Muntjacs

(Muntiacinae)

Class Mammalia

Order Artiodactyla

Family Cervidae

Subfamily Muntiacinae

Thumbnail description
Small grazing ungulates, described as Asian deer, characterized by short, two-tined antlers, and by upper canine teeth that are prolonged into tusks in the adult males; they lift their feet high when walking; always vigilant, and because they bark in response to predators and other disturbances, they are also commonly called barking deer

Size
Head and body length: 24–62 in (609.6–1,575 mm); tail length: 2.6–9.5 in (65–240 mm); shoulder height 15.8–30.7 in (401–780 mm); weight 24.3–110.2 lb (11–50 kg)

Number of genera, species
2 genera; 11 (recent) species

Habitat
Areas of dense vegetation, forests; tropical and subtropical

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 1 species; Data Deficient: 2 species

Distribution
East Asia

Evolution and systematics

The beginning of the Tertiary epoch marked the beginning of ungulates that came from order Condylarthra ancestors; this gave rise to the Eparctocyon line, which includes the recent order Artiodactyla. In late Eocene or early Oligocene epochs, the Lophiomeryx appeared. It was a ruminant, called "gelocid," which possessed an efficient and compact ankle, small side toes, complicated premolars, and almost completely covered mastoid bone. In late Eocene or early Oligocene epochs it split off into four families, one including Dicrocerus (early Miocene) with the first antlers (similar to living muntjacs). Cervids arose later from Palaeomerycid ancestry during the Oligocene epoch.

The subfamily Muntiacinae (muntjacs) belongs within the family Cervidae. The Cervidae is described as deer where the males possess bony antlers that molt annually, except in the Chinese water deer, and where the females lack antlers, except in the reindeer. They range in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. Included with the Muntiacinae are the other three subfamilies: Cervinae (deer and fallow deer), Hydropotinae (Hydropotes inermis, or Chinese water deer), and Capriolinae (such as moose and reindeer).

Previous phylogenetic studies for the Muntiacinae have shown that its species originated in the Pleistocene epoch. Specifically, the earliest fossil record of Muntiacus reevesi shows that it evolved in early Pleistocence (with paleontological specimens recovered from Nihewan, Xuanhua, and Hebei), Muntiacus feae in mid Pleistocene (with records from Yanjing and Sichuan), Muntiacus rooseveltorum in late Pleistocence (with records from Ziyang, Sichuan Province, Yuanmou, and Yunnan), Muntiacus muntjak in late Pleistocence (with records from Tongnam and Sichuan), and Elaphodus cephalophus from an indeterminate time in the Pleistocence epoch.

Physical characteristics

The body is covered with soft, short hairs, except for the ears that are barely covered. Coloration changes from dark brown to yellowish and grayish brown with markings that are whitish or creamy.

Antlers are possessed only by males and are shed annually in most species. The antlers rarely exceed 1–2 in (25–52 mm) in length and are usually positioned above long, bony, hair-covered pedicels. The females possess small, bony knobs and tufts of hair in the area where the antlers occur in the males.

The males possess upper canine teeth that are elongated into tusks, curving sharply outward from the lips. Such a

configuration allows them to inflict serious injuries to small animals.

Distribution

They are the most widespread but least known of all the Asian animals. Generally found throughout eastern Asia, they are specifically from southern to eastern China and extending north through into Tibet; Taiwan; from China southwest to Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar (formerly Burma), and Thailand; Indonesia, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, India, and Sri Lanka. They adapt well to captivity, and have been incorporated into zoos and private collections throughout the world.

Habitat

They are usually found in areas of dense vegetation and forests, from an altitude of sea level to medium elevations, up to 9,800 ft (3,000 m), in hilly country. They generally do not wander very far from water. The territory of males is usually exclusive of one another, but generally overlaps the territories of one or more females.

