Pythons

(Pythonidae)

Class Reptilia

Order Squamata

Suborder Serpentes

Family Pythonidae

Thumbnail description
Small to giant, finely scaled, oviparous, constricting snakes possessing paired lungs, cloacal spurs, and supraorbital bone

Size
1.5–33 ft (0.5–10.1 m) in length, with a weight of 0.3–320 lb (0.14–145 kg)

Number of genera, species
8 genera; 32 species

Habitat
Rocky and sandy deserts, savanna, open woodlands, and forest

Conservation status
Endangered: 1 species; Vulnerable: 31 species

Distribution
Sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia and Southeast Asia, southeastern China, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia

Evolution and systematics

There are few snake fossils that can be incontrovertibly identified as pythons; these fossils are relatively recent, and all have been assigned to extant genera. Snake fossils from the mid- to late Miocene in Australia have been identified as Liasis and Morelia (formerly Montypythonoides). Fossils assigned to the genus Python are known from the Pliocene of eastern Africa.

Pythons are considered to be basal macrostomatans, one of several ophidian lineages that diverged from the primitive alethinophidians near the end of the Cretaceous. Macrostomatan snakes are distinguished by characters of the skull and musculature that allow them increased jaw flexibility, a greater gape, and the ability to consume larger prey. The pythons likely evolved in the Australo-Papuan region where today they exist with the greatest diversity. Seven of the eight genera of pythons occur in Australia and New Guinea. The genus Aspidites, an Australian endemic, is the sister taxon to all other pythons. It is assumed that Python, the most widespread genus, evolved in the Indo-Papuan region and dispersed north to Southeast Asia and then west into Africa.

Pythons share many characters with other basal macrostomatan snakes, including fully functional paired lungs, smooth scales (with some exceptions), vestiges of a pelvic girdle, and cloacal spurs. A cloacal spur is a claw-like structure used in courtship that is found on either side of the anal scale; male pythons tend to have larger cloacal spurs than female pythons. Characters shared with the Boidae, the sister taxon of the Pythonidae, include elliptical pupils and pitted lip scales that are associated with thermoreception. Thermoreception is the ability to sense differences in temperatures.

Pythons differ from boas in numerous characters, including: The supraorbital bone of pythons is in contact with the prefrontal. The supraorbital bone is a small bone located at the top of the eye socket. Only one taxon of boa possesses a supraorbital bone, and it does not contact the prefrontal. Python labial pits are located in the centers of the lip scales; when present in boas, pits are located between the lip scales. Two premaxilla are fused together to make the small bone at the front of the upper jaw: the premaxilla of most adult pythons is toothed, while the premaxilla of boid snakes is without teeth. All pythons are oviparous and lay eggs, while all but three taxa of boid snakes give live birth.

The Pythonidae is a widely distributed lineage that is undoubtedly more species-rich than is recognized currently. Mainly because of the practical problems involved in preserving and caring for large specimens, there is a surprising paucity of representative material from most python populations in museum collections. In 2000 and 2001, taxonomic revisions resulted in an increase in the number of python species from 25 species to the currently recognized 32 species. There is little doubt that future investigations will identify more taxa. No subfamilies are recognized.

Physical characteristics

While pythons are widely known for their great size, only three of the 32 species exceed 20 ft (6.1 m) in length. The smallest of the three is the Indian python, Python molurus, with records of wild specimens ranging from 19 to 22 ft (5.8 to 6.7 m). As of 2002, there were numerous living captive specimens that are purported to exceed 22 ft (6.7 m) and 300 lb (136 kg). Records for the African rock python, Python sebae, range from 28 to 32 ft (8.5 to 9.8 m). The most commonly cited maximum length for any snake is 33 ft (10.1 m); that length is based on a reticulated python P. reticulatus killed in Sulawesi in 1912. The largest snake ever kept in captivity was a reticulated python named Colossus, kept at the Pittsburgh Zoo from 1949 until 1956; that snake was measured reliably as 28 ft (8.5 m), 6 in (15 cm) and weighed 320 lb (145 kg).

