Sparrows

(Passeridae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Passeridae

Thumbnail description
Small, seed-eating songbirds with stout bills

Size
4.5–7 in (12–17.5 cm)

Number of genera, species
Five genera; 39 species

Habitat
Grassland savanna, inhabited areas

Conservation status
No species threatened, no recent extinctions

Distribution
Worldwide except for Antarctica, Eurasia north of cultivation, north and west Australia

Evolution and systematics

Sparrows (Passeridae) are seed-eaters, separated by their method of dehusking seeds and their digestive tract. Originally placed with the finches (Fringillidae) and then with the weavers (Ploceidae), sparrows are now recognized as a separate family. It is thought that these birds evolved in the Afrotropical Region during the middle of the Miocene. One group, the snow finches and ground sparrows, probably arose from an early radiation into the Palearctic. The birds in Africa then split into two groups: the rock sparrows and the true sparrows, which subsequently colonized Africa and gave rise to secondary colonizations of Eurasia.

As of 2001, five genera of sparrows are recognized: the snow finches (Montifringilla) and the ground sparrows (Pyrgilauda) derived from the original Eurasian radiation; the pale rock sparrow (Carpospiza brachydactyla) was separated from the rock sparrows Petronia and placed in a monotypic genus Carpospiza; the remainder are the true sparrows in the genus Passer with 26 representatives.

Physical characteristics

The sparrows, with their short, robust bills, have specialized in the seeds of grasses, particularly the cultivated cereals that have been developed from them. Their tongues have a unique skeletal structure that plays a part in dehusking the seeds. These birds are also distinguished by a complete post-juvenile moult. The bills of the males change from horn to black when they become sexually active. Most are comparatively sedentary. The true sparrows and the rock sparrows have short, blunt wings and are not strong fliers, making short, direct flights. The snow finches and the ground sparrows, living in more open country, have proportionately longer wings with varying amounts of white in their plumage that show prominently in the display flights that are characteristic of open-country birds. The sexes in the snow finches, ground sparrows, and rock sparrows are basically alike, the latter being distinguished by a yellow spot on the throat. In contrast, most of the true sparrows are dimorphic with the males characterized by black bibs and well developed head patterns.

Distribution

From their Afrotropical origins the sparrows now occupy most of Africa and Eurasia. Many species have restricted distributions, but two, the house sparrows (Passer domesticus) and tree sparrows (Passer montanus), occur widely throughout Eurasia and have increased the range of the family through deliberate introductions from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. The house sparrows have now an almost worldwide distribution, absent only from Antarctica and parts of tropical Africa. The tree sparrows have modest populations in North America and Australia, and are now expanding in the southeast Asian archipelagos and some of the Pacific island groups, partly by introduction, but also by natural spread.

The capacity of the house sparrows for rapid range extension is shown by the way they spread from the Urals to the Pacific coast in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Following the building of the trans-Siberian railway, they spread more than 3,000 mi (5,500 km) in a little over 100 years. The rates of spread of this and introduced populations have ranged 9–50 mi per year (15–80 km per year).

Most species are sedentary or disperse nomadically outside the breeding season, though a few have a more defined migration. This particularly applies to high latitude and high altitude populations that withdraw to milder regions in the winter. Pale rock sparrows move south to Arabia and northeast Africa in the winter, and the subspecies of the house sparrow Passer d. bactrianus breeds in the Central Asian Republics and Afghanistan and winters in the northern plains of Pakistan. Spanish sparrows (Passer hispaniolensis) breed in a Mediterranean-type climate with a short spring flush, migrating to the northeast for successive broods as suitable conditions wax and wane.

Habitat

Sparrows are predominantly birds of open country with scattered trees, extending into the semi-desert and high, arid steppes of Asia (the snow finches and ground sparrows) and light woodland (the African rock sparrows that merit more the epithet bush than rock sparrow). The most significant feature, particularly in the true sparrows, is a close association with humans. Originally through feeding in cultivated areas and then moving into built-up areas, no fewer than 17 of the 26 species of true sparrows nest in holes in occupied buildings. The house and tree sparrows are the supreme examples with some individuals spending most of their time in buildings and the house sparrows even living and breeding in a coal mine in England, 2,100 ft (640 m) below ground level.