Behavior

The most obvious behavior is a deep, bark-like sound when danger is sensed from predators or when a stressful situation occurs. Barking may occur for an hour or more from a single incident. It also occurs most often when visibility is reduced

because of environmental conditions. In the past, barking was believed to be a means of communication during the mating season, but recent research shows this probably is untrue. Instead, distinctive barking most likely serves to identify different animals and to cause its predators to reveal themselves, to realize that they have been detected, and to provoke them to move away.

Both diurnal and nocturnal activities have been observed. Most sightings are of lone animals, with infrequent sightings of two to four individuals in a group. Males mark territory at intervals by lowering the head and rubbing the frontal gland on the ground and by scraping their hooves against the ground. They also mark trees by scraping the bark with the lower incisors and rubbing the base of their antlers.

Feeding ecology and diet

Muntjacs are herbivorous; their diet includes grasses, ivy, prickly bushes, low-growing leaves, bark, twigs, and tender shoots. They rarely feed in one place for very long, and prefer foods low in fiber, and rich in protein and nutrients.

Reproductive biology

Muntjacs are polygamous. Males often fight among themselves for possession of harem. Females reach sexual maturity sometime within the first year or two of life. There is no definite evidence of a specific breeding season, but in Thailand mating occurs frequently in December and January; general gestation period is 6–7 months. Females are polyestrous; the estrous cycle lasts 14–21 days, and estrus is about two days long. Females usually give birth to one young (infrequently two), generally in dense growth in order to remain hidden until it can move about with its mother. At birth young weigh 19.4–22.9 oz (550–650 g).

Conservation status

Muntiacus feae and Muntiacus gongshanensis are listed as Data Deficient, and Muntiacus crinifrons is considered Vulnerable, while Muntiacus reevesi, Muntiacus muntjak, Muntiacus atherodes, Muntiacus gongshanensis, Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus truongsonensis, Megamuntiacus vuquangensis, and Muntiacus putaoensis are not listed by the IUCN. New muntjac species have been discovered since 1990, and it is likely that additional information about these species will help determine their conservation status in the future.

Significance to humans

They are hunted for their meat, skins, and sometimes antlers. They generally thrive in captivity and are found in many zoos. They play a vital ecological role in many ecosystems, and their economic importance in rural communities is significant. Phylogenetic relationships are of great interest because of their suitability for the study of evolutionary processes. They are also considered to be a nuisance in some areas, because they mutilate trees by tearing off the bark.

Species accounts

List of Species

Reeve's muntjac

Muntiacus reevesi

taxonomy

Muntiacus reevesi (Ogilby, 1839), Guangdong, China.

other common names

English: Chinese muntjac.

physical characteristics

Body length: 31.5–39 in (80–99 mm); tail length: 4.5–7 in (11–18 cm); shoulder height: 15.8–17.7 in (40–45 cm); weight: 24.3–35.3 lb (11–16 kg). Small, dainty, but fierce deer with rounded body, slender legs, and short tail. Adult male grows rudimentary, moderate-sized antlers about 2.4–3.2 in (60–80 mm) long; antlers are grown, averaging 2.75–3.2 in (69.9–81.3 mm), from bony, short pedicles that extend from the frontal bone on the skull and are shed annually; adult females have bony knobs on the forehead covered with tufts of hair. Tusks, which can grow up to 1 in (25 mm), are formed from the upper canine teeth; females have smaller tusks than males. They have a long tongue that is used to strip leaves from low bushes. Ranges in color from deep brown and reddish brown to yellowish or grayish brown with creamy markings; the short, soft coat is reddish brown in color; dorsal side is light red-brown with dorsal cervical stripe; undersides, including the lower legs and the ventral surface of the neck and chin, are creamy white. The nose and forehead are black, while the rest of the face is a pale tan; cranial coloring is dark red with a black stripe at center, extending to the neck.

distribution

Generally, eastern Asia; specifically, natural range is from southern to eastern (mainland) China (from Yunnan to Fujian) and extends north through Palaearctic China and Taiwan; introduced in Great Britain and the western region of Europe, especially France.

