Sunbirds

(Nectariniidae)

Class Aves

Order Passeriformes

Suborder Passeri (Oscines)

Family Nectariniidae

Thumbnail description
Small passerines, often brightly colored with iridescent plumage, and short, almost straight, to long and markedly decurved, bills; vocal, singing chattering songs, and often calling between feeds

Size
3.5–11 in (9–27 cm); 0.14–0.92 oz (4–26 g)

Number of genera, species
16 genera; 130 species

Habitat
Forest, woodlands, savanna, mountains, scrub-land, coastal zones, and gardens

Conservation status
Endangered: 2 species; Vulnerable: 4 species; Near Threatened: 8 species

Distribution
Sub-Saharan Africa, Nile Valley north to coast of Mediterranean Sea in Egypt, Madagascar, Israel, Arabian Peninsula, Socotra Island, Comoro Islands, Seychelles, South and Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, and Northeast Australia

Evolution and systematics

Although ecological equivalents of the nonpasserine hummingbirds, sunbirds as passerines are quite unrelated to them. On morphological grounds, sunbirds were considered close relatives of the honeycreepers (Meliphagidae) and the white-eyes (Zosteropidae), but on the basis of analyses of their DNA, Sibley and Monroe (1990) placed them with the flowerpeckers and sugarbirds. Irwin (1999) revised the sunbirds and concluded that they are of African origin with the short-billed, mostly insectivorous, genera Deleornis, and Anthreptes being the most primitive.

Evolution of the long, curved bills associated with nectar-feeding members of Nectarinia and other genera probably came about as a consequence of seeking insects in flowers. In addition to Deleornis and Anthreptes, Irwin accepted the validity of the genera Chalcomitra, Cyanomitra, Cinnyris, and Leptocoma, which Delacour (1944) had grouped in Nectarinia. Other genera within the Nectariniidae currently recognized include Chalcoparia, Hedydipna, Hypogramma, Anabathmis, Dreptes, Anthobaphes, Drepanorhynchus, Aethopyga, and Arachnothera.

Some sources recognize 130 species in 16 genera, but Peters recognizes 5 genera and 117 species. The sunbirds have radiated into most habitats throughout sub-Saharan Africa and tropical Asia. They have also penetrated to extremely high altitudes on both continents: Gould's sunbird (Aethopyga gouldiae), for instance, breeds up to 14,100 ft (4,300 m). In order to cope with the freezing conditions they encounter on high mountains, some sunbirds have the ability to lower their body temperatures while roosting. There are close associations between some sunbirds and particular groups of plants. For example, there has been coevolution between genera of mistletoes and the long-billed sunbirds that pollinate them, and the orange-breasted sunbird (Anthobaphes violacea) is dependent on proteas and heaths in its fynbos habitat.

Physical characteristics

Most male sunbirds and many of the females are brightly colored, with iridescent plumage covering varying proportions of their bodies. The color of the iridescence changes with the angle of incident light such that a blue may suddenly appear green or black. Many have marked contrasts in their colors, especially the double-collared group amongst the genus Cinnyris, who have broad red bands across their chests. Brightly colored pectoral tufts, usually yellow or red, are a feature of many species, particularly among males that use them in courtship and aggressive displays. The predominantly black bills of sunbirds are nearly all decurved, but the extent of the curvature varies from very slight in the genus Deleornis to the sickle-shaped bill of the golden-winged sunbird (Drepanorhynchus reichenowi). The birds' tongues are long and may be extruded far beyond the tip of the bill. The tongues vary in size and shape, with tubular structures and serrations

at the tips being most common. Tails may be short and square-ended, or graduated and elongated, with males of the genus Nectarinia, Drepanorhynchus and Aethopyga having extended central tail feathers. No sunbirds have truly forked tails, even the fork-tailed sunbird (Aethopyga christinae) gets its name from central tail feathers that are elongated into a forked shape. The legs are long and thin and usually black, with feet having curved claws.

