Quail thrushes and whipbirds

(Eupetidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Eupetidae

Thumbnail description
Medium small ground birds, either plump or slender, some with crests, all with powerful legs

Size
6.7–12.2 in (17–31 cm); 0.07–0.45 lb (30–205g)

Number of genera, species
7 genera; 16–19 species

Habitat
Rainforest, forest, woodland, savanna, shrub steppe, heath, sandhills

Conservation status
Near Threatened: 2 species

Distribution
Australia, New Guinea, east and west Indonesia, Malaysia, south Thailand

Evolution and systematics

The birds in this heterogeneous family spend most of their time on the ground, but apart from their shared adaptations to this mode of life, they have few other obvious links. Once included with the Old World babblers (Timaliidae), they have been recognized as components of the autochthonous Australo-Papuan songbird assemblage; whether they constitute a natural group, however, is debatable. The affinities of the various genera within this family are puzzling, and it may be that this group is largely a convenient "catch-all" category. The logrunners were formerly included in this family, with the name Orthonychidae being applicable. With the segregation of the logrunners in their own family, the available name becomes Eupetidae, which has priority over the more commonly used Cinclosomatidae.

There are 16–19 species, divided among seven genera. There are five species of quail-thrushes (Cinclosoma); with several of the distinct populations sometimes treated as separate species. The three to four jewel-babblers (Ptilorrhoa) resemble quail-thrushes except for the color. Although they were once placed in the same genus as the rail-babbler (Eupetes macrocerus), the latter species is a distinctive bird of uncertain affinities. The genus Psophodes comprises four to five species of Australian whipbirds and wedgebills. The two species of wedgebill are so similar in appearance and behavior that their distinctness, exhibited most notably in their songs, remained unappreciated for many years. The Papuan whipbird (Androphobus viridis) has not been studied but its relationships may lie with the Australian whipbirds. There are two species in the genus Melampitta; the lesser melampitta (M. lugubris) has been arguably placed with the birds of paradise (Paradisaeidae) by some authorities. The blue-capped ifrit (Ifrita kowaldi) looks and acts different from other members of the family. Some aspects of its skull morphology resemble those of the whistlers (Pachycephalidae).

Physical characteristics

Most species have long tarsi and powerful legs; plumage is thick and fluffy, the tail usually long and broad, and the bill relatively short. Quail-thrushes have bold patterns of black, white, brown, and orange, which are generally restricted to the underparts; the colors of the upper surface resemble the ground cover. Jewel-babblers somewhat resemble quail-thrushes, but have extensive areas of blue in the plumage. The rail-babbler is a long-necked, long-tailed bird with chestnut plumage, and a blue streak along the side of the neck. Whipbirds and wedgebills of Australia are slender, drab-colored, long-tailed birds with short but prominent pointed crests. The Papuan whipbird superficially resembles a small version of these birds, but lacks a crest. Melampittas are pitta-like birds with long legs, markedly short tails, and black plumage. The ifrit is small bird with a moderately short tail and rusty brown plumage, contrasting with its bright blue cap.

Distribution

Except for the rail-babbler, the family is restricted to Australia and New Guinea. Australia has eight to nine species (four quail-thrushes and four to five whipbirds). The genera have both mesic and arid representatives. Quail-thrushes occur across mainland Australia and Tasmania, with species generally replacing each other with minimal overlap. Whipbirds are distributed along the eastern and southern coasts, while wedgebills are birds of the interior. Among New Guinea's 8–9 species, the Papuan whipbird, melampittas, and ifrit are montane birds; the ifrit has been found at 12,145 ft (3,680 m). The painted quail-thrush (C. ajax) is a lowland species. The 3–4 jewel-babblers have representatives at all elevations, with species largely replacing each other at different altitudes. The rail-babbler inhabits lowland areas of peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo.

