Pipits and wagtails

(Motacillidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Motacillidae

Thumbnail description
Small passerines with slender body, short neck, medium to long tail and legs, and thin, pointed bill; mainly terrestrial and insectivorous

Size
4.7–8.3 in (12–21 cm); 0.025–0.14 lb (11–64 g).

Number of genera, species
5 genera; 63 species

Habitat
Predominantly open country, often near water: rocky shores, wet meadows, grassland, arid regions and tundra; also woodland

Conservation status
Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 3 species; Near Threatened: 4 species; Data Deficient: 2 species

Distribution
Cosmopolitan; all continents, from Arctic tundra to Antarctic (South Georgia)

Evolution and systematics

The family Motacillidae is well defined and homogeneous but its relationships to other oscine passerine groups (singing birds such as larks, finches, and crows), as indicated by traditionally accepted morphological characters, are obscure. The family was once placed next to the larks (Alaudidae) but later widely accepted classifications placed it between the Hirundinidae (swallows and martins) and the Campephagidae (cuckoo-shrikes). However, egg-white protein evidence suggests ties with Old World warblers and flycatchers (Muscicapidae). The greatly reduced outermost primary feathers suggests affinities with nine-primaried oscines and this is supported by DNA hybridization evidence; which led researchers to treat the group as a subfamily (Motacillidae) within the family Passeridae, alongside the subfamilies Passerinae (sparrows), Prunellinae (accentors), Ploceinae (weavers), and Estrildinae (waxbills).

It has been proposed that two African endemic species, Sharpe's longclaw (Macronyx sharpei) and the yellow-breasted pipit (Anthus chloris) should be associated in the genus Hemimacronyx (or even that both should be placed in Anthus) on the basis of shared characteristics suggesting that they form a link between the pipits and the longclaws. However, this is not justified in terms of the many typical longclaw characteristics shown by Sharpe's longclaw. In structural characters and behavior, the yellow-breasted pipit resembles typical pipits more than it resembles Sharpe's longclaw.

The first fossil material for the family dates back to the Upper Oligocene, about 30 million years ago. During the Miocene epoch (26–7 million years ago), when drying conditions reduced forests and encouraged the spread of grasslands, this and other bird families radiated extensively into these more open habitats.

Physical characteristics

The members of this family are small birds. Pipits and wagtails are structurally very similar, having a slim, elongated body, a small rounded head and short neck, a slender pointed bill with rictal bristles, a medium to long tail (longest in the wagtails and shortest in pipits associated with trees), rather long legs and toes and, especially in pipits, a long hind claw. The wings have 10 primaries, the outermost being vestigial, and in most species the tertials (top feathers) are long, often reaching to the tips of the primaries in the folded wing. The wing formula is useful in identifying some pipits. The long-claws are larger and more robust, with relatively short tails and very long, curved hind claws that can reach 1.25 in (mean0.8 in; 32 mm, mean 21 mm) in the yellow-throated longclaw (Macronyx croceus) and facilitate walking and perching on grass clumps. Wagtails have a horizontal stance on the ground and a more upright stance when perched, pipits usually have a less horizontal stance, and longclaws are even more upright, often having a lark-like appearance.

Wagtails are strikingly colored or patterned, at least in adult plumage, with black, white, gray, yellow, or green. Young birds and nonbreeding plumages are generally less conspicuous. The males and females of most species differ to

some extent in plumage. Most species have pale wing-bars or white wing-panels, the tertials have prominent pale outer edges and the tail is edged with white. Variation in the yellow wagtail (Motacilla flava) is complex, with up to 15 morphological types, which may be morphs, intergrading subspecies or sympatric species (those that occupy the same area but maintain their own identity).

Pipits are cryptically colored and patterned, usually having brown upperparts and whitish underparts, with dark streaking, although some species are almost unstreaked. The tail is edged with white, buff, or pale brown, the color and pattern being important in identification. In most species the sexes are identical in plumage and there is little or no seasonal variation. Many species are very similar in appearance and are very hard to identify, although vocalizations are usually diagnostic. The olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni) is unique with its greenish upperparts and white underparts beautifully decorated with lines of large black spots on the breast and flanks. Some pipits have brighter colors in the breeding plumage, with red or pink on the throat and breast in rosy pipits (A. roseatus) and red-throated pipits (A. cervinus), and yellow underparts on the yellow-breasted pipit. The golden pipit is peculiar because the lower part of the tibia is not feathered and the sexes are very distinct, the male being very brightly colored.

Longclaws have cryptically patterned upperparts and brightly colored underparts. Adults have a blackish or strongly dark-streaked "necklace" bordering a yellow, orange, or red chin and throat. This color extends to the rear underparts in some species. The tail has white corners. Young birds have a less distinct necklace and duller underparts. The yellow-throated longclaw is the ecological equivalent of the American meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta), which it resembles very closely in plumage—a striking example of convergence.