habitat

Especially temperate to tropical deciduous forest dweller because it requires large amounts of cover; ranges from areas of dense vegetation and hilly country from sea level to medium elevations; prefers to stay near water sources (especially streams). It does not hibernate in any way and remains active throughout the winter. It makes its home out of pine boughs and other large broken off branches.

behavior

Limited amount information is available on its native habitats because of the difficulties in long-term observation doe to its timid nature; its ability to hide is primary means of defense. It is usually found alone or in groups of fewer than four individuals (it rarely forms herds). It is territorial, rarely leaving its home range; home ranges of males and females usually overlap. It prefers to stay under cover of vegetation, and is primarily nocturnal (and especially active during twilight), but may be active in the morning in quiet, undisturbed areas. During mating season, females emit a mewing noise. When competing for females, males fight with their canines (tusks), rather than their antlers, and make dog-like barking noises. Main predators are wolves, leopards, tigers, dhole (Asiatic wild dog), jackals, crocodiles, pythons, and birds of prey.

feeding ecology and diet

Herbivorous; usually forages for grasses, leaves (mostly of lowgrowing plants), tender shoots, fallen fruit and berries, and soft and hardwood tree bark.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Females sexually mature within their first year of life; mating can take place throughout the year, but primarily from January–March; gestation period is from 209–225 days (about seven months); birth is to one young (sometimes two) that weighs 19.4–23.8 oz (550–675 g); young fawns are usually born in dense jungle growth in order to hide until able to move around with mother, usually after two months; fawns have white spots on its coat for camouflage, which later disappear; Chinese populations number about 650,000. Lifespan can be up to 17 years.

conservation status

Not considered threatened, and not listed by the IUCN. Humans have established wild populations throughout southern England, while some occur on private estates in France.

significance to humans

Its bark helps to alert humans as well as other muntjacs to potential danger, hunted for meat and skins; it is of interest because of its conservation and ungulate lineage importance. Some damage inflicted on agricultural lands, most damage onto young hardwood plantations in western Europe.

Roosevelt's muntjac

Muntiacus rooseveltorum

taxonomy

Muntiacus rooseveltorum Osgood, 1932, Laos.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Body length: 39–40 in (99–102 cm); shoulder height: approximately 21.1 in (53.5 cm). Relatively light colored brown-black stripes are present at the anterior section of the frontals that extend posterior to the ears, but do not converge. Body coloration is red-brown with very slight mottling. Hoofs are small. White bands on the posterior legs extend medially to the anterior side of the tarsal joint.

distribution

From western Yunnan and Yuanjiang in China southwest to Laos and Vietnam.

habitat

Very little is known about the animal's habitat. One of its few records was of one immature male specimen collected during Theodore Roosevelt's expedition to Indochina.

behavior

Nothing is known.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known.

reproductive biology

Nothing is known, though other muntjacs are polygamous.

conservation status

Generally assumed endangered, though not listed by the IUCN. Only recently rediscovered it is extremely low in population and borders on extinction. Endemic and near-endemic.

significance to humans

None known.

Black muntjac

Muntiacus crinifrons

taxonomy

Muntiacus crinifrons (Sclater, 1885), Zhejiang, China.

other common names

English: Hairy-fronted muntjac.

physical characteristics

Length: 39.4 in (100 cm); height: 18.4 in (47 cm). Body color is totally black-brown. Its head is much lighter in color than the body. Antlers are short and small with tines of 2.6 (6.5 cm) in length. Pedicle is approximately 1.9–2.2 in (4.8–5.5 cm). Long, golden yellow tufts project off the top of the frontals. Dorsal tail is black.

distribution

Originally in southeastern China from the lower Yangtze River to Guangdong and eastern Yunnan; today restricted to only the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in China within the Anwei, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi Province region.

habitat

Occurs in mixed forests and scrub ground.

behavior

Solitary.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Young are born throughout the year following a gestation period of about 210 days. Sexual maturity is reached at approximately one year.

conservation status

Listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN. Generally is declining in population because of habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting. Once believed to be few in numbers, in the 1970s it was found to be living in four provinces of east Central China. Now, numbers are estimated to be about 10,000 individuals in an overall range of 29,500 mi² (76,500 km²). Endemic in China.

significance to humans

Hunted for venison and skin.

