a sharp "zeet-zeet."

feeding ecology and diet

Bulk of prey items are aquatic invertebrates. Prey is picked off wet boulders as well as from stream bottoms; will also take items such as earthworms from sides of streams.

reproductive biology

Relatively little information available. Nest is a roughly spherical construction with a circular entrance hole at the side, built of mosses with an inner cup of dry leaves, strips of bark, etc., situated in crevices in rock-faces above flowing water. Eggs two, color not recorded but presumably white. Incubation and fledging data unknown.

conservation status

Not threatened. Generally common and widely distributed in suitable habitat; however, it is susceptible to habitat degradation and has disappeared from some watersheds, e.g., near Quito, Ecuador, as a result of pollution.

significance to humans

None known.

Rufous-throated dipper

Cinclus schulzi

taxonomy

Cinclus schulzi Cabanis, 1883, Cerro Bayo, Tucumán, Argentina.

other common names

English: Rufous-throated dipper; French: Cincle à gorge rousse; German: Rostkehl-Wassermasel; Spanish: Mirlo de Agua Gorjirufo.

physical characteristics

5.6–6 in (14–15 cm); weight, no data. Plumage uniformly gray-brown above and below, with contrasting orange-brown throat and upper chest. Inner webs of primaries partially white, giving a white flash on open wing.

distribution

Very restricted range in northern Argentina (Salta, Jujuy, Catamarca, and Tucumán) and extreme southern Bolivia (Tarija).

habitat

Swift-flowing mountain streams, apparently mostly in areas where the dominant forest-type is alder (4,600–8,200 ft; 1,400–2,500 m).

behavior

Sometimes grouped with Cinclus leucocephalus. Generally similar to other dipper species; however, apparently it does not dive into rushing water or swim as frequently as the others. The bowing and dipping behavior also seems to be absent, replaced by a wing-flicking which displays the white flash on the primary feathers. Song is similar to that of white-capped dipper, but more thrush-like; call a sharp "zeet-zeet."

feeding ecology and diet

Little data; aquatic invertebrates including beetles.

reproductive biology

Only a few nests have been described. Nest is typical globular dipper structure with side entrance, the outer part moss, with an inner bowl of grasses, etc., located in rock crevices or under bridges. Eggs two, unmarked glossy white. Incubation and fledging periods unknown; young fed by both parents.

conservation status

Classified as Vulnerable. Total range is in an area about 60 by 375 mi (100 by 600 km), but within this area not all suitable habitat is occupied. Susceptible to stream quality degradation; only a small part of its total range is protected.

significance to humans

No economic significance; accessible populations give some financial benefit for local towns from ecotourism.

Resources

Books

Brewer, David, and Barry Kent MacKay. Wrens, Dippers and Thrashers. London: Christopher Helm; and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

Cramp, S. Handbook of the Birds of Europe and North Africa; Birds of the Western Palaearctic. Vol. 5. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Kingery, H. E. "American Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus)." In The Birds of North America, edited by A. Poole and F. Gill. No.229. Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; and Washington, DC: The American Ornithologists' Union, 1996.

Tyler, S. J., and S. J. Ormerod. The Dippers. London: T and A. D. Poyser, 1994.

Periodicals

Salvador, S., S. Narosky, and R. Fraga. "First description of the nest and eggs of the Rufous-throated Dipper Cinclus schulzi in northwestern Argentina." Gerfaut 76 (1986): 63–66.

Skutch, A. F. Studies of Tropical American Birds. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Society. 10 (1972).

Tyler, S. J. "The Yungas of Argentina; in search of Rufous-throated Dippers (Cinclus schulzi)." Cotinga 2 (1994): 38–41.

Tyler, S. J., and L. Tyler. "The Rufous-throated Dipper (Cinclus schulzi) on rivers in north-west Argentina and southern Bolivia." Bird Conservation International 6 (1996): 103–116.

David Brewer, PhD