Distribution

The Motacillidae family is cosmopolitan; some wagtails and pipits breed as far north as the Arctic tundra, while the South Georgia pipit (Anthus antarcticus) occurs on the sub-Antarctic island of South Georgia. Almost all holarctic wagtails and pipits are strongly migratory, many moving south to winter in Africa and Asia.

Wagtails occur throughout most of the Old World but are of limited occurrence in Australia, where the yellow wagtail regularly reaches the north and the yellow-hooded wagtail (Motacilla citreola), the gray wagtail (M. cinerea), and the white wagtail (M. alba) are vagrants. The yellow wagtail breeds from western Europe and North Africa east to Siberia, and the race tschutschensis is the only wagtail breeding in the western hemisphere—in the arctic tundra of western Alaska. Most wagtails are widely distributed, but the Mekong wagtail (M. samveasnae) has a very restricted distribution in Southeast Asia, while the Japanese wagtail (M. grandis) occurs only in Japan. Three species are endemic to Africa: the African pied wagtail (M. aguimp), the cape wagtail (M. capensis) and the mountain wagtail (M. clara). One species, M. flaviventris, is endemic to Madagascar.

The pipits are very widely distributed, breeding from the arctic tundra through Eurasia, Africa, the Americas and Australasia. The northernmost breeding Eurasian species, such as the red-throated pipit, the olive-backed pipit and the pechora pipit (Anthus gustavi) winter far to the south, in Africa and/or southern and southeastern Asia. The tawny pipit (A. campestris) and the tree pipit (A. trivialis), which breed in the western Palearctic and east into central Asia, winter in Africa and Asia south to the Indian subcontinent. The meadow pipit (A. pratensis) breeds mainly in the western Palearctic and winters in Europe, North Africa and southwest Asia. Africa boasts 13 endemic pipit species, some migratory but most resident, and several with restricted ranges.

The Australasian pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae) is the only species occurring in Australia and New Zealand, while the alpine pipit (A. gutturalis) is endemic to New Guinea. North America has three pipits, all migratory: the endemic Sprague's pipit (A. spraguei); the American pipit (A. rubescens), which breeds in eastern Siberia, Alaska, northern Canada and south locally to New Mexico, and winters south to Central America; and the red-throated pipit, which breeds in western Alaska. South America has seven endemic pipits, including the widespread yellowish pipit (A. lutescens), the migratory correndera pipit (A. correndera), which occurs south from central Peru, and the very poorly known chaco pipit (A. chacoensis), which is recorded only from southern Paraguay and northern Argentina.

The longclaws are endemic to sub-Saharan grassland regions of Africa. The yellow-throated longclaw is very widespread, occurring through west, central and eastern Africa, its range hardly overlapping with that of the very similar Fuelleborn's longclaw (Macronyx fuellebornii) occurring in south-central Africa. The other species are less widespread.

Habitat

Most species in the family inhabit open country, but a few are associated with woodland, forest or riparian vegetation. The forest wagtail occurs in forests and woodlands, the mountain wagtail is found along the banks of fast-flowing streams in forests and the gray wagtail occupies well-vegetated waterside habitats but also sometimes occurs on streams with no vegetation cover. Eurasian woodland and forest pipits include the tree pipit, olive-backed pipit, and Pechora pipit. African species include the bush pipit (Anthus caffer), woodland pipit (A. nyassae), and Sokoke pipit (A. sokokensis).

Wagtails are found in a wide variety of open and semiopen habitats. They often occur in wet habitats, ranging from streams, rivers and open bodies of water to the edges of vegetated wetlands. Several species are associated with farmland, parks, gardens and human habitations, and may breed in buildings inside villages and towns. The yellow wagtail breeds in arctic tundra habitats as well as vegetated wetlands and meadows at lower latitudes, and occupies a wide range of open, short-vegetated, often wet habitats on its wintering grounds. On migration and in their wintering areas, migratory wagtail and pipit species often associate with each other.

Pipits occur in many habitat types, mostly open and especially grassland, from sea level to high altitudes, and the rosy pipit reaches 17,400 ft (5,300 m) in the Himalayas. Rocky shores attract the rock pipit (Anthus petrosus), while species such as the meadow pipit prefer wet meadows and grasslands.

Drier open grasslands are inhabited by many species, including almost all of those occurring in South America, while the tawny pipit inhabits dry, often sparsely vegetated regions, sometimes semi-desert and often sandy. In Africa, the yellow-tufted pipit (A. crenatus) prefers rocky hills with grass clumps and the striped pipit (A. lineiventris) rocky sites with trees. On its nonbreeding grounds in the Philippines, Borneo, and Wallacea, the Arctic tundra-breeding pechora pipit frequents moist grassy areas, forest trails and coastal forests.