The smallest sunbird is the crimson-backed sunbird (Leptocoma minima), which may be only 3.5 in (9 cm) long and weigh as little as 0.14 oz (4 g). The largest sunbird is the São Tomé sunbird (Dreptes thomensis), males of which may be 9 in (23 cm) long and weigh 0.9 oz (26 g). The 10 species of spiderhunters in the genus Arachnothera are larger than almost all of the other sunbirds and are restricted to Asia. Their sexes are similar and lack any iridescent plumage. Their decurved bills are very long, being at least twice the lengths of their heads.

Distribution

Sunbirds are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, along the Nile valley to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in Egypt, and eastwards through the Middle East to most of south and Southeast Asia, including many of the Pacific islands, and one species reaches Australia. Although absent from Indian Ocean islands such as Mauritius, sunbirds are found in Madagascar and the Comoros. There is also an endemic species in the Seychelles, the Seychelles sunbird (Cinnyris dussumieri) and another on Socotra Island, the Socotra sunbird (Chalcomitra balfouri).

The olive-backed sunbird (Cinnyris jugularis), the species that occurs in northeast Australia, is the most widespread of the Asiatic species. The collared sunbird (Hedydipna collaris), scarlet-chested sunbird (Chalcomitra senegalensis), variable sun-bird (Nectarinia venusta), and copper sunbird (Cinnyris cupreus) are the most widespread species in Africa, all having populations in central, eastern, southern, and West Africa.

Habitat

Most sunbirds are birds of forest, woodlands, and savanna regions, where there is an ample supply of flowering plants and insects. However, some species such as the dusky sun-bird (Cinnyris fuscus) of southern Africa and the Nile Valley sunbird (Hedydipna metallica) of northeast Africa and Arabia are found in semidesert habitats. The altitudinal range of

sunbirds is extensive, ranging from sea level to at least 14,700 ft (4,500 m) in Afro-alpine moorlands, where the scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird (Nectarinia johnstoni) occurs. Sunbirds require food sources of nectar from flowers and insects in their habitats, and plant material, usually grass, with which to make their nests. Lack of a year-round supply of flowers in one place can be circumvented by local movements, including altitudinal shifts or long-distance migrations, but most species are opportunistic and will exploit a source of nectar in whatever habitat they find it. Forest-dwelling species are often found in the canopy of the tallest trees, taking nectar and insects.

Behavior

Sunbirds are diurnal and active from dawn to dusk. Their high metabolic rate and small size necessitate almost constant searches for food, but they sometimes rest on exposed perches to preen, wipe their bills, or sing. Characteristically, they draw attention to themselves by their high-pitched calls as they flit from one flower to another, but they also catch insects on the wing and may hover in front of flowers as they probe them for nectar. Sunbirds are aggressive to competitors of their own species, but they also attack other species of sunbirds, especially at feeding areas.

Sunbirds are mostly found on their own, in pairs, or in family groups, but they are also social, coming together to feed at abundant sources of nectar or joining in mixed-species groups in forest canopies.

Apart form localized movements in response to shifts in food availability and seasonal dispersal up and down mountains, some sunbirds make regular migrations. The African subspecies of the Palestine sunbird (Cinnyris oseus decorsei) migrates with the movement of the rains during the year, as do some populations of the beautiful sunbird (Cinnyris pulchellus), the pygmy sunbird (Hedydipna platura), and the scarlet-chested sunbird. A female of the latter species has been recovered 220 mi (360 km) away from where it was banded, and scarlet-chested sunbirds were among the species in a migratory flock of sunbirds seen in Botswana moving northeastward at a rate of 500 birds per hour.

Although not renowned for their singing, the vocalizations of sunbirds include quite complex and occasionally very melodious songs. These are chattering warbles, interspersed with whistles and wheezes, uttered from prominent perches such as dead trees. There is regional variation in the songs of a given species, and local dialects have been identified in the voices of the splendid sunbird (Cinnyris coccinigaster) in West Africa. Sunbird calls are also distinct, mostly bisyllabic chirps or whistles uttered as contact notes or alarm signals. The songs of sunbirds are used to advertise their territories, which they defend vigorously around nests and feeding zones. Courtship displays involve exposure of pectoral tufts by males of those species that possess them, and elaborate bowing rituals, with wings partly open and quivering, and tails cocked or fanned.