Fea's muntjac

Muntiacus feae

taxonomy

Muntiacus feae (Thomas and Doria, 1889), Tenasserim, Burma.

other common names

English: Fea's rib-faced deer.

physical characteristics

Moderate body size: body length: 39.4–40.9 in (100–104 cm); shoulder height: 23.2–26.8 in (59–68 cm); weight: 40–46 lb (18–21 kg). Tail is dark tan and frontal tufts are bright tan, and shorter than Muntiacus crinifrons. Antlers are short and small with tines equivalent to or shorter than the antler pedicles (there is distinct individual variation).

distribution

Yunnan (south Central China), Laos, eastern and peninsular Myanmar, Tenasserim, and Thailand.

habitat

Usually in evergreen forests in upland areas. In China, it has been found in mountainous forest comprised of a mixture of coniferous, broadleaf forest or shrub forest at an altitude to 8,200 ft (2,500 m).

behavior

Diurnal and solitary.

feeding ecology and diet

Grasses, low-growing leaves, and tender shoots.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Gestation period is around 180 days. Young are usually born in dense growth, where they remain hidden until they can move about with the mother. It is now quite rare; total numbers are unknown, but are certainly small.

conservation status

Generally considered highly endangered. Currently listed as Data Deficient by the IUCN, and listed on the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Restriction to a small roaming area and subjected to uncontrolled hunting by humans have led to its endangered status.

significance to humans

A nuisance in some areas because it destroys trees by ripping off the bark.

Indian muntjac

Muntiacus muntjak

taxonomy

Muntiacus muntjak (Zimmermann, 1780), Java, Indonesia.

other common names

English: Muntjac, barking deer.

physical characteristics

Length: 35–53.2 in (89–135 cm); shoulder height: 15.7–25.6 in (40–65 cm); tail length: 5.2–9 in (13–23 cm); weight: 33.1–77.2 lb (15–35 kg); males usually larger than females. Males have small, simple antlers (about 6 in [150 mm]) with long burrs, only one branch with a broad and hairy pivot; females have tufts of hair and small bony knobs that are at the location of antlers in males; both have short coats of hair that can be thick and dense for those living in cooler climates, or thin and less dense for those living in warmer areas. Color of coat is golden tan on the dorsal side, white on the ventral side, and the limbs and face are dark brown to reddish brown. Ears have very little hair; also have tusk-like upper canine teeth measuring about 1 in (200 mm) in males.

distribution

Northeastern Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, southern China, Hainan (China), Vietnam, Malay Peninsula and some nearby islands, Riau Archipelago, Sumatra and Nias Island to the west, Bangka, Belitung Island, Java, Bali, and Borneo.

habitat

Tropical deciduous and tropical scrub forests, tropical rainforests, areas of dense vegetation, hilly country, savannas and grasslands, and monsoon forests; stays close to a water source; specifically, on the slopes of the Himalayas, they climb to more than 6,560 ft (2,000 m) of altitude.

behavior

Adults are solitary (sometimes moving in pairs or small family groups), except during rutting when home ranges overlap for a short period of time; displays diurnal and nocturnal activity. When sensing detection of predator, they emit sounds similar to a barking dog that may last for more than an hour in order to make predator show itself or leave the area, and may bark more frequently when its environment reduces its ability to see and when the male is rutting (small cries that may approach level of barking). Predators include pythons, jackals, tigers, leopards, and crocodiles.