The longclaws are predominantly grassland birds, often occurring on moist ground at wetland edges, although the pangani longclaw (Macronyx aurantiigula) also occurs widely in grassland with acacia bushes in semi-arid country, and in West Africa the yellow-throated longclaw is also found on the seashore. Longclaw species with overlapping ranges exhibit a wider ecological tolerance in areas where other longclaw species of the same habitats are not present.

Behavior

Members of this family are territorial when breeding, and males are often very aggressive, threatening and chasing intruding individuals of their own and other species. Commensal wagtails often show aggressive behavior to their reflection in car mirrors and hubcaps, threatening and attacking the image vigorously, often for prolonged periods.

Many species form flocks when on migration and in the nonbreeding quarters. Wagtails often roost communally, sometimes with other species, usually in reedbeds but also in bushes or scrub and sometimes at sewage works, factories and greenhouses. Some wagtail and pipit species defend feeding territories outside the breeding season. For example, rock pipits defend stretches of coastline and wagtails defend stretches of shoreline adjacent to open flowing or still water.

Wagtails are lively and attractive birds, and commensal species are usually fearless of humans. Wagtails are so named because they frequently wag their tails up and down. Pipits also perform this movement, though less strongly, but the olive-backed pipit pumps its tail as vigorously as a wagtail. Wagtails and pipits either walk with a rather deliberate gait or run at great speed over the ground. To escape detection, pipits and longclaws are adept at crouching in short vegetation and moving quietly through short ground vegetation, adopting an upright stance to look around. Forest and woodland species such as the Sokoke, striped and bush pipits are often unobtrusive and relatively difficult to locate.

The flight of wagtails and pipits is strong and is often undulating, especially in wagtails. Longclaws normally have a jerky flight, with alternating periods of flaps and glides. Song-flights, launched either from the ground or a perch, are characteristic of the pipits and longclaws, while wagtails usually sing from the ground or from an elevated perch, more rarely in a short fluttering song-flight. Pipits are well known for their spectacular song flights, in which the song is delivered from high in the air, often as the bird parachutes back to the ground or a perch. The songs of pipits vary from short and simple (e.g., in the upland pipit [Anthus gustavi]) to extended,

complex and varied (e.g., in Sprague's pipit). Wagtails have simple, often quite melodious songs, while the longclaws have distinctive voices, giving whistled, melodious calls and simple songs. Flight calls are common in all species in the family, and are of great use in identifying pipits.

Most pipits and wagtails are migratory. The species that breed in temperate regions are usually medium-to long-distance migrants, whereas those breeding further south are usually short-distance migrants or residents. Many Palearctic wagtails and pipits migrate to tropical Africa and Asia for the winter. The correndera pipit is unique among South American endemic pipits in having some migratory movements.

Feeding ecology and diet

The principal food of all species is adult and larval insects of a very wide variety and a great size range, from tiny midges and chironomid larvae to locusts and dragonflies. Insects taken include Diptera (especially Scatophagidae, Tipulidae, and Chironomidae), beetles (including cockroaches), grasshoppers and locusts, crickets, Hemiptera (including aphids), mantids, ants, termites, and wasps. Virtually the full range of insect prey is taken by the members of each genus, and some of the most popular food items are beetles (including weevils) and grasshoppers, plus dragonfly larvae, adult and larval Diptera, and Lepidoptera larvae, while termites are usually taken whenever available. Wagtail species take a variety of larval aquatic insects, such as dragonfly and mayfly nymphs, and caddisfly and stonefly larvae.

Other invertebrates eaten include spiders, crustaceans such as Isopoda, Amphipoda and crabs, annelid worms, Myriapoda, and small terrestrial, freshwater and marine mollusks. Vertebrate prey includes small fish, small frogs, tadpoles and small chameleons. Plant material is sometimes eaten, especially in the winter, and includes grass seeds, weed seeds, berries, grass blades, pine tree seeds, and tree buds; even young vegetables are reportedly eaten by the Australasian pipit. The olive-backed pipit feeds chiefly on insects in the summer and seeds in the winter. Some species occasionally take more unusual foods, including carrion, and the cape wagtail will forage around human habitation, eating raw meat, fat, cheese, maize meal, bread, and cake.

The birds forage on open ground, in grass and herbaceous vegetation, among domestic stock, at water margins, in shallow water, on floating vegetation, and in trees and bushes; some species even follow the plough. The red-throated pipit also forages in seaweed on beaches, while the rock pipit wades in seawater, following retreating waves on beaches. Foraging methods vary with species, and include the following main techniques: (1) picking from the ground or the water surface while walking; (2) run-picking by making darting runs to catch prey; (3) immersion, by plunging the head into water; (4) flycatching and aerial pursuit, by making short to long flights in pursuit of prey; (5) hovering to catch airborne prey or prey on the water surface; (6) probing in ground vegetation, crevices or leaf-litter. The long tail of wagtails helps the birds' balance when run-picking and flycatching, and assists in the control of aerial maneuvers when pursuing insects in flight.