Behavior

Most sparrows are gregarious, collecting in large foraging flocks and forming colonial roosts. The majority have a clumped breeding distribution. Colonial nesting is marked in the Spanish sparrows, with nesting colonies of many hundred thousand birds in central Asia. In such colonies, the nests are closely packed together with up to 200 nests in one tree. More usually the nests are more scattered, limited by the availability of suitable sites, but 65,000 nests of golden sparrows (Passer luteus) have been estimated in a loose colony spread over 1,500 acres (630 ha). More typically the colonies consist of 20–30 pairs.

The sparrows are one of the few passerines that indulge in both dusting and bathing in water. Both are social activities. The foraging flocks alternate bursts of seed collection with resting spells in good cover. While presumably digesting the hard seeds, the birds remain close together and maintain social contact with soft, conversational calls.

Feeding ecology and diet

The sparrows are essentially granivorous, feeding on the seeds of small plants. In many cases this has led to specialization on the seeds of cultivated cereals and from this to food put out for domestic animals and household scraps. Small berries and tree seeds are also taken. In all cases the young are reared largely on animal food. During the breeding season the adults also take a proportion of invertebrate food, consisting mainly of slow-moving insects, though some are also caught in flight.

Reproductive biology

Pair formation normally takes place by the male calling and displaying at a nest site. The territory is effectively limited to the immediate vicinity of the nest. The open-country snow finches and ground sparrows have more developed songs and display flights that are given near the nest. Nests are domed over. Clutches are typically four to six eggs, the majority of species being multi-brooded. Both sexes take part in breeding activities. The young are born with natal down; flight feathers develop rapidly and the young are fully fledged in 12–20 days. In the sedentary species, like the house and tree sparrows, the birds maintain the nest throughout the year and pair for life. Breeding takes place in the spring and summer in temperate regions, following the end of the rains in the tropics. The birds are nominally monogamous, but DNA studies show that colonial breeding leads to a considerable degree of promiscuity with up to 15% of the chicks not fathered by the attendant male.

Conservation status

Although there has been some retraction in range of rock sparrows (Petronia petronia) in Europe and house sparrows are suffering a major decline in western Europe, no species is under serious threat.

Significance to humans

Those species specializing on the seeds of cultivated grains may reach pest status, but otherwise the birds have little impact on man. Some sparrows take over the nest and nest sites of other species and may affect their numbers, particularly when suitable sites are limited.

Species accounts

List of Species

House sparrow

Passer domesticus

taxonomy

Fringilla domestica Linnaeus, 1758, Sweden. 11 subspecies.

other common names

English: English sparrow; French: Moineau domestique; German: Haussperling; Spanish: Gorrión Común.

physical characteristics

5.5–6.3 in (14–16 cm); 0.7–1.4 oz (20–40 g). Male has a gray crown bordered by chestnut and a small black bib. Female drab brown. Juvenile similar to female but paler.

distribution

North Africa and Eurasia to limit of cultivation, except for Thailand east to Japan. Through introductions from the mid-nineteenth century onwards is now present throughout most of the inhabited world.

habitat

Almost entirely associated with humans.

behavior

Mainly sedentary, living in small colonies throughout the year.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds and household scraps. Young reared largely on invertebrates.

reproductive biology

Preferred nest site is a hole in building or tree, though also builds free-standing domed nest in trees. Up to five clutches of two to five eggs per year. Incubation 11–14 days; fledging 14–16 days. Both sexes take part in breeding activities.

conservation status

Major decline in western Europe at end of the twentieth century; but not considered threatened by the IUCN as of 2000.

significance to humans

Generally regarded with affection, but can be a pest of cereal cultivation.

Tree sparrow

Passer montanus

taxonomy

Fringilla montana Linnaeus, 1758, Southern Italy. Seven subspecies.

other common names

English: Eurasian tree sparrow; French: Moineau friquet; German: Feldsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Molinero.

physical characteristics

5.5–6 in (14–15 cm); 0.6–1.0 oz (17–28 g). Small sparrow with particularly neat appearance. Sexes alike. Head chocolate, cheeks white with a prominent black patch, and small black bib. Juvenile paler.

distribution

Widely distributed in Europe and Asia; small introduced populations in North America and Australia.

habitat

Built-up areas in the east, more in open country with trees in the west.

behavior

A gregarious, familiar bird in the east, becoming shyer and more unobtrusive in the west.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds and a wide range of invertebrates during the breeding season.

reproductive biology

Preferred nest site is a hole in building or tree, though also builds free-standing domed nest in trees. Up to five clutches of two to five eggs. Incubation 11–14 days; fledging 14–16 days. Both sexes take part in breeding activities.

conservation status

Not threatened. Widely distributed and numerous.

significance to humans

Can be a pest in rice paddies.