Most pythons are cryptically patterned with blotches, bands, or rings. About one third of the species are patternless, nearly patternless, or have a patternless appearance. Most species undergo a color change as they mature. Many pythons have the ability to change color to a slight degree, but three taxa, Morelia oenpelliensis, Morelia carinata, and Apodora papuana, can change the hue and intensity of their color dramatically and exhibit about the highest development of this ability among all snakes. Many pythons display iridescent colors that reflect off their skins. The ringed python (Bothrochilus boa), the white-lipped python (Leiopython albertisii), and the black python (Morelia boeleni) are among the most iridescent snakes in the world.

Distribution

Pythons occur in sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, Southeast Asia, southeastern China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. There are no pythons in the Western Hemisphere. The genus Python is the most widespread, occurring in Africa, Asia, Philippines, and western Indonesia in the Greater Sundas, Lesser Sundas, and Sulawesi. The genus Morelia is distributed extensively throughout Australia, New Guinea, and the Indonesian province of Maluku. Liasis occurs in northern Australia, central-southern New Guinea, and islands in the Indonesia province of Nusa Tenggara. Aspidites is endemic to Australia. Antaresia, long considered to be endemic to Australia, was discovered in 2001 to occur in south-central New Guinea. Apodora and Leiopython occur through the lower elevations of New Guinea and nearby islands. Bothrochilus is restricted to islands in the Bismarck Archipelago of Papua New Guinea.

Habitat

Pythons can be found in a variety of habitats, including harsh deserts, wetlands, gum tree forest, open woodlands, savanna, rocky slopes, and rainforests. For about six months of the year, water pythons (Liasis fuscus) are essentially aquatic, living in the vast monsoon-flooded plains of northern Australia. The Lesser Sundas python, Python timoriensis, is a terrestrial species adapted to the rolling grasslands of Flores and nearby smaller islands. The green python, Morelia viridis, has obvious adaptations for an arboreal life in forests, including green coloration, a laterally compressed body, and a long tail adapted for grasping.

Desert-adapted python species, such as the woma, Aspidites ramsayi, of central Australia and the Angolan python, Python anchietae, found in the rocky escarpment along the eastern margin of the Namib desert in Angola and Namibia, survive in areas that receive little or no precipitation in some years. Contrast that to the ringed python living on New Ireland with more than 400 in (more than 10 m) of annual precipitation.

Most python species occurring in New Guinea can be found at elevations from sea level to at least 5,000 ft (1,500 m). The African rock python, P. sebae, has been recorded at elevations up to 7,500 ft (2,300 m). The black python, M. boeleni, endemic to the New Guinea highland, holds the elevation record for pythons; it is encountered most commonly at elevations of 5,500–8,000 ft (1,700–2,400 m), living on eroded karst slopes overgrown with low heather and scrub brush.

Behavior

Little is known about the behavior of pythons in nature. The 1990s saw the first radio-tracking studies documenting the behavior, natural history, and ecology of several python taxa, mostly in Australia. Pythons tend to be nocturnal, but they often are encountered moving or basking during the day. Faced with a perceived threat, a python will display an instinctive and stereotypic defensive behavior. Most python species incorporate hissing, striking, and biting into their defense, along with the release of musk and feces. The ball python, Python regius, rarely actively defends itself, preferring to coil the body into a ball, with the head pulled into the center of the coils. The rough-scaled python, Morelia carinata, exhibits an open-mouth threat display, extending its open mouth toward the perceived threat and exhibiting its extra-ordinarily long teeth while waving the head from side to side.

Most pythons occur in temperate or tropical climates. There is anecdotal evidence that suggests that most taxa are inactive for a portion of the year, during which time breeding takes place. The timing of this inactive period usually is dictated by seasonal heat, drought, or cool weather. The diamond

python, Morelia s. spilota, of southeastern Australia hibernates during the winter months, often choosing rock shelters with northern and western exposures.

Feeding ecology and diet

Pythons are primarily ambush hunters that consume vertebrate prey. Pythons can and do incorporate active foraging behavior as well. Lizards make up a large percentage of the diet of small pythons, both small taxa and the young of larger taxa. With an increase in size, mammals become an increasingly significant percentage of the diet. Many pythons consume birds when given the opportunity, but birds make up a small portion of the diet of pythons in nature. Pythons occasionally consume snakes; the genera Aspidites, Antaresia, Apodora, and Bothrochilus regularly include snakes in their diets. There are records of attacks on humans by the three largest species, dating back to the early eighteenth century. While such predation is rare, it is undisputed that reticulated pythons, African pythons, and Indian pythons grab and constrict humans from time to time and then attempt to consume them; they sometimes succeed.