In the nonbreeding season, some wagtail and pipit species feed in flocks, exploiting large patches of food. Some wagtails maintain individual winter feeding territories to defend dependable but localized food supplies, especially adjacent to water. Territory boundaries are vigorously defended with displays involving head-bobbing and short jumps into the air. Territoriality may vary with food abundance, and individuals may switch between defending patchy resources and feeding communally at widespread patches. Winter pairs may occupy territories, or an adult may share the territory with an immature bird.

Reproductive biology

Courtship displays are given by some species. The mountain wagtail, which pairs permanently and defends a permanent territory, indulges in erratic aerial chases and an aerial "spiral dance." Other wagtails also pair monogamously and permanently, and the male cape wagtail displays by presenting the female with nesting material throughout the year. Carrying and presenting nesting material is also recorded in Berthelot's pipit (Anthus berthelotii) and other pipit species, while courtship feeding is practiced by wagtails and pipits. Breeding pipits perform aerial courtship chases, which sometimes precede copulation. Breeding pairs of Sharpe's longclaw (Macronyx sharpei) perform fluttering or circular flights together over the territory.

Pipits nest on the ground, often in grass. The red-throated pipit sometimes builds at the end of a short tunnel in a mossy hummock. Wagtails may also nest on the ground, in grass or reeds, on flood debris or below bushes, but they commonly nest in crevices or holes in rocks, cliffs, stream banks, and walls, under bridges, and in tree roots and hollow branches; the white wagtail sometimes uses old nests of other species. Longclaw nests are hidden in, or at the base of, a grass tussock or among herbaceous plants.

Nests are cup-shaped, sometimes placed in a depression or a shallow scrape, are usually neatly built of grass, stems, rootlets, twigs, or moss and are often lined with hair, wool, feathers, or plant fibers. The female builds, usually with the male in attendance and, in some species, with the help of the male.

Egg colors vary from white, cream, buff, or gray to (in pipits) olive, reddish, or dark brown, spotted or blotched (in wagtails sometimes also streaked) with brown, gray, mauve, purple, or black. Longclaws and the tree pipit sometimes lay pale blue, pink, or green eggs. The clutch size of wagtails is three to eight (usually four to six) in higher latitudes and one to seven (usually two to four) at lower latitudes; pipits lay two to nine (usually four to six) eggs at higher latitudes and only two to four (usually three) in the tropics. Longclaws lay two to five eggs, most commonly two or three. Incubation is usually by the female only, but by both sexes in some species; it takes 11–16 days. Both parents usually care for the young, which fledge after 10–17 days (exceptionally 19–20 days in the cape wagtail). Young often leave the nest before they are fully fledged and able to fly.

In temperate latitudes, wagtails and pipits breed from April to August (mostly April through June), but Berthelot's pipit has an extended season, from January to August. In the tropics, pipits and wagtails breed mainly at the end of the dry season and during the rains. Longclaws and the golden pipit breed during or just after the rains, the development of grass cover for nest concealment probably being an important factor in the timing of breeding. Some pipits and wagtails breed two or three times per year, including the African pied wagtail, which may sometimes breed continually throughout the year. High-latitude species are usually single-brooded because the breeding season is short.

Conservation status

The worldwide and increasing loss and degradation of grassland and wetland habitats has had its effect on the Motacillidae. Of the family's 63 species, two are Endangered, three are Vulnerable, four are Near Threatened and two are Data Deficient. In addition, the recently described Mekong wagtail, although existing in healthy numbers in Cambodia as of 2001, should probably be regarded as Near Threatened because of its very small known range and its susceptibility to habitat loss.

Three of the eight longclaw species are of global conservation concern. The Endangered Sharpe's longclaw, which is endemic to grassland in the Kenya highlands, has a very small and fragmented range and is threatened by rapid habitat loss and degradation through cultivation, tree-planting and heavy grazing. The Abyssinian longclaw (Macronyx flavicollis), a highland grassland species confined to Ethiopia, has apparently declined in numbers since the 1970s. It is likely to suffer further declines as a result of constantly increasing levels of cultivation and grazing, and is therefore classed as Near Threatened. Grimwood's longclaw (M. grimwoodi), which occurs in moist grasslands in southwest Democratic Republic of the Congo, central and eastern Angola and extreme northwestern Zambia, was formerly regarded as locally common but there is no recent information on its population or on potential threats, and it is regarded as Data Deficient.

