Music: Music and Religion in China, Korea, and Tibet

views updated

MUSIC: MUSIC AND RELIGION IN CHINA, KOREA, AND TIBET

The three main streams of religion in East Asia—Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism—all employ music to express beliefs and ideas. Ancient shamanic practices as well as Christianity and Islam also play a part in the musical histories of China, Korea, and Tibet.

China

Popular religion in China has for centuries drawn from Confucianist, Daoist, Buddhist, and animist elements. Extremely diverse in their local practices, the various forms of popular religion serve as vehicles for intense spiritual expression. Music is an integral part of this local structure. Festivals of popular religion almost always include processions accompanied by outdoor bands, and lion or dragon dances. Performances of music drama dedicated to the gods also form a key part of these festivals.

Aside from the three major groups, numerous minor religious communities also exist in China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Islam, for example, is practiced by about 3 percent of the population in China. No systematic report on Chinese Islamic practice is available to this author, but while conducting research on Chinese theater in China during the early 1980s, this author observed an evening service in a local mosque in Hangzhou celebrated by a small group of Chinese Sunnī Muslims. The service lasted about an hour and consisted of a cappella chanting of Qurʾanic texts in Arabic by the congregation, lead by a mullah with appropriate obeisances.

Christianity also has a small following in China. Chinese Christian liturgies, whether of the Catholic or the Protestant church, follow their Western models closely. Hymnals used in the Chinese Protestant churches contain primarily hymn tunes from the West with Chinese texts, but "acculturated" hymns by Chinese composers based on Western models are occasionally included in Chinese Protestant hymnals. Protestant hymn tunes became one of the important predecessors of the modern Chinese song genre known as geming geju ("revolutionary song").

Imperial ancestral cult rites

Yayue ("elegant music") was the music used in solemn state rites. The term may be used broadly to denote music used in court rituals and entertainments, as well as that performed in secular government ceremonies. Since the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce), however, the term has come to be used more narrowly to denote music used in solemn sacrificial rites with religious overtones, such as the imperial ancestral cult rites, Confucian rites, and rites dedicated to Heaven and Earth. It is in the latter, more restrictive, sense that the term yayue is used here.

Even though the repertory and musical styles of yayue changed from one dynasty to the next, it has always been performed by chorus and instrumental ensemble. The yayue chorus, called dengge, varied in size from one dynasty to the next. The yayue instrumental ensemble is sometimes called bayin ("eight sounds") because its instruments represent eight essential kinds of timbres: metal (bell), stone (chime), clay (ocarina), wood (pounded wooden box and wooden scraper), gourd (mouth organ whose base was made of gourd), silk (zither), bamboo (flute), and leather (drum). A partial list of yayue instruments, according to modern classification, includes, among the idiophones: the zhong, suspended clapperless bronze bells of varying sizes struck with a mallet; the xing, suspended stone chimes of varying sizes struck with a mallet; the zhu, a pounded wooden box; and the yu, a tiger-shaped wooden scraper scraped with a bamboo whisk; among the membranophones: the gu, suspended drums of varying sizes and shapes; the bofu, a two-headed barrel drum placed on a wooden stand, played with bare hands; among the aerophones: the xun, an ocarina; the zhi and the di, transverse bamboo flutes; the dongxiao, an end-blown notched bamboo flute; the paixiao, a panpipe; and the sheng, a mouth organ whose sound box was first made of gourd, now of wood; and among the chordophones: the qin, a bridgeless zither with seven strings; and the se, a twenty-five string zither with bridges. The number of individual instruments included in the yayue orchestra varied from period to period. Qin with one, two, three, five, and nine strings at various times have been included.

Dance was also an integral part of solemn state sacrificial rites. Two kinds of dances were performed: the wenwu (civil dance), and the wuwu (military dance). The number of dancers prescribed was thirty-six in six lines of six persons (liuyi, "six rows of six dancers") or in eight lines of eight persons (bayi, "eight rows of eight dancers"). Liuyi was prescribed for rites for emperors, and bayi for rites for lesser personages. Occasionally more than sixty-four dancers were used, but such an occurrence was rare and was usually viewed as an aberration. All dancers were male. The wenwu dancers, dressed in civilian clothes, held long pheasant feathers in their right hands and flutes in their left hands; the wuwu dancers, dressed in military clothes, bore swords in their right hands and shields in their left hands.

In addition to the use of music and dance in solemn state rites, other important ceremonial features included animal sacrifice and the offering of vegetarian food and wine to the personage being honored. Two kinds of animal sacrifice were defined: the tailao, or "great sacrifice," involving the sacrificial killing and offering of oxens, sheep, and pigs; and the xiaolao, or "lesser sacrifice," involving the sacrificial killing and offering of oxen and sheep only. Tailao represented the highest honor to be bestowed and was prescribed only for the rites for emperors and Confucius.