Feeding ecology and diet

The most primitive genus Deleornis feeds almost exclusively on insects and spiders, but takes a few small fruits as well. All other genera of sunbirds take these items as food, but also probe flowers for nectar. Energy-rich nectar is a very important part of the diet of species such as the bronze sunbird (Nectarinia kilimensis) and the golden-winged sunbird. The proportions of nectar or invertebrates in the diet of sunbirds varies from species to species and with the seasons. Spiders are regularly taken by most species, and small fruits, seeds, and pollen are also common constituents of sunbird meals. There are close associations between groups of flowering plants, such as mistletoes, proteas, and aloes, that rely on the long-billed sunbirds to pollinate them. Short-billed sunbirds may also feed on nectar from flowers that should be beyond their reach by nectar-robbing activities such as probing into the base of flowers rather than through the more usual open route. Despite their name, spiderhunters have diets similar to those of other sunbirds, taking nectar, pollen, small fruits, and insects, in addition to spiders, which may be snatched from their webs.

Reproductive biology

Some forest species such as the western olive sunbird (Cyanomitra obscura) gather in leks, with up to eight males displaying to each other in the absence of females. Although usually monogamous, there is evidence that females copulate with more than one male, and 36% of the broods of the Palestine sunbird (Cinnyris oseus) are sired by males other than the female's main partner.

Sunbirds defend breeding territories by singing and active pursuit or by attacks on intruders. Although male spider-hunters help with incubation, females of the other sunbirds are responsible for most of the nest-building and all of the incubation, although males become involved with feeding young. This may continue for a few days after fledging, which occurs about two weeks after hatching. There are many records of cloaca-pecking by males, suggestive of much extra-pair copulation, but this has been documented only in the Palestine sun-bird and the purple-rumped sunbird (Leptocoma zeylonica). The Seychelles sunbird is sometimes polygamous.

Some spiderhunters construct cup-shaped nests, but all the other sunbirds enclose their eggs and young in pouch- or pear-shaped nests with side entrance holes. For the most part, these are made of grass, plant fibers, twigs, lichen, and moss, all held together with threads from spider webs, and are suspended from a bush or tree, although the orange-breasted sunbird places its nest directly in a bush. Many of the suspended nests have porches built above their entrances, trailing vegetation hanging below their bases, decorations of dead leaves and other debris as camouflage, and are lined with wool or feather down. Sunbirds may often be double- or triple-brooded, laying one to three eggs in each clutch. The eggs take about two weeks to hatch. Cuckoos regularly parasitize nests of sunbirds.

Conservation status

In Africa, the Endangered Amani sunbird (Hedydipna pallidigaster) has a very restricted range in isolated forest pockets in the Arabuko-Sokoke forest of Kenya and the Usambaras and Udzungwa Mountains in Tanzania, where it is threatened by tree-felling. Another Endangered species is the elegant sunbird (Aethopyga duyvenbodei), which is restricted to Sangihe Island, north of Sulawesi, in Indonesia. Its forest home on this tiny island is also threatened by tree-felling, but the bird has adapted somewhat to feeding in plantations.

Habitat loss is another major threat facing sunbirds of conservation concern such as the Vulnerable banded sunbird (Anthreptes rubritorques), São Tomé sunbird, Rockefeller's sunbird (Cinnyris rockefelleri), and rufous-winged sunbird (Cinnyris rufipennis), all of which survive in small forest remnants. Other sunbirds treated as Near Threatened are the plain-backed sunbird (Anthreptes reichenowi), the red-throated sunbird (Anthreptes rhodolaema), Ursula's sunbird (Cinnyris ursulae), Neergaard's sunbird (Cinnyris neergaardi), Moreau's sunbird (Cinnyris moreaui), the gray-hooded sunbird (Aethopyga primigenius), the Apo sunbird (Aethopyga boltoni), and Lina's sunbird (Aethopyga linaraborae). Among the spiderhunters, only Whitehead's spiderhunter (Arachnothera juliae), restricted to the uplands of Borneo, is of any conservation concern.