Reproductive biology

All pythons reproduce by laying eggs. Python eggs range from the size of a grape in the case of the pygmy python, Antaresia perthensis, to the size of a medium white potato in the case of the reticulated python, P. reticulatus. Python eggs are white, and when freshly laid the shells are taut and leathery to the touch. Typically, all or most of the eggs in a clutch adhere together for the duration of incubation.

When eggs are laid, female pythons tightly wrap coils around the eggs and remain with their clutches until they hatch. During incubation, the females of many species of pythons are capable of elevating their body temperatures. A female accomplishes this thermal feat by increasing her metabolic rate either through rhythmic muscle contractions that give the impression that she is shivering or by isotonic muscle contractions that allow her to remain motionless. Some pythons are observed to supplement their thermal exertions during incubation by briefly leaving their clutches to bask and then returning to the task of incubating the eggs when their bodies have been warmed by the sun.

Conservation status

All pythons are listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN and are on CITES Appendix II. A subspecies of the Indian python, P. m. molurus, is listed as Endangered by IUCN and is on CITES Appendix I. It also is considered Endangered by the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Pythons receive varying degrees of protection in the countries in which they occur. Australia, India, Papua New Guinea, South Africa, and Namibia are notable for the degree of protection they afford to their indigenous pythons. Little is known about the status of any python species in the wild. No baseline population density studies are published. There is anecdotal evidence to suggest that populations of several of the larger species, notably reticulated pythons and Indian pythons, are in decline or have been locally extirpated. At this time there is no evidence that any species is endangered by human activities.

Significance to humans

Throughout their range, pythons are considered an important natural resource by indigenous peoples. Pythons are consumed as food, and python parts are used in folk medicine. Python skins from the larger species are a valuable commodity. During the 1990s about a million python skin exports were reported annually to CITES, but authorities believe that the actual number is higher. Many of the larger python species are considered to be livestock predators. Throughout many rural areas of Indonesia and Southeast Asia, reticulated pythons are feared as human predators. Conversely, pythons are revered by some cultures. They are kept in captivity all over the world. All species but one have been reproduced in captivity. The captive breeding of pythons for pets is a multimillion-dollar annual enterprise in the United States and Europe.

Species accounts

List of Species

Pygmy python

Antaresia perthensis

taxonomy

Antaresia perthensis Stull, 1932, Perth, western Australia (erroneous).

other common names

English: Ant hill python.

physical characteristics

This is considered to be the smallest python species; most adults measure 18.5–22 in (48–56 cm).

distribution

Pygmy pythons are found in the Pilbara region of Western Australia.

habitat

The species most often is encountered in areas of rocky hills vegetated in shrubs and spinifex. In some areas they shelter in termite mounds.

behavior

Little is known of the pygmy python in the wild. It is most often encountered crossing roads at night. In captivity the pygmy python is known to be a hardy species that does well for its keepers.

feeding ecology and diet

Pygmy pythons are primarily lizard eaters; small mammals are included in the diet of adults.

reproductive biology

A pygmy python usually becomes sexually mature in its third year. Females are larger than males, though the difference is not great in older animals. The eggs of this species measure about 1.5 in (38 mm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 10 eggs. Hatchlings are about 7–8 in (18–20 cm) in length. Babies have a more defined pattern than the adults.

conservation status

Not threatened. Found only in the state of Western Australia, pygmy pythons are afforded strict protection.

significance to humans

The pygmy python exists largely unseen and undisturbed by humans.