Confucian rites

Shidian, a state sacrificial ritual held in spring and autumn in honor of Confucius, was established by the first emperor of the Han dynasty, Gaozu (r. 206–193 bce), who made Confucianism the state ideology. Ceremonial features of Shidian rites conducted by the emperor were similar to those of the imperial ancestral cult rites, and like them they underwent many changes over the centuries. Four components remained basic: tailao, the Great Sacrifice; three rounds of offering of food and wine to Confucius, known as sanxian ("three offerings"); yayue performance; and wenwu.

Prior to the middle of the Qing dynasty, two ensembles made up the yayue orchestra. One, called tangshangyue ("ensemble on the terrace"), sat on the terrace adjacent to the main shrine hall where the rite took place; the other, called tangxiayue ("ensemble on the ground"), was performed in the courtyard below. After the mid-Qing period (around 1766), however, only the tangshangyue was used.

In Shidian rites conducted by the emperor, the wenwu was always performed by thirty-six dancers (i.e., liuyi ), except during the mid-Ming period, from about 1477 to 1531 ce, when the prescribed number of dancers increased first to sixty-four (i.e., bayi ), then to seventy-two. After 1531 the number of prescribed dancers of Shidian was reduced once again to thirty-six.

Yayue compositions played at Shidian rites are referred to collectively as dachengyue ("music of completeness"), a term derived from the name customarily given to Confucian temples, dachengmiao ("temple of completeness"). The musical styles and repertoire of dachengyue, as well as its tunings and modes, changed frequently over the centuries. The most recent dachengyue was commissioned in 1742 by the emperor Qian Long of the Qing dynasty (r. 1736–1796). The Qing repertory consisted of six compositions and their transpositions. The original and the transposed versions were played in the spring and autumn rites respectively. All six compositions are for chorus with accompaniment by yayue orchestra. The chorus was made up of twelve male voices.

The texts of the six compositions are hymns of praise to Confucius uniformly composed in eight lines of four words each. Individual words are set syllabically to pitches of equal duration. Melodically, all the compositions are pentatonic with disjunct melodic movement; they were sung in unison in a slow, stately manner.

The vocal melodies were accompanied in unison by bell and stone chime sets and by the entire body of chordophones and aerophones. All the drums and single bells and stone chimes, as well as the zhu and the yu, perform colotomic, that is, structure-marking, functions. Three strokes on the zhu signaled the beginning of a piece; three strokes on the yu signaled the end. The melodic phrase setting of each four-word line was initiated by one stroke on the bozhong ("big bell"), and concluded with three strokes on the jiangu ("big drum") and three more on the bofu ; these three-stroke bofu patterns consisted of a light first beat played by the left hand, an accented second beat played by the right hand, and a concluding beat by both hands. Preceding the singing of each word, the pitch was sounded on one bell of the bell set; afterward the same pitch was struck on a stone chime of the chime set. The dances were accompanied by chorus and orchestra.

Buddhist liturgical music

Traditional Buddhist services comprise four major categories: regular services; rites for the dead; rites for special services; and services commemorating birthdays of Buddhist deities. Regular services are conducted in two types of Buddhist institutions: monasteries and lay Buddhist organizations. In the monasteries, morning and evening services are held daily; in the lay institutions, regular services (modeled after those of the monasteries) are held once or twice weekly.

In all categories of Buddhist services, music, both vocal and instrumental, plays an integral part. Vocal and instrumental items follow one another without break in any given service. In general, Buddhist liturgical music can be characterized as simple, serene, and solemn. Liturgical texts used in Buddhist services are always chanted or sung, either solo or in chorus. Fanbei is the generic term for all vocal liturgical music. Fanbei is a distinctively Chinese style of liturgical song, though it may have been inspired by the Indian principle of syllabic, monotonic recitation.

Eight types of liturgical texts, some in verse format and some in prose, are used in Buddhist services:

Sūtra (jing )—Buddhist scripture in Chinese verse translation with ten syllables to the line. This type contains discourses of the Buddha and the bodhisattva s.
Mantra (zhou )—Central Asian, Pali, or Sanskrit devotional incantations in Chinese syllabic transliteration; mantra texts are meaningless to Chinese, though their general import may be known.
Hymn (zan )—eulogy in verse having irregular meter.
Gātha (ji )—verse exposition organized in eight-stanza structure, each stanza having four lines of equal length and each line containing either five or four syllables.
Nianfo —chanting the names of the Buddha or bodhisattva s. The length of a line is determined by the number of syllables that make up a name.
Prayer (xuanshu or wen )—prayers in verse to Buddhist deities.
Invocation (shangyin or zuofan )—verse text calling the congregation to worship.
Instruction (shisong )—priest's address to a deity; in verse.