Significance to humans

Sunbirds are important to humans for aesthetic, biological, and economic reasons. The beauty and charm of the brilliantly colored species bring pleasure to many in wilderness areas, cultivations, and gardens throughout the Old World tropics. Sunbirds are important biologically as pollinators of many plants, including some of economic value, and as predators of nuisance insects. The pollination habits of some species leads them to be given pest status. For instance, the scarlet-chested sunbird helps to propagate the mistletoe (Tapinanthus bangwensis), a scourge of cocoa plantations in West Africa, and the purple sunbird (Cinnyris asiaticus) plays a similar role with mistletoes affecting timber trees in Asia and is also implicated in attacks on cultivated grapes.

Species accounts

List of Species

Ruby-cheeked sunbird

Chalcoparia singalensis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Motacilla singalensis Gmelin, 1788, Malacca. Eleven subspecies.

other common names

English: Rubycheek; French: Souimanga à joues rubis; German: Rubinwangen-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Mejillas Rojas.

physical characteristics

4.5 in (11.5 cm); 0.29–0.32 oz (8.2–9.1 g). Differs from all other sunbirds by unique structure of its tongue, which is covered in a horny plate with deeply-notched tip. Green upper-parts with orange throat and yellow breast and belly.

distribution

C. s. assamensis: East Nepal to Bangladesh, northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, and western and southern Yunnan; C. s. bantenensis: western Java; C. s. borneana: Borneo; C. s. internota: southern Myanmar and southern Thailand; C. s. interposita: southern Thailand; C. s. koratensis: eastern Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam; C. s. pallida: north Natuna Islands; C. s. panopsia: islands off west coast of Sumatra; C. s. phoenicotis: eastern and central Java; C. s. singalensis: Malay Peninsula; C. s. sumatrana: Sumatra and Belitung.

habitat

Forests, scrub, clearings, mangroves, coasts, and well-vegetated riverbanks and gardens.

behavior

Active, tit-like behavior. Sometimes forages in small flocks.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on nectar, fruits, pollen, and insects, which it may take from spider webs.

reproductive biology

Male sings shrill song from perch on tall tree or low bush to defend territory, jerking tail as it does so, and feeds female during courtship. Lays two eggs in pear-shaped nest, January through August.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in most of range but rare in Nepal and Bhutan.

significance to humans

None known.

Scarlet-tufted sunbird

Deleornis fraseri

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Anthreptes fraseri Jardine and Selby, 1843, Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Fraser's sunbird; French: Souimanga de Fraser; German: Laubnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina Roja.

physical characteristics

4.5–5.0 in (11.5–12.7 cm); 0.35–0.54 oz (10–15.3g). Plumage non-metallic, uniform bright green; sexes alike except for orange-yellow pectoral tufts on male only. Immature birds like adults but olive-green above and paler below.

distribution

Central and West Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola. D. f. cameroonensis: southern Nigeria to northwestern Angola; D. f. fraseri: Bioko, Equatorial Guinea; D. f. idius: Sierra Leone to Togo.

habitat

Forests, forest edges, and cocoa plantations.

behavior

Forages like a warbler, seeking insects among leaves, rarely seen at flowers.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on small insects and spiders.

reproductive biology

Males defend territories aggressively, displaying with shrill calls while jerking head and tail forward and exposing scarlet pectoral tufts. Young fed by both sexes, but nest and eggs unknown.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in Liberia, elsewhere locally common.

significance to humans

None known.