Papuan python

Apodora papuana

taxonomy

Apodora papuana Peters and Doria, 1878, Ramoi, Sorong Peninsula, Irian Jaya, Indonesia.

other common names

English: New Guinea olive python.

physical characteristics

This is a large, elongate, athletic python with a large head,

large eyes, and a long, deeply forked tongue. The lining of the mouth is dark. Adults are 10–14 ft (3–4.3 m) in length. This is the largest New Guinea python, with a record size of 16 ft (4.9 m), 10 in (25 cm).

distribution

The species is found throughout the lower elevations of New Guinea and on nearby islands, including Misool, Biak, and Fergusson.

habitat

The Papuan python is widespread through a variety of habitats but is associated strongly with river gallery forest.

behavior

Papuan pythons have a remarkable ability to change color; their heads turn from pale gray to dark brown and their bodies from mustard yellow to dark brown.

feeding ecology and diet

They are recorded to eat a wide variety of vertebrates, including snakes, wallabies, flying fox, bandicoots, and rodents.

reproductive biology

A Papuan python usually becomes sexually mature in its fifth or sixth year. Females have a larger average size than males. The eggs of this species measure about 4 in (11 cm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 28 eggs. Hatchlings are about 24 in (61 cm) in length. Babies are darker in color than adults.

conservation status

This python is rarely encountered; nothing is known about its status in the wild.

significance to humans

The Papuan python is largely undisturbed by humans. Some indigenous cultures do hunt the species for its meat and skin.

Black-headed python

Aspidites melanocephalus

taxonomy

Aspidites melanocephalus Kreft, 1864, Bowen, Queensland, Australia.

other common names

French: Pythons à tête noire; German: Schwarzkopfpythons.

physical characteristics

This is a slender, muscular snake with a long head that is indistinct from the neck. The head and neck of this python look as if they have just been dipped into shiny black lacquer.

distribution

This species is found across the northern third of Australia.

habitat

These pythons are most commonly encountered in wooded savanna and open forest, but they are reported from tropical forest, grasslands, scrub lands, open sclerophyll forest, and open rocky habitats.

behavior

Black-headed pythons often inhabit the burrows of other animals, but they are capable of excavating burrows on their own.

feeding ecology and diet

Lizards and snakes make up most of the natural diet of this species, including venomous snakes. Mammals and birds occasionally are taken.

reproductive biology

A black-headed python usually becomes sexually mature in its forth or fifth year. Females are usually larger than males, but some older males do attain similar size. The eggs of this species measure about 3.5 in (8.9 cm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 18 eggs. Hatchlings are about 24 in (61 cm) in length. Babies have brighter colors and a more contrasting pattern than adults.

conservation status

Little is known about the status of wild populations, but the species has a large range, most of it unoccupied and unmodified by humans.

significance to humans

The species exists largely unseen and undisturbed by humans. The common knowledge that this python species eats venomous snakes does afford it some protection when it encounters people.

Halmahera python

Morelia tracyae

taxonomy

Morelia tracyae Harvey Barker, Ammerman, and Chippindale, 2000, "near Tobelo", Halmahera, Maluku, Indonesia.

other common names

None known.

physical characteristics

This is a long, slender animal with a large head, large eyes, and long, straight teeth. This species of Morelia has large head plates. It is one of the least-known pythons; most adults of record are 8–11 ft (2.4–3.4 m) in length.

distribution

This python is endemic to Halmahera, a large island in the Maluku Province of eastern Indonesia.

habitat

The Halmahera python is found in primary and secondary forest; it is equally at home on the ground or in the trees.

behavior

Halmahera pythons are generally docile and deliberate in their actions.

feeding ecology and diet

Little is known about the diet of this species. Local people say that it is often found at fruit bat rookeries.

reproductive biology

Not known. As of August 2002, this is the only python species that has not been bred in captivity.

conservation status

Halmahera python skins are harvested, but the numbers taken are not known, because until recently the species has been identified as Morelia amethistina.

significance to humans

Halmahera pythons are eaten by some peoples in Halmahera, and the species is persecuted as a predator of domestic chickens.