Habitat

The rail-babbler and New Guinea species are birds of the rainforest, occupying a variety of closed forest types. The greater melampitta is restricted to forest on rugged karst environments. In Australia, only the eastern whipbird (P. olivaceus) is found in rainforest; it also occurs in wetter eucalypt forests and other low dense vegetation. The western whipbird (P. nigrogularis) occurs in dense heath and other thick, drier vegetation. Wedgebills are birds of dry woodlands, steppes, and heathlands. Other than the spotted quail-thrush (C. punctatum), which prefers dry sclerophyll forest with open understorey, the other Australian quail-thrushes live in a range of arid habitats, including dry woodlands, shrub steppe, stony plains, and sandhills.

Behavior

The ifrit is not particularly shy, but the other members of the family are usually secretive. Rainforest species often secret themselves in dense vegetation. When disturbed, quail-thrushes stand stationary or burst quail-like into flight. Upon alighting they either freeze or run swiftly on foot. Whipbirds and melampittas are curious and will often slowly approach a quiet observer for a better look.

These birds are much more often heard than seen. They have distinctive voices, which are often the first indication of their presence. The vocalizations vary from thin whistles to loud explosive notes. The male and female eastern whipbirds participate in antiphonal duets that give this species its name. The male makes a loud whistle like a whip passing through the air, to which the female immediately adds two loud cracks.

Feeding ecology and diet

Most of these birds feed on ground, walking slowly, shuffling or tossing ground litter aside, and picking at prey with bill; the legs are rarely, if ever, used to clear leaves. Insects and other invertebrates, and occasionally small vertebrates, are eaten; seeds may also be taken. The exception is the ifrit. It forages at any elevation in the forest, clambering about the trunks and branches, probing in the bark and moss for prey.

Reproductive biology

Most members of this family construct cup-shaped nests. These vary from that of quail-thrushes, which is made of dry vegetation placed in a small depression on the ground, to the bulky, thick-walled nest of the ifrit, situated about 10 ft (3 m) from the ground. In contrast, the lesser melampitta builds a domed nest with the entrance on the side and places it up the side of a tree fern trunk. Quail-thrushes, jewel-babblers, and the rail-babbler lay two eggs, the other species one. These are covered with dark spots and blotches against a pale background. The Australian whipbirds and wedgebills have light blue eggs strongly marked with black scribbles. The roles of the sexes and the lengths of incubation and nestling periods are poorly known for many members of this family.

Conservation status

In 2000, the IUCN listed the rail-babbler and western whipbird as Near Threatened through loss of habitat. The population of the western whipbird in the southwest Australia is endangered. Inappropriate fire regimes are blamed for the small distribution and small numbers. From a low of 17 pairs or less in the 1960s, this species has been slowly recovered through dedicated conservation efforts. Restriction of burning, captive breeding, and transfer of individuals have brought the population to over 500 individuals. The subspecies of the spotted quail-thrush from the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia, may have been extirpated through loss of habitat.

The other species in this family appear secure for the moment, but several populations are vulnerable, restricted to relatively small areas at higher elevations, or are sparsely distributed. The greater melampitta occurs throughout montane New Guinea, but is known from less than ten specimens. The Papuan whipbird is too poorly known to make a realistic assessment of its status.

Significance to humans

Most of these species are sufficiently cryptic or remote that they remain unknown to most people. The exception is the eastern whipbird, whose call is a well known and characteristic sound of the Australian bush. Even then, far more people have heard this bird than seen it.

The ifrit was shown in 2000 by Jack Dumbacher and colleagues to carry several types of toxins in its tissues, particularly the feathers. The purpose of this poison is unclear, but its acquisition appears to be related to the bird's diet. This is the second genus of New Guinea bird known to have such toxins, the other being the pitohuis Pitohui of the Pachycephalidae.