Plain-throated sunbird

Anthreptes malacensis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia malacensis Scopoli, 1786, Malacca. Seventeen subspecies.

other common names

English: Brown-throated sunbird, gray-throated sunbird; French: Souimanga á gorge brune; German: Braunkehl-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Garganta Descolorida.

physical characteristics

5.5 in (14 cm); 0.26–0.48 oz (7.4–13.5 g). Metallic green from head to back with dark brown cheek, throat, and wings; purplish tail and yellow underparts.

distribution

Two main groups of subspecies. The malacensis group includes 15 subspecies occurring in various islands of the west and southwest Philippines, Borneo, the Celebes, Myanmar, Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Thailand, and Indonesia. The griseigularis group includes two subspecies found in the eastern and northern Philippines.

habitat

Forest, woodland, mangroves, bamboos, coastal vegetation, swamps, coconut groves, and gardens from sea level up to 3,900 ft (1,200 m).

behavior

Aggressive toward other small birds. Often in low bushes but feeds at all heights, sometimes in large groups or in mixed-species parties.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on nectar of citrus, mistletoes, and other flowers. Also takes fruits, insects, and spiders.

reproductive biology

Males sing from prominent perches. Two eggs laid in pearshaped nest suspended 3.3–42.6 ft (1–13 m) up, made of grass, plant fibers, and cobwebs. Slivers of bark on outside, lined with tree-cotton or moss. Young fledge two weeks after hatching.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Pollinates Nicolaia elatior, the buds of which are used as spices.

Green sunbird

Anthreptes rectirostris

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia rectirostris Shaw, 1811–12, Ashanti, Ghana. Two sub-species.

other common names

English: Yellow-chinned sunbird, gray-chinned sunbird, banded sunbird, banded green sunbird; French: Souimanga á bec droit; German: Goldband-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina Verde.

physical characteristics

3.54–3.94 in (9–10 cm); 0.25–0.42 oz (7–12 g). Tiny, short-billed bird with lime-green head to back and darker wings. Yellow throat, orange band across chest, and light underparts.

distribution

A. r. rectirostris: Sierra Leone to Ghana; A. r. tephrolaema: southern Nigeria to Democratic Republic of Congo, southern Sudan, and western Kenya.

habitat

Upper stories of primary and secondary forest, gallery forest, forest plantations, and mountains.

behavior

Occurs singly or in family groups of up to seven birds, usually more than 66 ft (20 m) up trees. Joins mixed-species flocks. Searches for insects on or below leaves, and along tree trunks and branches like a warbler. Sometimes catches flying insects like a flycatcher.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on small fruits, berries, seeds, insects, and spiders.

reproductive biology

Males are territorial, singing from high perches. Species may be cooperative breeder as more than two adults feed young, but only female incubates. Two ovate eggs, gray with violet or gray-green markings, laid in nest suspended low from vine or 131 ft (40 m) up in a tree. Nest globular, made of fibers, lichens, or moss and lined with vegetable silk.

conservation status

Uncommon, but not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Collared sunbird

Hedydipna collaris

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Cinnyris collaris Vieillot, 1819, Gamtoos River, Cape Province, South Africa. Nine subspecies.

other common names

French: Soiumanga à collier; German: Waldnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina Acollarada.

physical characteristics

3.9–4.1 in (10–10.5 cm); male 0.19–0.39 oz (5.3–11.0 g); female 0.19–0.34 oz (5.4–9.7 g). Small and short-billed with green head to back, yellow belly with purplish dark stripe across breast.

distribution

H. c. collaris: eastern Cape Province to southern Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa; H. c. djamdjamensis: southwestern Ethiopia;H. c. elachior: coastal and inland Kenya, coastal Tanzania, Sudan and Somalia and Zanzibar; H. c. garguensis: western Kenya, southern Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, western Tanzania, Zambia, Angola; H. c. hypodila: Bioko, Equatorial Guinea; H. c. somereni: from southeastern Nigeria to northwestern Angola, northern Democratic Republic of the Congo to southwestern Sudan, west of the River Nile; H. c. subcollaris: Senegal to the delta of the River Niger, Nigeria; H. c. zambesiana: Angola to southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, southwestern Tanzania, Zanzibar, Malawi, Mozambique, and Botswana; H. c. zuluensis: northeastern Kwazulu-Natal, eastern Swaziland, southern Mozambique, and Zimbabwe.

habitat

Varied. Occurs in forests, plantations, and swamps, but most common in open habitats such as clearings, savanna, thickets, and gardens.