Fanbei music is pentatonic. Some items, such as hymn and gātha, feature a wide melodic range and varying melodic contour; others, such as sūtra, nianfo, and prayer, have a narrower range and a somewhat static melodic contour. The mantra tends to be monotonal. A dominant feature of fanbei music is the consistent use of repetitive motifs or pairs of motifs. Variation of motifs is also frequent.

In regular services, each fanbei item is begun by the precentor (weina ), who sings the first phrase and is then joined by the congregation of monks or laypeople. A vocal piece always begins slowly and gradually gets faster. Heterophony frequently results as some members of the congregation sing variants of the melody according to their different abilities. Instruments are always used to accompany singing in regular services. Fanbei are frequently chanted or sung by a solo voice in special services, but responsorial and antiphonal singing may also be used. Instrumental accompaniment may be absent in solo chanting in special services.

Three melodic styles of fanbei are distinguished by modern writers: syllabic, neumatic, and melismatic. Fanbei in syllabic style have one or two notes to each syllable of the text. To this type belong sūtra, mantra, prayer, and some nianfo chants. Fanbei in neumatic style feature three, four, or more notes to each syllable. Gātha and some nianfo used specifically to accompany the obligatory circumambulation in regular services belong to this type. Fanbei in melismatic style have ten or more notes set to one syllable. To this type belongs the hymn.

In traditional Buddhist services, nonpitched idiophones and membranophones are used to accompany fanbei singing. Instruments are also used to play the preludes, interludes, and postludes of services. In contemporary practice seven types of instruments are used: the dagu, a suspended two-headed barrel drum played with a mallet; the dazhong, a suspended bell played with a stick; the daqing, a large inverted metal bowl-shaped bell resting on a cushion and struck with a mallet; the yinqing, a small inverted bell fastened to a wooden handle and struck with a stick; the muyu, a wooden slit drum in the shape of a stylized fish head, struck with a wooden stick; the danzi, a small framed gong fastened to a handle and struck with a stick; and the hazi, a pair of cymbals. These instruments are made in various sizes to suit the demands of different ritual contexts. Those used in monasteries, for example, are usually larger than those used in lay institutions.

Buddhist worship manuals provide instrumental notation indicating the usage of musical instruments. Duration of notes and dynamics are not indicated in such manuals but are transmitted orally. Vocal melodies are transmitted entirely by oral means.

The arrangement of percussion patterns in a given vocal piece can be divided into three kinds: regular meter, in 4/4 or 3/4; composite meters, alternating between 4/4, 3/4, or 1/4; and unmeasured pieces, having no fixed temporal units. Some instruments use specific rhythmic patterns known by particular names. For example, the muyu (slit drum) pattern, known as "Eighty-eight Buddhas," is characterized by a series of accelerated strokes in diminishing volume. Another pattern, "Nine Bells and Fifteen Drums" (referring to the number of strokes on each), is used for the bozhong and jiangu. This pattern is made up of an initial slow section consisting of alternating drum and bell strokes, a fast central section consisting of simultaneous strokes on both instruments (with the drum being played twice as fast as the bell), and an accented drum stroke to conclude the pattern. During a regular service this pattern is played several times as an interlude and thereby performs a structural function for the entire service similar to that of the ritornello in Western compositions.

Music in Daoist rituals

The role of music in Daoist ritual practices has not been studied systematically by musicologists. Hence any discussion of music in Daoist rituals will necessarily be highly tentative. The following remarks are based primarily on the examination of a limited number of samples recorded in Taiwan, where monastic Daoism (such as it existed in China prior to the 1950s) does not exist. These examples are from rituals performed by different groups of ordained or lay priests belonging to a variety of orders. In addition, some of the description provided here is based on my observations in Hong Kong.

In contemporary Taiwan and Hong Kong, the most frequently performed Daoist rituals are funeral rites, exorcist rites, and the community rite of purification (Jiao). These rites are normally performed by a chief Daoist priest, the daoshi, with a small group of assistant priests and a few lay instrumentalists. Performances of rituals usually take place in the local Daoist temple or in the local temple of a popular religion, such as the Temple of Mazu (a goddess protector of seafarers) in Taiwan or the Temple of Tianhou ("heavenly mother") in Hong Kong. Funeral rites may be performed at the home of the bereaved family. Some rites are performed in full view of the public, while others (e.g., certain purification rites) are performed behind closed doors to shut out the profane in order that the ritual purpose of purification may be fulfilled.