Species accounts

List of Species

Spotted quail-thrush

Cinclosoma punctatum

taxonomy

Turdus punctatus Shaw, 1794, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Spotted ground-bird; French: Cinclosome pointillé; German: Fleckenflöter; Spanish: Tordo Cordoniz Manchada.

physical characteristics

10.2–11 in (26–28 cm); 2.4–3.1 oz (67–87 g). Mottled plumage of white, buff, rufous, brown, and black. Light brown head with white brow stripe. Throat black with white patch; pinkish breast.

distribution

C. p. punctatum: S. E. Australia; C. p. dovei: Tasmania; C. p. anachoreta: Mount Lofty Ranges, south central Australia.

habitat

Eucalypt forest with littered open floor, particularly on rocky hillsides.

behavior

Terrestrial, sedentary, and rather shy. When startled, takes off from ground like a quail; upon landing it runs away or freezes, relying on its coloration to conceal it. Vocalizations include a repeated, double-note song and a high thin contact call, inaudible to many people.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats insects and other invertebrates, and occasionally small vertebrates and seeds. It searches for prey on the ground while walking in a slow, meandering path.

reproductive biology

Late July–August to December. The female builds the nest, a cup of dry vegetation, which is placed in a depression in the ground near the base of a tree, shrub, rock, or clump of grass. She incubates the two spotted eggs. The male assists her in feeding the chicks during and after the 19-day fledging period. One to three broods may be raised in a season.

conservation status

Generally sparse but locally common. The population in the Mt. Lofty Ranges, South Australia, is Critically Endangered, if not already extinct. This has been attributed to habitat clearance and fragmentation.

significance to humans

None known.

Blue jewel-babbler

Ptilorrhoa caerulescens

taxonomy

Eupetes caerulescens Temminck, 1835, Lobo, Irian Jaya, Indonesia.

other common names

English: Lowland eupetes; French: Ptilorrhoa bleu; German: Blauflöter; Spanish: Hablantín del Valle.

physical characteristics

8.7 in (22 cm); 1.7–2.2 oz (49–61 g). A smaller bird with mostly blue plumage. Black eye stripe from bill to breast, black primaries, and white throat and upper breast.

distribution

P. c. caerulescens: west New Guinea; P. c. neumanni: north New Guinea; P. c. nigricrissa: south New Guinea; P. geislerorum: northeast New Guinea (sometimes regarded as separate species). Lowlands and foothills up to about 990 ft (300 m).

habitat

Inhabits wetter forests, such as rainforest, monsoon forest, adjoining tall secondary growth, and gallery forest.

behavior

Sedentary and territorial. Usually found in pairs or small groups. Terrestrial, walks daintily along the ground, with a bobbing head. Elusive, occupying areas of low vegetation cover. This species' song is among the more characteristic bird calls of the forest.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on insects and small invertebrates of the ground litter. When foraging, tosses leaves to aside using the bill.

reproductive biology

The cup-shaped nest is placed in a depression in the ground at the base of a tree or between roots. The two eggs are spotted and streaked against a light brownish background. Breeding takes place from the mid dry to early wet season.

conservation status

Generally common.

significance to humans

None known.

Rail-babbler

Eupetes macrocerus

taxonomy

Eupetes macrocerus Temminck, 1831, Padang, Sumatra.

other common names

English: Malaysian rail-babbler; French: Eupète à longue queue; German: Rallenläufer; Spanish: Hablantín Malayo.

physical characteristics

11.4 in (29 cm). Brownish plumage with black legs and bill, white brow stripe and black eye stripe, sometimes with bluish stripe underneath.

distribution

E. m. macrocerus: Peninsular Thailand and Malaysia, Sumatra;E. m. borneensis: Borneo. Lives up to 3,300 ft (1,000 m).

habitat

Broad-leaved evergreen forest in lowland and hills.

behavior

Very shy. Drawn-out monotone whistle heard much more than bird is seen. Walks on forest floor, jerking head like chicken; runs with great speed, holding the head up and the tail depressed.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats insects and other small ground invertebrates.

reproductive biology

Breeds January–July, laying two eggs.

conservation status

Scarce to locally fairly common resident. Considered Near Threatened by the IUCN and Birdlife International owing to extensive logging in parts of its range.

significance to humans

None known.