The other eight species of conservation concern are all pipits, six of which are sedentary, with very restricted ranges. In Africa, the Sokoke pipit is restricted to coastal forest and thickets in Kenya and Tanzania, where its small population is seriously threatened by habitat loss and degradation; it is regarded as Endangered. The Near Threatened Malindi pipit (Anthus melindae) is endemic to the coastal strip from southern Kenya to southern Somalia, where it is locally common in seasonally flooded short grassland that is under pressure from intensive grazing and demands for arable land. The Vulnerable yellow-breasted pipit is restricted to highland grasslands in South Africa, where its small, declining population is threatened by habitat loss. The long-tailed pipit (A. longicaudatus), recently described from Kimberley, South Africa, is presumed to be a migrant and its range and status are unclear. It is regarded as Data Deficient.

The Near Threatened Nilgiri pipit (A. nilghiriensis) is endemic to southern India, where it has a small range on grassy upland slopes of the Western Ghats of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Its habitats are being converted to tea, wattle and eucalyptus. In the Americas, the Vulnerable ochrebreasted pipit (A. nattereri) is confined to dry grasslands in southeast Brazil, southern Paraguay and northern Argentina. It has declined dramatically in Brazil and is threatened by extensive and continuing habitat destruction. The migratory Sprague's pipit of Canada and the United States is also Vulnerable. The Near Threatened South Georgia pipit has a population of 3,000–4,000 pairs confined to about 20 small rat-free offshore islands and a few mainland areas on South Georgia. An ongoing threat is the invasion of its habitats by rats.

Significance to humans

Wagtails, with their striking plumage, confiding nature and frequent association with humans and domestic stock, have become the subject of legends throughout their wide geographical range. In Japanese Shinto mythology, wagtails are sacred to the central deities of the creation myth, the brother and sister gods Izanagi and Izanami, who were taught love by them. In Ainu myth the wagtail was sent by the cuckoo to Earth, which was then a sterile quagmire. The wagtail beat the earth down, flattening rough places with its wings and tail until the ground hardened and became habitable for people. The "water wagtail" is the Ainu Cupid and its feathers and bones are love charms.

In Greek mythology, wagtails were seen as a gift from Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and the wagtail was a symbol of love. In India the wagtail is a bird of divination and bears a holy caste mark. The situation in which it appears is an omen: if it is near a lotus flower, elephants, cows, snakes or horses it is favorable; if near bones, ashes or refuse it presages evil and the gods should be placated.

Wagtails featured strongly in tribal life among the Xhosa people of South Africa in the early twentieth century. The wagtail (primarily the cape wagtail, possibly also the African pied wagtail) was widely known as "the bird of the cattle" and "the bird of good fortune." It was held in high regard and was protected because its presence was thought to assure the increase of stock, while its call was likened to a herd boy's whistle. The departure of cape wagtails from a region was seen as a sign that war was about to take place.

Despite their often striking display flights, the more cryptic and less approachable pipits hardly seem to have figured in myth and legend. However, young Zulu men in South Africa formerly manufactured love charms from pipits and it is interesting to note that the Xhosa people were aware of the close relationship between pipits and wagtails.

In the remote hinterland of Borneo, the Kelabit people determine their crucial rice-planting cycle by the arrival of a series of migratory bird species from far northern breeding grounds. These birds, which include the yellow wagtail, indicate the sequence of clearing, planting, bedding, weeding, protecting and harvesting the rice crop, and give their names to the months.

Species accounts

List of Species

Forest wagtail

Dendronanthus indicus

taxonomy

Motacilla indica Gmelin, 1798, India (Malabar).

other common names

English: Tree wagtail; French: Bergeronnette de forêt; German: Baumstelze; Spanish: Lavandera de los Bosques.

physical characteristics

6.3–6.9 in (16–17.5 cm); 0.5–0.6 oz (14–17 g). Grayish head and upperparts with white eye stripe; white bands on wing. Whitish throat and underparts with black bib-like collar with black stripes on breast.

distribution

Northeast China and southeast Russia south to Korea and southwest Japan; winters in south China, Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, and Indochina through Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines.

habitat

Deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forests, riverine forest, open woodland, and pinewoods; also winters in bamboo, plantations, and parks.

behavior

Readily flies to trees when disturbed; sometimes roosts in reeds or mangroves. Sways tail and rear body laterally. Migrates south in August through October; return migration March through May.

feeding ecology and diet

Insects (including ants) and spiders. Forages on the ground, usually close to cover.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds May through June. Nest is a small, neat cup of small twigs, leaves, grass, rootlets, moss, cobwebs and lichen, on a horizontal tree branch, often near water; female builds. Lays four eggs; incubation 15–16 days, by female.

conservation status

Not threatened; formerly regarded as locally distributed.

significance to humans

None known.