Golden sparrow

Passer luteus

taxonomy

Fringilla lutea Lichtenstein, 1823, Dongola, north Sudan. Formerly placed in genus Auripasser.

other common names

French: Moineau doré; German: Gelbsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Aureo.

physical characteristics

4.7–5.1 in (12–13 cm); 0.4–0.6 oz (11–17 g). Male golden-yellow apart from a chestnut back and some black on the wings. Female is sandy brown, juvenile paler.

distribution

A narrow zone south of the Sahara from Mauritania to the Red Sea.

habitat

Arid sandy areas with a low density of trees.

behavior

A gregarious, nomadic bird, forming roosts of up to half a million individuals.

feeding ecology and diet

Seeds and a small amount of insects. Nestlings mainly reared on invertebrates.

reproductive biology

Breeding occurs when there is a flush of insects following rains. Forms dispersed colonies of up to 50,000 nests. Clutch

two to three eggs; incubation 10–12 days, fledging 13–14 days. Second brood may be raised in a new location where conditions have become suitable.

conservation status

Not threatened. A common species.

significance to humans

Can be a pest where large flocks are attracted to ripening cereals.

Southern rufous sparrow

Passer motitensis

taxonomy

Pyrgita motitensis A. Smith, 1836, northern Cape Province, South Africa.

other common names

English: Great sparrow; French: Grand moineau; German: Rostsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Grande.

physical characteristics

5.9–6.3 in (15–16 cm); 1.0–1.3 oz (28–37 g). Large, robust sparrow. Male has blue-gray crown and a chestnut band circling the rear of the pale cheek. Female is similar, but less well marked. Juvenile paler.

distribution

Widely, but sparsely, distributed in southern Africa.

habitat

Dry acacia savanna.

behavior

A solitary species.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly grass seeds. Nestlings are reared on insects.

reproductive biology

Builds domed nest in thorny tree. Two clutches of three to six eggs. Both sexes take part in breeding activities.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Pale rock sparrow

Carpospiza brachydactyla

taxonomy

Petronia brachydactyla Bonaparte, 1850, Kunfuda, western Arabia. From its behavior and form of nest has been considered to be a cardueline finch, but the horny palate and digestive tract confirm it belongs to Passeridae.

other common names

French: Moineau soulcie pâle; German: Arabian Steinsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Palida.

physical characteristics

5.3–5.7 in (13.5–14.5 cm); 1.0–1.4 oz (28–40 g). Generally rather featureless pale brown bird with a short, stout bill. Long, triangular-shaped wings recall lark in flight. Sexes are similar, but juvenile paler, more sandy-colored.

istribution

Southwest Asia, withdrawing south in winter to Arabia and northeast Africa.

habitat

Sparsely vegetated regions up to 9,850 ft (3,000 m).

behavior

Spends much of the time on the ground, forming flocks of up to several hundreds outside the breeding season that collect near water or fields of ripening grain.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly seeds of grasses, including cultivated cereals, but takes some insects during breeding season. Nestlings are mainly reared on insects.

reproductive biology

Nest is open, untidy cup of twigs lined with softer material in bush or tree close to ground. Clutch is four to five eggs, incubation 13–14 days, fledging 11–16 days. Incubation by female only, but both sexes feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened. Locally common.

significance to humans

None known.

Rock sparrow

Petronia petronia

taxonomy

Petronia petronia Linnaeus 1766, northern Italy. 10 subspecies.

other common names

French: Moineau soulcie; German: Steinsperling; Spanish: Gorrión Pintado.

physical characteristics

5.5–6.0 in (14–15 cm); 1.1–1.4 oz (28–40 g). Bulky, grayish brown sparrow, heavily streaked and spotted, head boldly striped. Bill noticeably heavier than those of true sparrows.

distribution

Has a wide but scattered range from the Canary Islands and Madeira, through the Mediterranean region east to western China.

habitat

Generally a bird of open, treeless country from semi-desert to rocky slopes up to 17,400 ft (5,300 m). Comes into cultivated areas, particularly large open fields and even small human settlements.