Music and dance play a central role in Daoist rituals. Both vocal and instrumental music are used. Vocal music, with or without instrumental accompaniment, includes passages in heightened speech, monotonal incantation, chants, and hymn tunes. Texts, in Chinese or Sino-Sanskrit prose or verse, are set syllabically or melismatically to pentatonic or heptatonic melodies; both measured and unmeasured melodies are found. Structurally, most compositions are in strophic form, but some are through-composed. In chants and hymn tunes, repetition of a motif or a phrase appears to be a prominent feature.

Vocal pieces are recited or sung mainly by a solo voice; occasionally responsorial singing and ensemble singing in unison are also employed. Singing is commonly done in a relaxed manner; use of special vocal techniques such as shouts, groans, microtonal vocal inflection or glides, and falsetto are not uncommon. A characteristic opening glissando often precedes a vocal piece, and the insertion of vocable passages are by no means rare.

Instruments are used either singularly or in a group. These include, among the nonpitched idiophones: the daqing, an inverted bowl-shaped bell struck with a mallet; the muyu, a wooden slit drum struck by a stick; the hand bell; cymbals; and the gong; among the membranophones: the fagu, the ritual drum, which is a barrel drum played with two sticks; among the chordophones: the sanxian, a three-stringed, unfretted, plucked lute; and the erhu, a two-stringed, bowed fiddle; and among the aerophones: the suona, a shawm, and the buffalo horn.

Symbolically, the daqing represents heaven and the male principle, yang, while the muyu represents earth and the female principle, yin. When the ritual drum plays a certain pattern, it signals the beginning of a significant phase of a given ritual. Musically, all the idiophones beat time as well as mark off sections of music. Beats of the ritual drum also serve to regulate the tempo in passages where varying tempi occur. In addition to serving a colotomic (structure-marking) function, the cymbals are also used as a solo instrument playing various rhythmic patterns in a virtuosic manner as overtures, interludes, or postludes. One of the special cymbal playing techniques involves the manipulation of the dynamics of the sound after a clash by varying the degree of proximity between the two cymbal plates, resulting in a voicelike quality that can be quite eerie. This technique is used in funeral rites.

Instrumental melodies are played by the suona (s) and erhu ; when serving as accompaniment to the vocal melodies, these instruments play a heterophonic version of the vocal melodies. The sanxian is used mainly as a colotomic instrument; it plays tremolo or chords to mark off vocal sections.

In ritual performances Daoist priests not only sing but also dance either alone or in groups. All dance gestures, as well as choreographic formations, have symbolic meanings.

To a believer, a Daoist priest is an indispensable intermediary between the human world and the spirit world. His presence is therefore necessary at a funeral in order to perform rites that ensure repose for the deceased. His presence is also required at exorcism or purification rites in order to perform rituals that will render evil ghosts harmless or to restore health, tranquillity, and purity to a community.

One of the most important community purification rites is the Jiao. Dividing into several phases, Jiao rituals may last three to five days or more, depending on the requests of the sponsors. The introductory part of Jiao is known as qingsheng ("inviting the spirits"). It is initiated with a liturgical item called buxu ("dancing in the void"), a generic term for an opening ceremony in which dance and hymn singing serve as preparation for ritual meditation. Both dance and hymns are accompanied by an instrumental ensemble of shawms, gong, drum, and muyu. The introductory part of Jiao also includes a liturgical item called "Flower Offering," accompanied by voices alone. In the middle part of Jiao the key ritual feature is a liturgy for the souls in purgatory, known as Pudu ("salvation"); it is a sung liturgy accompanied by an instrumental ensemble. The most colorful part of Jiao is an exorcist rite for the community called Dawanghang. To the accompaniment of shawms, gongs, and cymbals, the daoshi makes preparations to launch a paper boat, the vehicle that is to transport demons of infectious diseases away from the human world. When preparations are complete, the sounding of a series of water buffalo horn calls, accompanied by the ritual drum and gong strokes in accelerated speed, signals the actual launching of the paper boat. When the music stops, the daoshi calls upon the demons by name to board the boat and is answered by his assistant. Once this roll call is completed the daoshi plays the water buffalo horn, a signal to launch the boat by burning it.

The final phase of Jiao is a celebration of the restoration of health and purity to the community through the marriage of yin and yang. In heightened speech the daoshi offers incense to heavenly spirits. He then states the purpose of the Jiao and names the sponsors; both statements are chanted. A prayer whose text is written on a piece of paper is chanted next; it is a petition to the heavenly spirits on behalf of the community. When the prayer is finished, the written text is burned. Thereupon the sounding of drum rolls indicates that the climax of the ritual is to be unfolded. The daoshi calls out the name of Laozi three times, inviting him to visit the site of the altar; each call ends with an abrupt vocal leap encompassing the interval of an eleventh, followed by a long drum roll. Then eight drum beats are sounded three times. The number three symbolizes heaven, earth, and water, the three elements of the cosmos, and also the head, chest, and abdomen, the three essential parts of a person. These drum beats summon the spirit of the daoshi to offer tea and incense to Laozi. He first chants and then dances, using stylized and symbolic gestures simulating the acts of offering tea and incense to Laozi.