feeding ecology and diet

Omnivorous, typically feeds on the edges of forests or in abandoned clearings, both as a browser and as a grazer; feeding on herbs, fruit, birds' eggs, small animals, sprouts, seeds, and grasses; typically feeds on the edges of forests or in abandoned clearings, they use their canine teeth to bite and their forelegs to deliver strong blows in order to catch small warm-blooded animals.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Females sexually mature in first year of life; they are polyestrous with the estrous cycle lasting 14–21 days and the estrus lasting about two days; no distinct breeding season occurs; usually bear one young at a time; gestation period is about 180 days and birth weight is usually 19.4–22.9 oz (550–650 g). Young leaves territory of mother when it is about six months old to find its own territory; adult may allow an immature male (without complete antlers so are not aggressive and unable to mate) into its territory.

conservation status

Not threatened. Believed to number about 140,000–150,000 in China.

significance to humans

Indian pheasants hunters use muntjac barking noises as warning signals of approaching predators. The muntjac is hunted for its meat and skins. Heavy populations can destroy trees by tearing off bark, leading to loss of food sources and wood for shelter and fuel.

Bornean yellow muntjac

Muntiacus atherodes

taxonomy

Muntiacus atherodes Groves and Grubb, 1982, Sabah, Malaysia.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Length: 39.4 in (100 cm); height: 19.7 in (50 cm); weight:29.76–39.02 lb (13.5–17.7 kg). Overall coat is a yellowish orange with a diffuse dark brown line running the length of the spine, being especially prominent on the nape of the neck. The underbelly is pale yellow, buff, or whitish in color. The tail is dark brown on its upper surface (a continuation of the dark dorsal stripe). The un-branched antlers are simply spikes, growing only 0.63–1.67 in (16.0–42.5 mm) long and are rarely, if ever, shed. They are positioned on top of slender forehead pedicels that are 2.6–3.5 in (6.5–8.7 cm) in length. It does not possess frontal tufts of hair.

distribution

Borneo.

habitat

Moist forests.

behavior

Little is known. Primarily diurnal; usually appear as breeding pair or solitary. Males make the characteristic loud alarm bark, while adult females with young may make short, high-pitched mewing sounds.

feeding ecology and diet

Herbs, grasses, leaves, fallen fruit, and seeds.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Gestation most likely around seven months, with normally one young. Young are weaned within two months, and reach sexual maturity between 6–12 months. Population in the provinces of South Anhui and West Zhegang is estimated at 5,000–6,000 individuals. Unknown lifespan.

conservation status

Not threatened. It is (assumed to be) fairly populated in its territory. Endemic.

significance to humans

Hunted for meat and skins.

Gongshan muntjac

Muntiacus gongshanensis

taxonomy

Muntiacus gongshanensis Ma, 1990, Yunnan, China.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

Length: 39.4 in (100 cm); height: 19.7 in (50 cm).

distribution

Northwestern Yunnan (China) and adjacent (southeast) Tibet; northern Myanmar.

habitat

Forests.

behavior

Diurnal.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Males and females become sexually mature at approximately two years. Mating season takes place during late fall and early winter. Gestation period lasts about six months, after which one or two fawns are born in late spring and early summer.

conservation status

Listed by the IUCN as Data Deficient. Population has dropped due to habitat loss and hunting.

significance to humans

Extensively hunted by local people.

Tufted deer

Elaphodus cephalophus

taxonomy

Elaphodus cephalophus Milne-Edwards, 1872, Sichuan, China.

other common names

English: Tibetan muntjac.

physical characteristics

Largest muntjac species: head and body length: 43.2–62.4 in (110–160 cm); shoulder height: 19.7–27.6 in (50–70 cm); tail length: 2.8–5.9 in (7–15 cm); weight: 37.5–110.2 lb (17–50 kg). Body is covered with coarse, almost spine-like hairs that give it a shaggy look, general color of upper parts is deep chocolate brown, underbody is white, head and neck are gray; in some cases, a pale streak extends forward from the pedicel and above the eye. Tuft on forehead is blackish brown. Males have tuft of hair on the forehead at the base of the antlers; the antlers themselves are short and often almost hidden by the tuft. Bony pedicels are short and converge at tips.