Gray wagtail

Motacilla cinerea

taxonomy

Motacilla cinerea Tunstall, 1771, Yorkshire, England. Six subspecies.

other common names

French: Bergeronnette des ruisseaux; German: Gebirgsstelze; Spanish: Lavandera Cascadeña.

physical characteristics

7.1–7.5 in (18–19 cm); 0.5–0.8 oz (14–22 g). Gray upperparts; yellow underparts. Tail longer, more black-and-white than the yellow wagtail. In summer males develop a bold face pattern with white stripes and a black bib.

distribution

M. c. patriciae: Azores; M. c. schmitzi: Madeira; M. c. canariensis: Canary Islands; M. c. cinerea: Northwest Africa and Europe east

to Iran, winters in western Europe, Middle East and Africa south to Malawi; M. c. melanope: Ural mountains and Afghanistan east to Amur R.; M. c. robusta: east Asia from Kamchatka and Okhotsk Sea to northeast China and Japan; central and eastern Asian birds winter in Pakistan east to southeast China, and southeast Asia to New Guinea.

habitat

Fast-running, rocky upland streams and rivers; also canals, and lakeshores with stones, trees and dense herbage; in winter also in lowlands at waterbodies, estuaries and coasts near water.

behavior

Territorial when breeding; some defend winter feeding territories; gregarious only at winter roosts.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes mainly aquatic insects; also tadpoles and small fish; forages on ground or in water; also flycatches.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds March through May. Cup nest placed on cliff ledge, in crevice, bank or tree roots; both sexes build. Three to seven eggs; incubation 11–14 days, by both sexes; fledging 11–17 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Uncommon to common and widespread. Some populations decreasing, but no significant threats noted.

significance to humans

None known.

Mekong wagtail

Motacilla samveasnae

taxonomy

Motacilla samveasnae Duckworth et al., 2001, Cambodia.

other common names

French: Bergeronnette de Mekong; German: Mekongstelze; Spanish: Lavandera Mekong.

physical characteristics

6.7–6.9 in (17–17.5 cm). Black head, breast, and upperparts with white eye stripe, underside, and chin to throat.

distribution

Mekong River and tributaries in Cambodia and adjacent east Thailand and south Laos, possibly also Vietnam.

habitat

Breeding habitat is swift-flowing rivers at braided channels with rocks and bushes.

behavior

Territorial when breeding. Possibly resident; almost no observations outside breeding season.

feeding ecology and diet

Insectivorous; often forages within emergent bushes, walking along branches.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds February through May, late in river's low-flow season. No other information available.

conservation status

Should be considered Near Threatened. Although its population density is locally high, it has a very restricted range and is permanently at risk of extinction by habitat loss. The greatest threat is dam-building; flow-modifying events, even in other countries and far upstream of its known range, could drastically affect its habitat.

significance to humans

None known.

Golden pipit

Tmetothylacus tenellus

taxonomy

Macronyx tenellus Cabanis, 1878, Taita, southeast Kenya.

other common names

French: Pipit doré; German: Goldpieper; Spanish: Bisbita Dorada.

physical characteristics

5.1–6.3 in (13–16 cm); 0.6–0.8 oz (18–22 g). Mottled brown from forehead to rump; golden-yellow underparts, cheek, and brow with black bib across throat.

distribution

Western Somalia and Ethiopia, west to southeast Sudan and south to southern Tanzania; vagrant to the north in Oman and south to northern South Africa.

habitat

Arid or semi-arid grassland with bushes and small trees, usually up to about 3,300 ft (1,000 m) above sea level.

behavior

Territorial when breeding, otherwise often in family groups or parties. Rather shy; frequently perches on trees or bushes, wagging tail. Displays by fluttering up and then gliding to ground, showing yellow in spread wings and tail. Migratory; marked influxes during rains.

feeding ecology and diet

Insectivorous, taking prey from ground or grass stems.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeds November through May, during rains. Nest is a cup of grass and stems, lined rootlets, hidden low in a bush; lays two to four eggs.

conservation status

Not threatened; sometimes locally abundant after rains.

significance to humans

None known.

Rosy-breasted longclaw

Macronyx ameliae

taxonomy

Macronyx ameliae de Tarragon, 1845, Durban, South Africa.

other common names

English: Pink-throated longclaw; French: Sentinelle à gorge rose; German: Rubinkehlpieper; Spanish: Bisbita de Pecho Rosado.

physical characteristics

7.5–8 in (19–20 cm); 1.1–1.4 oz (30–40 g). Mottled upperparts with orange-red upper throat, blackish band across lower throat, and rosy breast.

distribution

Southwestern Kenya, north and southwest Tanzania, west to Angola and south to Botswana, Zimbabwe and coastal east South Africa.

habitat

Short or tussocky grassland, usually permanently or seasonally moist and near marshes or open water.

behavior

Territorial when breeding; normally in pairs or in family groups. Usually shy. Male sings from top of bush or in song flight. Some movements in relation to seasonal rainfall.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes insects, sometimes small frogs. Forages in grass or on bare ground; sometimes catches prey in flight.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds mainly during or after rains. Nest is a cup of grass, lined rootlets or grass, placed in grass tuft; built by female. Lays two to four eggs; incubation is 13–14 days by female. Young leave nest after about 16 days.

conservation status

Near Threatened in South Africa, where range has contracted significantly through loss of coastal habitat; threatened by habitat loss in coastal south Mozambique.

significance to humans

None known.