behavior

Commonly a member of mixed-species parties with other sunbirds, white-eyes, and warblers. Feeds acrobatically, and seen "anting."

feeding ecology and diet

Forages in low bushes but also up to 82 ft (25 m) high in forest canopy. Takes insects like a warbler does, and by aerial captures. Feeds mostly on insects, but also eats small spiders, snails, seeds, and fruits, and probes wide range of flowers for nectar.

reproductive biology

Males defend territories with short whistling song and chase other males while making sounds with wing-flicks. May be polyandrous. Regular host of Klaas's cuckoo (Chrysococcyx klaas). Nest pear-shaped, made of grass, dead leaves, and cobwebs, sometimes decorated with lichen, bark, or flowers. Clutch one to four eggs with white background marked with various shades of grays and browns.

conservation status

Not threatened; common and widespread.

significance to humans

None known.

Purple-naped sunbird

Hypogramma hypogrammicum

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Hypogramma hypogrammicum S. Muller, 1843, Sumatra and Borneo. Five subspecies.

other common names

English: Blue-naped sunbird; French: Souimanga strié German: Streifennektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Nuca Azul.

physical characteristics

6 in (15 cm); male 0.27–0.54 oz (7.8–15.2 g); female 0.34–0.48 oz (9.7–13.5 g). Medium-length bill with red eye and streaked yellowish underparts. Purple nape and rump with olive head, wings, and tail.

distribution

H. h. hypogrammicum: Sumatra and Borneo; H. h. lisettae: northern Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern and central Indochina, and western Yunnan; H. h. mariae: Cambodia and southern Indochina; H. h. natunense: northern Natuna Islands;H. h. nuchale: southern Myanmar, southern Thailand, and peninsular Malaysia.

habitat

Forests, plantations, swamps, and gardens.

behavior

Usually keeps under cover, feeding up to 16 ft (5 m) high in trees. Fans and flicks tail.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes nectar from gingers and other plants. Also feeds on small fruits, seeds, small insects, and spiders.

reproductive biology

Lays two or three whitish eggs with lilac wash and gray and black lines and blotches in ball- or pear-shaped shaped nest made of grass or of bark, lichen, moss, and leaves, held together with cobwebs.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in parts of Laos, Sumatra, and Borneo, but uncommon elsewhere.

significance to humans

None known.

Reichenbach's sunbird

Anabathmis reichenbachii

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Nectarinia reichenbachii Hartlaub, 1857.

other common names

French: Souimanga de Reichenbach; German: Reichenbachnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Reichenbach.

physical characteristics

4.7–5.5 in (12–14 cm); 0.35–0.46 oz (9.8–13 g). Metallic blue from crown to breast, with grayish belly and yellow vents. Upperparts olive-brown with gray band at tail tip.

distribution

Liberia to Angola.

habitat

Coastal zones in West Africa, but penetrating far inland in central Africa range, especially in Democratic Republic of the Congo where found along sides of rivers.

behavior

Forages in vegetation overhanging water. Also catches insects in mid-air, returning to same perch where may dally for long periods.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes insects and probes flowers, including mistletoes, for nectar.

reproductive biology

Defends territories all year, singing complex, high-pitched, jangling song from prominent perch. Lays single light-brown, speckled egg in small nest made of grass, leaves, and fibers, held together by cobwebs and suspended above water.

conservation status

Not threatened. Common in Cameroon and Republic of the Congo but scarce elsewhere.

significance to humans

None known.

São Tomé sunbird

Dreptes thomensis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Nectarinia thomensis Barbosa du Bocage, 1889, St. Miguel, São Tomé.

other common names

English: Giant sunbird, São tomé giant sunbird, dusky são tomé sunbird; French: Souimanga de são tomé; German: Riesennektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Santo Tomé.

physical characteristics

Male 7.9–9 in (20–23 cm), female 7.1–7.5 in (18–19 cm); male 0.92 oz (26 g), female 0.63–0.67 oz (18.0–18.9 g). Largest of the sunbirds, with long bill and tail feathers. Dark purplish upperparts with brown belly and breast. White-tipped tail.