Green python

Morelia viridis

taxonomy

Morelia viridis Schlegel, 1872, Aru Islands, Indonesia.

other common names

English: Green tree python; French: Python vert; German: Grüner Baumpython.

physical characteristics

This is one of the most identifiable of the pythons because of its beautiful green coloration. This small python has a finely scaled head; long, straight teeth; a tented vertebral ridge; and a strongly prehensile tail. Most adults are 4.5–6 ft (1.4–1.8 cm) in length; the maximum size approaches 7.1 ft (2.2 m).

distribution

The green python ranges throughout New Guinea from sea level up to elevations of 6,000 ft (1,800 m). The species also occurs on nearby islands, including Aru Islands, Biak, Misool, Salawati, and Normanby Island. A small population exists in Australia on the east side of the Cape York Peninsula.

habitat

Green pythons are found in primary and secondary forest.

behavior

Green pythons often exhibit caudal-luring behavior when they are hungry. They seductively wriggle the distal portion of their tails; lizards are attracted to the motion.

feeding ecology and diet

Youngsters feed primarily on skinks and geckos. Adults apparently feed on the ground—their diet is made up largely of terrestrial rodents. Birds are rarely consumed.

reproductive biology

A green python usually becomes sexually mature in its third year. Females have a larger average size than males. The eggs of this species measure about 1.6 in (4 cm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 30 eggs. Hatchlings vary from about 11–14 in (28–36 cm) in length. Babies are very differently colored than adults; many babies are yellow, some are brick red or dark red.

conservation status

This is the most widespread and common python species in New Guinea.

significance to humans

Indigenous people are known to eat green pythons.

Blood python

Python brongersmai

taxonomy

Python brongersmai Stull, 1938, Singapore.

other common names

English: Short python, short-tailed python; French: Python malais; German: Buntpython.

physical characteristics

Average adults of this heavy-bodied species are 4–4.7 ft (1.2–1.4 m) in length. The maximum length approaches 8.5 ft (2.6 m). In most populations there are several color phases, including red, brown, yellow, and orange, with red being the most common.

distribution

The species occurs in the lowlands of eastern Sumatra; on islands in the Strait of Malacca, including Bangka, Riau, and the Lingga islands; and throughout Western Malaysia, barely entering southwestern Thailand. The species is not believed to occur in Singapore, despite that being the type locality.

habitat

Blood pythons are found in primary and secondary forest, open woodlands, and dense bamboo. The species appears to thrive in the palm-oil plantations of eastern Sumatra. They are encountered under piles of leaves and fronds that are trimmed from the palm-oil palms, and they are seen seeking shelter in burrows.

behavior

When forced to defend itself, a blood python will face its attacker and strike. If pressed, it may eject feces and musk while thrashing its tail. Its physical presence is emphasized by flattening its body and moving in quick jerks, thereby drawing attention to its large girth and increasing the impression of its size.

feeding ecology and diet

At all ages this species feeds predominantly on rodents.

reproductive biology

A blood python usually becomes sexually mature in its third year. Females are usually the larger sex, but older males sometimes attain equal size. The eggs of this species measure about 3–3.5 in (7.6–8.9 cm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 29 eggs. Hatchlings are about 18 in (46 cm) in length. Babies are patterned as adults and usually tan in color.

conservation status

Not threatened, but about 50,000 skins a year are reported to CITES by Indonesia, the largest producer.

significance to humans

This species is commonly kept in captivity. The source of most live juveniles exported to captivity is eggs harvested from gravid females brought to skinning businesses.

Ball python

Python regius

taxonomy

Python regius Shaw, 1802, no type locality specified.

other common names

English: Royal python, West African python; French: Python royal; German: Königspython.

physical characteristics

This is a small, heavy-bodied species with a slender neck and large head. Most adults measure 3.5–5 ft (1.1–1.5 m). The maximum length approaches 6.5 ft (2 m).

distribution

Ball pythons are found in sub-Saharan central Africa, from Senegal to Liberia and east through Nigeria, Cameroon, and Chad to Sudan and Uganda.

habitat

They are most commonly found in grasslands, savannas, open woodlands, and agricultural areas. Ball pythons often shelter in rodent burrows.

behavior

Ball pythons are named for their defensive behavior of coiling into a ball, protecting the head in the center of the coils.

feeding ecology and diet

At all ages, this species feeds predominantly on rodents.

reproductive biology

A ball python female usually becomes sexually mature in its third year; males have been know to successfully breed at less than a year of age. Females are generally larger than males. The eggs of this species measure about 3.5 in (8.9 cm) in length. Clutch size ranges up to 16 eggs. Hatchlings are about 16 in (41 cm) in length. Babies are similar to adults in color and pattern.

conservation status

Not threatened. There is anecdotal evidence that ball python populations have benefited from the loss of forest that has occurred throughout their distribution.

significance to humans

This is the most common python in captivity. About one million live specimens were exported to captivity in the 1990s. They breed readily in captivity. This species holds the longevity record for all snakes, based on a specimen in the Philadelphia Zoo that was captive for more than 49 years.