Eastern whipbird

Psophodes olivaceus

taxonomy

Corvus olivaceus Latham, 1801, New South Wales, Australia.

other common names

English: Stockwhip bird, green-backed whipbird; French: Psophode à tête noire; German: Schwarzschopf-Wippflöter; Spanish: Pájaro Látigo Verde.

physical characteristics

10.4–12 in (26.5–30.5 cm); 1.6–2.5 oz (47–72 g). Dark olive-green body, black head with small black crest, white cheeks, and long tail.

distribution

P. o. lateralis: northeast Australia; P. o. olivaceus: central east and southeast Australia.

habitat

Rainforest, eucalypt forest, riverine vegetation, other low dense vegetation.

behavior

Sedentary and territorial at all seasons. Usually stays on the ground or in low vegetation but may sing from high perch. Furtive and usually difficult to observe, but curious, approaching a quiet observer. Song an antiphonal duet, male producing soft swish then drawn out, explosive whip-crack to which female adds two quick, low notes.

feeding ecology and diet

Eats insects and other small invertebrates obtained by rummaging through leaves and other litter on forest floor with the bill.

reproductive biology

One to two broods are reared in the season, which runs July–December. Two or three eggs, bluish white with black and gray spots or scribbles, are laid in the cup-shaped nest placed in dense vegetation near the ground. The female incubates and cares for the young, with the male assisting in their feeding. Incubation 18 days; young leave nest prematurely at 11–12 days.

conservation status

Common but affected by clearing.

significance to humans

The whip-crack song is one of Australia's most familiar bird sounds, known to many people who have never seen the bird, and the source of many colloquial names for this species.

Blue-capped ifrit

Ifrita kowaldi

taxonomy

Todopsis kowaldi De Vis, 1890, Owen Stanley Mountains, New Guinea. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Blue-capped babbler; French: Ifrita de kowald; German: Blaukappenflöter; Spanish: Hablantín de Gorra Azul.

physical characteristics

6.5 in (16.5 cm); 1.1–1.3 oz (30–36 g). A small bird with olive upperparts and light brownish golden cheeks and underparts. White eye stripe, black bill, and blue cap from forehead to nape.

distribution

T. k. kowaldi: central and east New Guinea; T. k. brunnea: New Guinea: central and west New Guinea. From 4,818 to 12,144 ft (1,460 to 3,680 m), mainly 6,600–9,570 ft (2,000–2,900 m).

habitat

Montane forest, particularly mossy forest.

behavior

Active; unlike most species in this family, it is not shy and can be easily observed. Usually seen in pairs or small groups, sometimes encountered in mixed-species foraging parties.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds mainly on insects, occasionally soft fruit. Forages from near ground level on fallen logs to branches in the upper canopy. Creeps up trunks and along branches like a nuthatch-like fashion, probing in the moss for food and bending around branches to inspect the undersides.

reproductive biology

The nest is placed about 12 ft (3.6 m) from the ground. It consists of moss made into a bulky, deep cup. A single egg is laid; this is white with dark spots most densely placed at the large end. Records of active nests indicate that the breeding season is the mid-late dry season to early and late wet season.

conservation status

Generally fairly common, though thinly distributed in many places.

significance to humans

Recognized by the local people as unsuitable for eating. It was recently found that this bird has a toxin in its feathers and soft tissues.

Resources

Books

Coates, Brian J. "Passerines." In The Birds of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 2. Alderley: Dove Publications, 1993.

Higgins, P. J. and J. M. Peter, eds. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 6, Pardalotes to Figbird. Melbourne: Oxford University Press (in preparation).

Schodde, R. and I. J. Mason. "Passerines." In The Directory of Australian Birds. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing, 1999.

Periodicals

Dumbacher, J. P., T. F. Spande, and J. W. Daly. "Batrachotoxin Alkaloids from Passerine Birds: A Second Toxic Bird Genus (Ifrita kowaldi) from New Guinea." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 97 (2000): 12970–12975.

Smith, G. T. "Ecology of the Western Whipbird Psophodes nigrogularis in Western Australia." Emu 91 (1991): 145–157.

Organizations

Birds Australia. 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 Australia. Phone: +61 3 9882 2622. Fax: +61 3 98822677. E-mail: [email protected] Web site: <http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au>

Walter E. Boles, PhD