distribution

São Tomé.

habitat

Montane forest, secondary forest, scrub along streams, and cultivations.

behavior

Usually occurs singly or in pairs, but up to seven birds may congregate at flowers. Constantly moves from plant to plant, and sometimes feeds on bark of trees like a treecreeper (Certhia sp.).

feeding ecology and diet

Gleans leaves for insects, hovers beneath leaves to feed, probes bark and flowers. Food consists of insects, nectar, and fruit pulp.

reproductive biology

Territorial. Possibly polygynous. Two long white eggs with red spots, laid September through January in nest suspended from end of branch. Nest made of moss and plant fibers with small porch and long trailing "beard" of plant fibers below base.

conservation status

Vulnerable. Restricted to forests of São Tomé and threatened by forest clearances.

significance to humans

None known.

Orange-breasted sunbird

Anthobaphes violacea

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia violacea Linnaeus, 1766, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa.

other common names

English: Violet-headed sunbird, wedge-tailed sunbird; French: Souimanga orangé; German: Goldbrust-Nektarvogel: Spanish: Nectarina de Pecho Anaranjado.

physical characteristics

Male 5.7–6.5 in (14.5–16.5 cm), female 4.9–5.3 in (12.5–13.5 cm); male 0.32–0.4 oz (9–11.3 g), female 0.3–0.34 oz (8.6–9.7g). Head metallic green with brown upperparts, orange breast, and blue band across base of throat.

distribution

West Cape Province to Cape Town, South Africa.

habitat

Restricted to the fynbos of South Africa, where found in heath-lands and protea stands, but also occurs in parks and gardens.

behavior

Found singly or in pairs during breeding season, but congregates in flocks of up to 100 birds in the nonbreeding period. Migrates from lower to higher altitudes during the southern summer in search of flowering plants. Tame.

feeding ecology and diet

Closely associated with Erica heaths, taking their nectar by probing into florets while clinging to stems. Also feeds on insects,

often taking them in the air during spectacular forays from perches, and on spiders.

reproductive biology

Timing of breeding linked to flowering by Erica heaths with peak activity in May through August. Males defend territories aggressively, attacking and chasing intruders. Nest unusual for a sunbird as is ball-shaped and placed in bush and not suspended. Only female builds, using rootlets, leaves from heaths, twigs and grass, with cobwebs as adhesive. One or two eggs, mostly white with brown markings, hatch two weeks after being laid. Both sexes feed young but female does two-thirds of the work. After fledging, parents tend young for three weeks.

conservation status

Not threatened; common in appropriate habitat. Threatened by urbanization, agricultural developments, and fires.

significance to humans

None known apart from role in pollinating proteas, some of which are sold commercially, and heaths.

Green-headed sunbird

Cyanomitra verticalis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia verticalis Linnaeus, 1790, Senegal. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Green-headed olive sunbird, olive-backed sunbird; French: Souimanga à tête verte; German: Grünkopf-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Cabeza Verde.

physical characteristics

5.1–5.7 in (13–14.5 cm); male 0.34–0.55 oz (9.7–15.5 g), female 0.38–0.55 oz (10.7–15.5 g). Long bill with shorter tail; head is actually metallic blue. Olive upperparts with gray breast to undertail.

distribution

C. v. boehndorffi: southern Cameroon through inland areas to Angola; C. v. cyanocephala: coasts from mainland Equatorial Guinea to northwest Democratic Republic of the Congo; C. v. verticalis: Senegal to Nigeria; C. v. viridisplendens: southern Sudan and northeast Democratic Republic of the Congo, east to Uganda and northwest Kenya, western Tanzania, northern Malawi, and northeastern Zambia.

habitat

Forests and well-wooded savanna, coastal habitats, plantations, and gardens.

behavior

Usually forages high in canopy, sometimes in mixed-species flocks. Males may congregate in fruiting trees and defend feeding territories with aggressive displays, including showing pectoral tufts.

feeding ecology and diet

Searches leaves and tree bark for insects and also catches insects in flight. Eats small fruits and seeds and oil-palm sap, as well as nectar from wide variety of flowers.