distribution

Across southern China from eastern Tibet to Zhejiang and Fujian provinces, and northern Myanmar.

habitat

Mountainous forests, dense undergrowth at elevations of 980–14,700 ft (300–4,500 m); near water.

behavior

Nocturnal, normally solitary, but occasionally travels in pairs. Both sexes bark when suddenly alarmed and during the mating season.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds primarily on grass and other plant material; when feeding, it carries its tail high.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Females become sexually mature at about nine months. Mating occurs in late autumn and early winter; births occur in late spring and early summer; female gives birth to one young after a gestation period of about 180–210 days. Young is colored like adults, but has a row of spots along each side of the midline of the back.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunted by local people.

Truong Son muntjac

Muntiacus truongsonensis

taxonomy

Muntiacus truongsonensis Giao Tuoc et al, 1998, Vietnam.

other common names

English: Dark Annamite muntjac.

physical characteristics

Weighs 33 lb (15 kg), and half the size of the common muntjac.

distribution

Vietnam.

habitat

Lives in high ridges at altitudes ranging 1,300–3,280 ft (400–1,000 m), in forests with dense undergrowth (ferns and leaf litter), and in secondary wet evergreen forests; such places where its small size allows it to move freely.

behavior

Diurnal and nocturnal.

feeding ecology and diet

Grasses, low-growing leaves, and tender shoots.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Generally, it has been found that young are born in dense jungle growth, where they remain hidden until they can move around with their mother.

conservation status

Not threatened. Has not been identified previously because years of armed conflict, steep and rugged terrain, and remoteness have precluded scientific exploration of its territorial region until recently. Hunting may be a threat. As of 2002, the IUCN has not yet assessed. The Deer Specialist Group recommended in 1998 a rating of Data Deficient.

significance to humans

Although hunting is illegal in Vietnam, many people hunt, either for commercial or subsistence purposes.

Giant muntjac

Megamuntiacus vuquangensis

taxonomy

Megamuntiacus vuquangensis Do Tuoc Vu Van Dung et al, 1994, Vietnam. DNA data suggest that the giant muntjac belongs with other muntjacs in the genus Muntiacus and not in a genus of its own.

other common names

English: Large-antlered muntjac.

physical characteristics

About the size of a large dog, weighs 66–100 lb (30–50 kg). Body color is gray-brown. Tail is short and broad.

distribution

Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.

habitat

Mostly in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests; apparently prefers primary forests, although it has been seen in second-growth areas and degraded forests. Ranges at altitudes 1,600–3,900 ft (500–1,200 m).

behavior

Apparently solitary.

feeding ecology and diet

Nothing is known.

reproductive biology

Only single young have been observed with females. Mating system not known.

conservation status

Not listed by the IUCN. Threatened by heavy hunting pressure, as well as by habitat degradation due to logging and slash-and-burn agriculture.

significance to humans

None known.

Leaf muntjac

Muntiacus putaoensis

taxonomy

Muntiacus putaoensis Amato Egan, Rabinowitz, 1999, northern Myanmar.

other common names

English: Leaf deer.

physical characteristics

Stands 24–30 in (60–80 cm) tall; shoulder height: 20 in (45 cm); weight: 25 lb (11 kg). Coat is a reddish brown color. Curved, thin, knife-like canine teeth hang from its mouth, with female canines just as long as male canines (very unusual in deer species). Antlers are just a single point, only 1.5 in (38 mm) long.

distribution

Found in northern portion of Myanmar.

habitat

Dense forest and high valley jungle habitats at an elevation of 1,500–2,000 ft (450–600 m). Almost always found close to water.

behavior

Solitary; diurnal and nocturnal; females fight as much as males for territory.

feeding ecology and diet

Browsers and grazers, mostly grasses, fruit, and leaves.

reproductive biology

Polygamous. Males and females become sexually mature at approximately two years of age, mating season takes place during late fall and early winter. Gestation period lasts about six months after which one or two fawns are born in late spring and early summer. Young are generally born in dense jungle growth and remain hidden until it can move around with its mother.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Hunting with snares presumably reduced its numbers during the 1990s, even though it is not considered a particularly valuable species (for food, hides, and antlers) because of its small size.