Yellow-breasted pipit

Anthus chloris

taxonomy

Anthus chloris Lichtenstein, 1842, Vaal/Modder Rivers, South Africa.

other common names

French: Pipit à gorge jaune; German: Gelbbrustpieper; Spanish: Bisbita de Pecho Amarillo.

physical characteristics

6.3–7.1 in (16–18 cm); 0.9 oz (25 g). Mottled brown upperparts with yellowish eye stripe and yellow chin to belly.

distribution

Eastern South Africa and Lesotho.

habitat

Submontane, flat to undulating lush grasslands, usually tussocky; normally breeds at 4,600–7,900 ft (1,400–2,400 m); outside breeding season also in lower-elevation pastures and fallow lands.

behavior

Territorial when breeding; usually in pairs but in small flocks when not breeding. Skulking and furtive. Sings from ground or in display flight. Some move to lower altitudes after breeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages on the ground for insects.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds November though January, during rains. Nest is a cup of stalks, grass and roots, lined rootlets and hair; built under tussock. Lays two to three eggs.

conservation status

Vulnerable because habitat loss and range contraction suggest its small population (2,500–6,500 birds in 2000) is declining. Threatened by burning, grazing, agricultural intensification and commercial afforestation.

significance to humans

None known.

Red-throated pipit

Anthus cervinus

taxonomy

Motacilla cervinus Pallas, 1811, Kolmya, Siberia.

other common names

French: Pipit à gorge rousse; German: Rotkehlpieper; Spanish: Bisbita Gorgirrojo.

physical characteristics

5.7–5.9 in (14.5–15 cm); 0.6–1 oz (16.5–29 g). Upperparts are dark brown with black and whitish streaks on the back. Underparts are buffy with dark streaks across the breast and onto the flanks. Wings are blackish with whitish bars and the tail is black with white outer tail feathers. In the breeding season, breeding males develop a reddish head, throat, and breast; the head and breast of females and nonbreeding males is duller.

distribution

Breeds in northern Scandinavia east through arctic Russia to Bering Strait and western Alaska; winters in east Africa south to Tanzania, Turkey, Middle East, and southeast China, southeast Asia, and northern Indonesia.

habitat

Shrubby or mossy tundra, and willow/birch swamps; also damp grassy flats. In winter, on short-grazed grassland, especially with mud or shallow water; also mudflats, ploughland and moorland.

behavior

Territorial when breeding. In winter, often forms large, loose flocks. Often perches on rocks, bushes and fences. Male displays with horizontal or parachuting song flight.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages on the ground, probing amongst vegetation for insects.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds May though August. Nest is a hollow (made by male) in moss or ground, with cup of grass, lined hair and feathers; female builds. Lays two to seven eggs; incubation is 11–14 days, by female; fledging after 11–15 days.

conservation status

Not threatened. Locally abundant, but facing extinction in Finland; no major range changes recorded.

significance to humans

None known.

Berthelot's pipit

Anthus berthelotii

taxonomy

Anthus berthelotii Bolle, 1862, Canary Islands. Two subspecies.

other common names

French: Pipit de Berthelot; German: Kanarenpieper; Spanish: Bisbita caminero.

physical characteristics

5.5 in (14 cm); 0.6 oz (16–17 g). Brownish-gray upperparts with white brow stripe. Underparts buff-gray with dark streaks.

distribution

A. b. berthelotii: Canary Islands and Ilhas Selvagens; Anthus b. madeirensis: Madeira.

habitat

Mostly island habitats; prefers dry, open areas (including rocky plains and slopes) with bushes, grass, and herbaceous vegetation; also open grasslands, cultivation, vine-clad slopes, dunes, areas of volcanic rock, and open pine forests.

behavior

Territorial, possibly throughout the year, but forms small groups in winter. Often very tame. Runs rapidly; jumps nimbly over boulders. Sedentary; not recorded outside island breeding range.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats insects and seeds. Forages on the ground, climbing over small plants.

reproductive biology

Monogamous; breeds January through August. Nest is a cup of stems, lined hair, wool and feathers; on ground under low plant, bushes or stone; female builds. Lays two to five eggs. Possibly double-brooded.

conservation status

Not threatened. Locally common throughout most islands where it occurs, but has declined on Gran Canaria.

significance to humans

None known.