Korea

Shamanism, the oldest of Korean religions, consists of a group of unorganized beliefs about the supernatural world. It still has some following today, particularly among the rural population. In modern times, the two major social and religious forces existing in the Republic of Korea (South Korea) are Confucianism and Christianity. Christianity was introduced into Korea as early as the late sixteenth century, but it was not until the late nineteenth century that missionaries from the West—both Protestant (mostly Methodist and Presbyterian) and Roman Catholic—began full-fledged missionary work. Korean Christian liturgies follow their Western models closely. Western hymn tunes with Korean texts are used in services. Occasionally, hymns composed by modern Korean composers are also included in the Korean hymnals. Some of these hymns are set in triple meter, a characteristic feature of indigenous Korean music.

Mahāyāna Buddhism was introduced to Korea from China during the late fourth century ce. Today Buddhist rituals, if performed at all, usually take place in a few temples staffed by a handful of married priests. Some of these priests conduct classes for the laity in Buddhist chanting and in so doing have become the sole perpetuators of the now fragile Buddhist ritual tradition in Korea. The survey given below of Buddhist ritual music is based on field reports conducted by Korean musicologists among married Buddhist priests.

Sacrifice to Confucius

Music used in the rite of sacrifice to Confucius is called a-ak. This term is the Korean pronunciation of the Chinese term yayue ("elegant music"). In contemporary usage the term a-ak denotes the whole repertory of court music, but in the Yi dynasty (during which a-ak was first codified) the term denoted music performed in a number of sacrificial rites observed by the royal court and in government ceremonies. It is in this latter, more restricted sense that the term a-ak is used here.

The Korean a-ak tradition began in 1116, when the Chinese emperor Huizong (r. 1101–1125) of the Song dynasty sent a large number of yayue instruments to the Korean emperor Yejong (r. 1105–1125) of the Koryo dynasty, as a political gesture. Subsequently, during the Yi dynasty, and particularly during the reign of Emperor Sejong (1455–1468), a-ak was codified and expanded. Its codification was directed by the music theorist Pak Yon (1378–1458), who undertook not only the theoretical clarification of a-ak based on Chinese sources but proceeded also to construct a large number of musical instruments based on Chinese models. In addition, Pak Yon reconstructed music for the a-ak ensemble based on a limited number of notated Chinese ritual melodies, adding to these melodies his own interpretation of Chinese musical concepts and tunings. The result was a body of music with a mixture of Chinese and Korean elements but essentially Confucian in spirit. A-ak has been performed continuously from the fifteenth century till the present, with no evidence of decline.

Reflecting the Confucian doctrine of universal harmony, the a-ak orchestra employs eight kinds of instruments representing the eight essential kinds of instrumental timbres: metal (bells), stone (chimes), silk (zithers), wood (pounded wooden box and wooden scraper), bamboo (flutes), clay (ocarina), leather (drum), and gourd (mouth organ). In the modern a-ak orchestra the gourd category is missing, and wooden clappers (pak ) have been added; this latter instrument performs a very limited function.

According to present-day performance practices, a-ak played in the rite of sacrifice to Confucius is performed antiphonally by two orchestras, one placed on the terrace of the main shrine building and the other placed in the courtyard below the terrace. The terrace orchestra, called tŭngga, consists of seventeen players; the courtyard orchestra, called hōn'ga, consists of fifteen players. During Emperor Sejong's reign the number of players in both orchestras was much larger, and vocal items were included. But today a-ak is purely instrumental. Two ritual dances are performed in the sacrifice to Confucius, the munmu (civil dance) and the mumu (military dance). Sixty-four dancers are prescribed for this ritual.

The overall musical characteristics of a-ak are refinement, serenity, and simplicity. The repertory consists of two basic heptatonic compositions and their transpositions. Structurally, each composition has eight phrases of equal length, each phrase consisting of four notes of equal duration. The tempo is exceedingly slow. Melody instruments including flutes, panpipes, ocarinas, and stone chimes play in unison; the flute, however, ends each note with an upward slide of about a semitone from each pitch. The drums and bells perform purely a colotomic function by marking off sections of each composition.

Royal ancestral shrine music

The music repertory for this ritual contains a limited number of compositions said to be chosen by Emperor Sejong. In terms of musical style they reflect an acculturated mixture of Chinese and Korean music; native Korean music (hyangak ) current in the fifteenth century is also represented. These compositions are vocal pieces in Chinese with orchestral accompaniment arranged in suite form. Two orchestras are used to perform this ritual. These orchestras are also called tŭngga and hōn'ga, as in the a-ak orchestra, but their instrumentation is different.