Resources

Books

Feldhemer, George A., Lee C. Drickamer, Stephen H. Vessey, and Joseph F. Merritt. Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, and Ecology. Boston, MA: WCB McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Novak, Ronald M. Walker's Mammals of the World, Vol. II, 6th ed. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.

Vaughan, Terry A., James M. Ryan, and Nicholas J. Czaplewski. Mammalogy, 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders College Publishing, 2000.

Whitfield, Philip. Macmillan Illustrated Animal Encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1984.

Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal Species of the World, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C. and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

Other

Artiodactyla—Sudokopytníci—Even-toed Ungulates.. Savci. June 5, 2002 [cited April 19,2003]. <http://savci.upol.cz/ce>.

Conova, Susan. "Science Finds Smallest Deer." ABCNews.com, [cited April 19,2003]. <http://abcnews.go.com/sections/science/DailyNews/deer990629.html>.

Datta, Aparajita, Japang Pansa, M. D. Madhusudan, and Charudutt Mishra. "Discovery of the Leaf Deer Muntiacus putaoensis in Arunachal Pradesh: An Addition to the Large Mammals of India." Current Science, vol. 84, no. 3. February 10, 2003 [cited April 19,2003]. <http://www.ncf-india.org/pubs/Datta%20et%20al%202003.pdf>.

Hunt, Kathleen. "Transitional Vertebrate Fossils FAQ, Part 2C." The Talk.Origins Archives, March 17, 1997 [cited April 17,2003]. <http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-transitional/part2c.html>.

Ma, Shilai, Yingxiang Wang, and Longhui Xu. "Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Studies on the Genus Muntiacus." Acta Theriologica, vol. VI, no. 3, (August 1986): 190–209. <http://www.nau.edu/qsp/will_downs/80.pdf>.

Massicot, Paul. Animal Info—Giant Muntjac, October 26, 2002 [cited April 19,2003]. <http://www.animalinfo.org/species/artiperi/megavuqu.htm>.

Massicot, Paul. Animal Info—Leaf Muntjac, October 26, 2002 [cited April 19,2003]. <http://www.animalinfo.org/species/artiperi/muntputa.htm>.

Massicot, Paul. Animal Info—Truong Son Muntjac, October 26, 2002 [cited April 17,2003]. <http://www.animalinfo.org/species/artiperi/munttruo.htm>.

"Microlivestock: Little-Known Small Animals with a Promising Economic Future." The National Academies Press, March 17, 1997 [cited April 17,2003]. <http://www.nap.edu/books/030904295X/html/299.html>.

Muntiacinae. National Center for Biotechnology Information, June 5, 2002 [cited April 19,2003]. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=34877>.

"Muntjacs, or Barking Deer." Walker's Mammals of the World Online, [cited April 21, 2003]. <http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walker/artiodactyla.cervidae.muntiacus.html>.

"Rare Endemic Mammals in the Pu Mat National Park." MekongInfo, [cited April 17,2003]. <http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/Contact.nsf/0/D62C8A67FE8831E447256C39002752F6/$FILE/Endemic_Mammals_e.html>.

"Saving Wild Places." Northern Forest Complex Project in Myanmar, Wildlife Conservation Society, [cited April 19,2003]. <http://www.savingwildplaces.com/swp-home/swp-protectedareas/61825>.

Schaller, George B., and Elisabeth S. Vrba. "Description of the Giant Muntjac (Megamuntiacus vuquangensis) in Laos." Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY and Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, [cited April 19,2003]. <http://coombs.anu.edu.au/vern/species/schaller.html>.

"Taxonomy of Mammals, Birds, Amphibians and Reptiles." Kenyalogy, [cited April 21, 2003]. <http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/fauna/taxonmam.html>.

William Arthur Atkins