behavior

Outside the breeding season collects in compact flocks of up to a few thousand birds, often with finches. Rather wary, flying off when disturbed. Spends much time on the ground where it runs about actively.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly feeds on the seeds of grasses and low herbs, but also on a wide range of invertebrates in the spring and berries in the autumn. Young are mainly fed on insects and insect larvae, taking somewhat larger prey than the true sparrows.

reproductive biology

Breeds mostly in loose colonies with the nests in crevices in rocks and trees, also in buildings, occasionally occupied ones. Two clutches of four to seven eggs are laid. Incubation 11–14 days, fledging 18–19 days. Female takes most part, though male occasionally feeds the nestlings.

conservation status

Not threatened. Some withdrawal from northern parts of range in Europe and Atlantic islands has occurred in twentieth century, but is still a common species.

significance to humans

Though occasionally causes some damage to crops, has little impact on humans.

Snow finch

Montifringilla nivalis

taxonomy

Fringilla nivalis Linnaeus 1766, Switzerland. Eight subspecies, reflecting the extensive but discontinuous distribution of a bird that is restricted to high mountain areas.

other common names

English: White-winged snow finch; French: Niverolle des nieges; German: Schneefink; Spanish: Gorrión Alpino.

physical characteristics

6.7–6.9 in (17–17.5 cm); 1.0–1.9 oz (28–54 g). A large, plumpish finch-like bird with a blue-gray head and brownish body, showing a lot of white in flight, particularly in display. The sexes are similar, the female paler with less white on the wings.

distribution

A high altitude species that occur on mountains over 6,600 ft (2,000 m), remaining at high altitudes throughout the year.

habitat

A bird of barren rocky ground and alps from 6,600–11,500 ft (2,000–3,500 m), frequently occurring near buildings where these occur within its range.

behavior

Sociable, forming nomadic groups and even large flocks outside the breeding season. Spends most of its time on the ground where it hops inconspicuously with the wings folded.

feeding ecology and diet

Mainly granivorous in the winter, but takes invertebrates at other times. Feeds on scraps around habitations, particularly at ski resorts. The young are fed exclusively on animal food.

reproductive biology

Normally in loose colonies of up to five to six pairs. Nests in a rock crevice or hole in building, filling the cavity with grass and moss lined with feathers. Two clutches of three to four

eggs are laid, incubation 13–14 days, fledging 20–21 days. Young are fed by both adults.

conservation status

A common, even locally abundant bird that has probably benefited through scraps provided at winter resorts.

significance to humans

None known.

Père David's ground sparrow

Pyrgilauda davidiana

ubfamily

none

taxonomy

Pyrgilauda davidiana Verreaux, 1871, Suiyuan, Inner Mongolia. Two subspecies occur in disjunct populations.

other common names

English: Père David's snow finch; French: Niverolle du Père David; German: Mongolen Erdsperlin; Spanish: Gorrión de David.

physical characteristics

5–6 in (13–15 cm). A small ground sparrow with upperparts mostly fawn-brown and a black bib. The juvenile is dingier and lacks the black bib.

distribution

Separate populations occur in eastern Inner Mongolia and from Mongolia to the Siberian Altai.

habitat

High, sparsely vegetated, semi-desert plains at 6,600–15,750 ft (2,000–4,800 m), usually close to water.

behavior

A nomadic species, usually in small flocks. Spends much time hidden in animal burrows when not foraging.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on grass seeds and insects.

reproductive biology

Breeds in burrows of small mammals. Lays five to six eggs. Both sexes feed the young.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Cramp, S., and C. M. Perrins, eds. The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 8, Crows to Finches. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Ivanitskii, V. V. The Sparrows and Related Groups of Granivorous Birds: Behaviour, Ecology, Evolution (in Russian). Moscow: KMK Scientific Press, 1997.

Summers-Smith, J. D. The Sparrows. Calton: Poyser, 1989.

Periodicals

Gebauer, A., and M. Kaiser. "Biologie und Verhalten zentral asiatischer Schneefinken (Montifringilla) und Erdsperlinge (Pyrgilauda)." Journal für Ornithologie 135 (1994): 55–71.

Stephan, B. "Die Arten der Familie Passeridae (Gattungen Montifringilla, Petronia, Passer) und ihre phylogenetischen Beziehungen." Bonner zoologische Beiträge 49 (2000): 39–70.

J. Denis Summers-Smith, PhD