Buddhist rituals

Traditional Korean Buddhist rites consist of three components or performing genres: ritual chant with or without instrumental accompaniment, outdoor band music and ritual dance with vocal and instrumental accompaniment. Of the three, ritual chant is by far the most important.

Five categories of special Buddhist rites in which music plays a prominent role are distinguished: Kakpae-je, a rite in praise of ten Buddhist deities whose rituals call for the largest repertory of chants and dances; Saengjŏn yesu-je, a purification rite; Sangju kwōn'gong-je, a rite dedicated solely to Buddha; Surguk-che, a rite for the spirits of water and earth; and Yŏngsan-je, a tribute rite. In addition a number of small-scale rituals associated with rites for the dead also employ music and dance. Today large-scale special rites are held only at the demand of sponsors. A rite may last from one to several days depending upon the request of the sponsors.

Three categories of ritual chants are differentiated: sūtra (Buddhist invocation), hwach'ŏng (chant based on folk style), and pŏmp'ae (a long solemn chant). Sūtra chants, also called yŏmbul ("invocation"), are of two kinds, each having different texts and employing different instrumental accompaniment. Texts of the first type are Chinese transliterations of Sanskrit and hence are unintelligible to laypeople. Texts of the second type are Chinese translations from Sanskrit whose general import may be understood by the laity. In the following discussion the first type of chant will be called "Sanskrit sūtra" and the second type "Chinese sūtra."

The repertory of Sanskrit sūtra is small. The music is for unison chorus with instrumental accompaniment. The vocal part consists of the repetition of a few sets of syllabic phrases. The instrumental part, played by an ensemble of reeds, drums, large gong, and a wooden slit drum called mok'tak, consists of the repetition of a melody independent of the vocal one and played by the reeds, with isorhythmic patterns played by drum and gong and the constant beats of the mok'tak. There is a subtle relationship between the accentuation of the vocal melody and the instrumental rhythm. Chinese sūtra chants are also performed by unison chorus, which sings repeated sets of texts having a limited compass. The constant beats of the mok'tak accompany the voices, each beat coinciding with the utterance of a textual syllable. The repertoire of Chinese sūtra is relatively large. While Sanskrit sūtra chants are employed mostly in special rites, Chinese sūtra chants are employed in both regular and special rites.

Hwach'ŏng (lit., "humble request") are chants for solo voice with texts in vernacular Korean. The singer traditionally accompanies himself with strokes played on a small gong; another accompanying instrument used is a suspended barrel drum (puk ) played by someone other than the singer. The drum player strikes the bottom of the drum with one bare hand while at the same time striking the wooden frame of the right side of the drum with two sticks. Triple meter, a common feature of Korean indigenous music, is usually found in hwach'ŏng. Hwach'ŏng texts, expounding the benefits of Buddhist enlightenment, are set in verse form.

The third category of Buddhist chants, the pŏmp'ae, is said to derive from the Chinese fanbei. Pŏmp'ae texts are in Chinese verse, but Chinese rhyming schemes and tonal patterns are not observed in these texts. Pŏmp'ae music is made up of repetition, variation, and structural rearrangement of a basic set of stereotyped motifs or phrases. As performed today, pŏmp'ae is always sung in free rhythm and in a low register. The meaning of the texts is frequently difficult to grasp because each syllable is set melismatically to notes of long duration. In addition, the practice of liberal insertion of passages of vocables further obscures the meaning of the texts.

Two types of compositions are found in the pŏmp'ae repertory: the hossori (short chant) and the chissori (long chant). Each type is characterized by a distinct melodic and textual organization, as well as by the employment of different styles of performance. Hossori consists of solo, choral, and responsorial chants, all of which are sung in a relaxed, open-throated manner to the accompaniment of a small hand bell. Structurally, hossori texts are organized in quatrain form with lines of equal length. These four lines are set to a pair of melodic phrases in repetition; thus musically the structure of hossori is in binary form: a b a b. Hossori are always sung slowly at first, then faster, and then slowly again to conclude. In the fast sections the motifs within each phrase undergo a process of rhythmic reduction.

For special rites hossori may be performed in conjunction with a ritual dance, accompanied by an outdoor band made up of one or two conical double-reed instruments (t'aep'yongson ) and a large gong (ching ). A barrel drum (puk ), a pair of cymbals (chegum ), a long trumpet (nepal), and a conch shell (nagak ) may also be added to the band. The band plays repetitions of a long melodic cycle that has only a tenuous correlation with the vocal melody.