Bush pipit

Anthus caffer

taxonomy

Anthus caffer Sundevall, 1850, Natal, South Africa. Five subspecies.

other common names

English: Bushveld pipit; French: Pipit cafre; German: Busch-pieper; Spanish: Bisbita Negra.

physical characteristics

4.9–5.5 in (12.5–14 cm); 0.6 oz (16 g). Buff underparts streaked with brown at the throat and breast. Dark brownish head and upperparts with lighter eyestripe and chin.

distribution

A. c. caffer: Southeast Botswana, southwest Zimbabwe, northern South Africa and west Swaziland; A. c. traylori: South Mozambique and adjacent northeast South Africa; A. c. mzimbaensis: northeast Botswana, central Zimbabwe, northern Zambia, extreme southeast Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and western Malawi; A. c. blaneyi: Kenya and Tanzania; A. c. australoabyssinicus: Ethiopia.

habitat

Open woodland with patchy ground cover, woodland edges, and grassland with scattered trees.

behavior

Occurs in pairs or small flocks, often with mixed-species bird parties. Flies to trees when disturbed. Some A. c. mzimbaensis undertake post-breeding movements from Botswana and Zimbabwe north to Zambia, DRC, and Malawi.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages for insects on the ground in grass and leaf-litter.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Breeds October through April, during rains. Nest is a thick-walled cup of grass, lined rootlets, on ground under tuft of grass. Lays two to three eggs.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Sprague's pipit

Anthus spragueii

taxonomy

Alauda spragueii Audubon, 1844, North Dakota.

other common names

French: Pipit de Sprague; German: Präriepieper; Spanish: Bisbita Llanera.

physical characteristics

6.3–7 in (16–18 cm); 0.8–1 oz (22–29 g). Pale buff face; olive-tan upperparts streaked with buff and black; buff to whitish underparts with dark streaking; white outer tail feathers. Dark eyes; thin pale bill; creamy pink to yellowish legs and feet. Plumage camouflages the bird in prairie grasses.

distribution

Breeds in south central Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, British Columbia) and adjacent north central United

States (Montana, North and South Dakota); winters in southern United States and northern Mexico south to Guerrero and Veracruz.

habitat

Tall grass prairies and short-grass plains; on migration uses stubble and fallow fields.

behavior

Often flies high when flushed. Displays with a high, arcing song flight. Migrates south September through November, returns to breed in April through May.

feeding ecology and diet

Forages on the ground for insects; also takes some seeds.

reproductive biology

Monogamous. Nest is a cup of grass and weed stems, built on the ground and often overarched with grass. Lays four to seven eggs; fledging period 10–11 days or more. May be double-brooded.

conservation status

Vulnerable because of rapid population declines in the United States and Canada due to loss of prairie breeding habitat to crops, pasture and hayfields, and the introduction of alien plant species; intensive grazing is a threat throughout its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Ali, S., and S.D. Ripley. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. (Compact Edition). Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983.

Blakers, M., S.J.J.F. Davies, and P.N. Reilly. The Atlas of Australian Birds. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1984.

Cramp, S., ed. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 5, Tyrant Flycatchers to Thrushes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.

Keith, S., E.K. Urban, and C.H. Fry, eds. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 4. London: Academic Press, 1992.

Ridgely, R.S., and G. Tudor. The Birds of South America. Vol. 1, The Oscine Passerines. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Sibley, C.G., and B.L. Monroe. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.

Sibley, C.G., and J.E. Ahlquist. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study of Molecular Evolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.

Stattersfield, A.J., and D.R. Capper, eds. Threatened Birds of the World: The Official Source for Birds on the IUCN Red List. Cambridge: BirdLife International, 2000.

Periodicals

Clancey, P.A. "A Review of the Indigenous Pipits (Genus Anthus Bechstein: Motacillidae) of the Afrotropics." Durban Mus. Novit. 15 (1990): 42–72.

Cooper, M.R. "A Review of the Genus Macronyx and Its Relationship to the Yellow-bellied Pipit." Honeyguide 31(1985): 81–92.

Duckworth, J.W., P. Alstrom, P. Davidson, T.D. Evans, C.M. Poole, Tan Setha, and R.J. Timmins. "A New Species of Wagtail from the Lower Mekong Basin." Bulletin of the British Ornithology Club 121 (2001): 152–182.

Hall, B.P. "The Taxonomy and Identification of Pipits." Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History 7 (1961): 245–289.

Voelcker, G., and S.V. Edwards. "Can Weighting Improve Bushy Trees? Models of Cytochrome b Evolution and the Molecular Dystematics of Pipits and Wagtails (Aves: Motacillidae)." Systematic Biology 47 (1998): 589–603.

Barry Taylor, PhD