Reticulated python

Python reticulatus

taxonomy

Python reticulatus Schneider, 1801, no type locality specified in original description but later designated as "Java".

other common names

English: Regal python; French: Python réticulé; German: Netzpython.

physical characteristics

This is a giant python, one of the largest snake species. Hatch-lings measure 18–35 in (46–89 cm) in length. Most adults are 12–15 ft (3.7–4.6 m), and specimens of 20 ft (6.1 m) are not uncommon.

distribution

This species occurs on the Nicobar Islands in India and throughout most of Southeast Asia from southeastern Bangladesh east to Vietnam and south through western Malaysia to Singapore. The species is widespread throughout the Philippines and Indonesia.

habitat

Throughout their extensive range, reticulated pythons can be found in a variety of habitats, including dense forest, open woodlands, rocky areas, caves, swamps, rivers, and lakes. This species is seldom found far from fresh water.

behavior

The keepers of reticulated pythons report that there is geographic variation of the temperament of this species. For example, the reticulated pythons of central Thailand and of the Lesser Sundas Islands of Indonesia can be expected to be calm and docile snakes in captivity; from other areas, such as the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia, reticulated pythons are typically irritable and defensive.

feeding ecology and diet

Taking advantage of their large size, reticulated pythons are known to consume a wide variety of prey, including primates, pangolins, rodents, canids, felids, waterfowl, pigs, and cervids.

reproductive biology

A reticulated python usually becomes sexually mature in its third or fourth year. At the onset of maturity, males are usually 7–10 ft (2.1–3.1 m) in length. Females become mature at 10–13 ft (3.1–4 m). The eggs of this species measure 4–5 in (10–13 cm) in length. Clutch size can exceed 100 eggs. Hatch-lings are 24–35 in (61–89 cm) in length. Babies are similar to adults in color and pattern.

conservation status

Nothing is known about the numbers in the wild. More than half a million skins of reticulated pythons are harvested officially each year, and the actual numbers are likely greater. There is anecdotal evidence and reports that populations are in decline in some areas where there are active skinning businesses and in areas of dense human population, but throughout most of the range the species is believed to be holding its own.

significance to humans

Reticulated pythons are hunted for meat, skin, and parts for folk medicine. They also are persecuted as predators of domestic livestock and feared as predators of humans. They are common in captivity, but the large size of the species makes them unsuitable for most keepers.

Resources

Books

Barker, David G., and Tracy M. Barker. Pythons of the World. Vol. 1, Australia. Lakeside, CA: Advanced Vivarium Systems, Inc., 1994.

Cogger, Harold, G. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Sydney, Australia: Reed New Holland, 2000.

Greene, Harry W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

Minton, Sherman A., and Madge Rutherford Minton. Giant Reptiles. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973.

Murphy, John C., and Robert W. Henderson. Tales of Giant Snakes: A Historical Natural History of Anacondas and Pythons. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company, 1997.

O'Shea, Mark. A Guide to the Snakes of Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea: Independent Publishing Group, 1996.

Pope, Clifford Millhouse. The Giant Snakes: The Natural History of the Boa Constrictor, the Anaconda, and the Largest Pythons, Including Comparative Facts About Other Snakes and Basic Information on Reptiles in General. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961.

Torr, Geordie. Pythons of Australia: A Natural History. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press, 2000.

Periodicals

Kluge, Arnold G. "Aspidites and the Phylogeny of the Pythonine Snakes." Records of the Australian Museum Supplement 19 (1993): 1–78.

McDowell, S. B. "A Catalogue of the Snakes of New Guinea and the Solomons, with Special Reference to Those in the Bernice P. Bishop Museum. Part 2. Anilioidae and Pythonidae." Journal of Herpetology 9, no. 1 (1975): 1–79.

Weigel, J., and T. Russell. "A Record of a Third Specimen of the Rough-Scaled Python, Morelia carinata." Herpetofauna 23, no. 2 (1993): 1–5.

David G. Barker

Tracy M. Barker