The other type of pŏmp'ae, the chissori, is regarded as the most important and sophisticated of all Korean Buddhist chants. It is seldom performed today; when performed, chissori is always used in conjunction with large-scale special rites. Music for the chissori is drawn from a pool of stereotyped melodic phrases, each in turn built on a series of motifs. The way in which these motifs are organized into a piece defines the individuality of a chissori composition. The entire repertory of chissori contains seventy-two compositions.

Like that of hossori, the performance of chissori begins slowly and then speeds up; in the fast section the motifs undergo a process of rhythmic reduction; it then concludes slowly. Most chissori are performed primarily by an ensemble of voices in unison. But a few compositions may have one or two solo sections inserted either at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. These solo interpolations (hŏdŏlp'um ) are optional groups of fixed melodies independent of those of the ensemble and made up of stereotyped motifs. Depending on the time available, chissori may be sung either with measured rhythm, or with unmeasured rhythm in which the duration of each note is greatly prolonged. Consistent use of microtonal glides characterizes chissori performance. A special feature is the application of a microtonal upward glide prefixed to a given note; this note is then followed suddenly by a falling glide encompassing the interval of an octave. Chissori is sung in a tense-throated manner. For notes in the high register, falsetto technique is used.

Tibet

The indigenous religion of Tibet is Bon, which evolved from northern and Inner Asian shamanism. During the periods of the first kings (seventh–tenth century ce), North Indian Mahāyāna Tantric Buddhism was introduced to Tibet. Subsequently Bon and Tantric Buddhism merged and resulted in a highly syncretic form of Tibetan Buddhism.

Music in Bon ritual

Monastic forms of Bon have been largely assimilated by Tantric Buddhism. Many ritual practices of Bon have also been influenced by Buddhism. Bon ritual music employs chanting and instrumental music; the chief instruments are the indigenous phyedrṅa (single-headed drum) and the gshaṅ ("flute bell"). Flutes and trumpets made of animal bones are also used. In the instrumental part of the ritual the drum occupies a central place. According to legend, when a Bon priest plays a drum he is thought of as mounting a flying steed to heaven to communicate with the gods. Bon chants are organized in strophic form, and in performance a large variety of vocal techniques are used, such as gliding before and after a given note, whistling, shouting, or masking the voice. Some of these sounds are said to represent the voices of spirits heard through the singer as medium. As the ritual progresses, the tempo of chanting and instrumental music accelerate, and the volume also increases; great intensity is generated as a result.

Buddhist liturgy

Tibetan Buddhists hold that music prepares the mind for spiritual enlightenment. Accordingly, music (vocal as well as instrumental) is employed in the monastic routines that focus on five daily assemblies held in the monastery shrine hall between sunrise and sunset. The daily services consist predominantly of choral chants, with or without instrumental accompaniment, and antiphony between choral chant and instrumental interludes. All music is notated. Important liturgical items include the monks' "invitation" to the deities to visit the place of worship, the ritual of offering, thanksgiving hymns, and hymns of praise to the Buddha and the bodhisattvas.

Monks participating in the daily services sit cross-legged in paired rows facing one another. The music of the service proceeds under the direction of the dbumdza (chant leader). The choral chant is normally sung in unison in a quiet and restrained manner; heterophony occasionally occurs. Texts for choral chants are drawn mostly from the sacred scripture known as the Bka' 'gyur (Kanjur, doctrine attributed to Buddha) and from Bstan 'gyur (Tanjur, commentaries). Three main chant styles are distinguished: solo parlando recitation, gdaṅ (hymn), and abyaṅs (sustained chant).

Solo parlando recitation, in measured or unmeasured rhythm, is usually employed in short introductory passages. The gdaṅ is chanted in a series of meters (duple, triple, or asymmetrical meter such as 11/8), depending on the textual structure. Melodically, sections of gdaṅ are made up of repetitions of one or two pairs of phrases having a limited range in predominantly conjunct motion. The chant may also be monotonal. Words in gdaṅ are set either syllabically or melismatically. In performance a variety of ornaments, such as glissando and glides before and after a note, are used. Gdaṅ is accompanied by a cymbal and drum whose function is simply to beat time.

The abyaṅs is chanted in an extremely low register and essentially in a monotone. Words are set syllabically to notes of long duration prefixed or affixed by a variety of microtonal inflections or vocal glides. A special vocal technique has been cultivated by two monasteries of the Dge-lugs-pa order in which each chanter simultaneously sings two pitches, a deep fundamental and a clear harmonic (either the fifth or the sixth harmonic), resulting in a choral effect. The abyaṅs is chanted in a quiet manner.

In contrast to the quiet vocal chanting of abyaṅs, instrumental interludes of abyaṅs are played loudly. The aerophones are always played in pairs. One of the two rgya gliṅs, which are shawms, plays the main melody in an unadorned manner while the other plays the main melody with ornamentation. The other aerophones, the duṅ —a trumpet of varying sizes with a low tone quality, the rkaṅ glin —a trumpet made of animal femur or of metal, and the duṅ dkar —a conch, play long, sustained notes and repeat chords of two pitches, a two-note ostinato figure. The domaru, a rattle drum, and the dril bu, a handbell, are played by one person whose strokes serve mainly as signals marking sections of the chants. The cymbals (gsil snyan and rol mo ) and the two ruga drums, untuned double-headed drums each struck with a crooked stick, play a variety of rhythmic figures as well as beating time. The resultant instrumental texture is complex and its timbre full of subtle nuances. In contrast to the rhythmic complexity and subtlety of the percussion part, the music for the shawms—the only melody instruments in the ensemble—is rather simple and straightforward; it is played in a rhythmically fixed manner with penetrating volume. Circular breathing is employed in shawm playing so that a continuous line is achieved.

Liturgical drama

The 'cham is a quasi-liturgical ritual drama performed to exorcise evil spirits. The ritual is performed outdoors and involves the use of music (both vocal and instrumental), mime, and dance, as well as elaborate costumes and masks. The music ensemble consists of groups of chanters and an instrumental ensemble similar to that used in monastic liturgical services, with the addition of special sound effects not found in those services.

Bibliography

China

Bian, Rulan Zhao. Song Dynasty Musical Sources and Their Interpretation. Cambridge, Mass., 1967.

Bian, Rulan Zhao, et al. "China." In New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie, vol. 4, pp. 245–283. London, 1980.

Granet, Marcel. Festivals and Songs of Ancient China (1919). New York, 1932.

Kishibe Shigeo. "La danse du Confucianisme," "Rites du Taô," "Musique religieuse en Chine." In Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, vol. 1, pp. 265–267, 268–271, 272–274. Paris, 1968.

Kuttner, Fritz A. "Musique des sacrifices confucéens." In Encyclopédie des musiques sacrées, vol. 1, pp. 250–264. Paris, 1968.

Li, Chunren. "An Outline of the History of Chinese Buddhist Music." Journal of Buddhist Culture 1 (1972): 123–130.

Liu, Zhunruo. "Five Major Chant Types of the Buddhist Service, Gongdian." In Chinoperl Papers, no. 8, pp. 130–160. Ithaca, N. Y., 1978.

Prip-Møller, Johannes. Chinese Buddhist Monasteries: Their Plan and Function as a Setting for Buddhist Monastic Life (1937). Hong Kong, 1982.

Van Aalst, J. A. Chinese Music (1884). Reprint, New York, 1964.

Wong, Isabel. "Geming Gequ: Songs for the Education of the Masses." In Popular Chinese Literature and Performing Arts in the People's Republic of China 1949–1979, edited by Bonnie S. McDougall, pp. 114–143. Berkeley, Calif., 1984.

Yank Yinliu. Zhongguo gudai yinyue shigao, vol. 1. Beijing, 1980.

Korea

Byong Won Lee. "Korea." In New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 10, pp. 192–208. London, 1980.

Byong Won Lee. "Korean Court Music and Dance." World of Music 23 (1981): 35–51.

Hahn, Man-young. "The Four Musical Types of Buddhist Chant in Korea." Yearbook for Traditional Music 15 (1983): 45–58.

Provine, Robert C., Jr. "The Treatise on Ceremonial Music (1430) in the Annals of the Korean King Sejong." Ethnomusicology 18 (January 1974): 1–30.

Provine, Robert C., Jr. "'Chinese' Ritual Music in Korea: The Origins, Codification, and Cultural Role of Aak." Korean Journal 20 (February 1980): 16–25.

Provine, Robert C., Jr. "'Chinese' Ritual Music in Korea." In Traditional Korean Music, edited by the Korean National Commission of UNESCO. Arch Cape, Oreg., 1983.

Survey of Korean Arts: Traditional Music. 2 vols. Edited by The Korean National Academy of Arts. Seoul, 1971–1974.

Tibet

Crossley-Holland, Peter. "rGy-gling Hymns of the Kamu-Kagyu: The Rhythmitonal Architecture of Some Tibetan Instrumental Airs." Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology 1 (1970): 79–114.

Crossley-Holland, Peter. "Tibet." In New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. 18, pp. 799–811. London, 1980.

Ellingson, Ter. "'Don rta dbyangs gsum : Tibetan Chant and Melodic Categories." Asian Music 10 (1979): 112–156.

Kaufmann, Walter. "The Notation of the Buddhist Chant (Tibet)." In his Musical Notations of the Orient, pp. 355–417. Bloomington, Ind., 1967.

Lerner, Lin. "Two Tibetan Ritual Dances: A Comparative Study." Tibetan Journal 8 (Winter 1983): 50–57.