reproductive biology

Territorial. Nest globular, made of grass, bark, and fibers woven with cobwebs. Suspended, often over water, and some with long (1.6 ft; 0.5 m) streamers below base. Clutch of two white or pink eggs with dark dots. Both parents feed young.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Scarlet-chested sunbird

Chalcomitra senegalensis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia senegalensis Linnaeus, 1766, Senegal. Five subspecies.

other common names

English: Scarlet-breasted sunbird, scarlet-throated sunbird; French: Souimanga à poitrine rouge; German: Rotbrust-Glanzköpfchen; Spanish: Nectarina de Pecho Carmín.

physical characteristics

5.1–5.9 in (13–15 cm); male 0.26–0.61 oz (7.5–17.2 g), female 0.24–0.54 oz (6.8–15.3 g). Mostly black, fading to brownish black. Bright red throat and chest with iridescent blue speckles. Glossy green forehead, crown, and chin.

distribution

C. s. acik: northern Cameroon to western and southern Sudan, Central African Republic, northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and northeastern Uganda; C. s. cruentata: southeastern

Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, northern Kenya; C. s. gutturalis: northern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, northern Namibia, northern Botswana, northern and eastern South Africa, Swaziland, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi and Zanzibar; C. s. lamperti : Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, southern Sudan, and western Tanzania; C. s. senegalensis: Senegal to Nigeria.

habitat

Wooded savanna, thorn scrub, gallery forests, inselbergs, coastal habitats, farmland, plantations, parks, and gardens.

behavior

Partial migrant, with some birds moving with rain fronts; a banded bird traveled 224 mi (360 km) in Zimbabwe. Noisy and conspicuous, forming groups of up to 20 birds at flowering trees. Aggressive, apparently defends feeding territories as well as breeding domains. Territorial; male advertises presence from tall perch while singing agitated twittering song.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on nectar and insects such as ants, beetles, moths, and termites, as well as spiders. Hovers in front of leaves for insects and flowers for nectar.

reproductive biology

Clutch of one to three whitish eggs with brown markings laid in domed nest with prominent porch of dried grasses above entrance hole, suspended from tree or human-made support. May be double- or triple-brooded, sometimes reuses same nest for each brood. Both parents feed young. Nests parasitized by Klaas's cuckoo, emerald cuckoo (Chrysococcyx cupreus), and by honeyguides, including greater honeyguide (Indicator indicator).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Minor pest in Zimbabwe where it damages commercial crops of proteas. Also pollinates mistletoe pests of cocoa in West Africa.

Crimson-backed sunbird

Leptocoma minima

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Cinnyris minima Sykes, 1832, Ghauts, Dukhun, India.

other common names

French: Souimanga menu; German: Däumlingsnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina Chica.

physical characteristics

3.5–3.9 in (8.9–9.9 cm); 0.14–0.21 oz (4–6 g). Small bird with brown wings and tail, lime-green forehead to nape, metallic purple throat and rump, reddish back and breast, and black around eye.

distribution

Western India from north of Bombay to hills of southern Kerala. Possibly also occurs in Sri Lanka.

habitat

Forest, plantations, and gardens.

behavior

While singing squeaky song 5 to 10 seconds long, male twists from side to side. Active, acrobatic when feeding, hovers in front of flowers and feeds from upside-down poses. Defends feeding territories against conspecifics and against flowerpeckers. Makes seasonal short-distance movements.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes nectar from mistletoes, Erythrina trees, and other flowers. Also feeds on insects and spiders.

reproductive biology

Clutch of two white eggs with reddish spots laid in neat pouch nest made of fibers, moss, and cobwebs suspended from bush.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None apart from pollination roles.

Malachite sunbird

Nectarinia famosa

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia famosa Linnaeus, 1766, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Yellow-tufted malachite sunbird, green sugarbird, long-tailed emerald sunbird; French: Souimanga malachite; German: Malachitnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Copete Amarillo.

physical characteristics

Male 9.4–10.6 in (24–27 cm), female 5.1–5.9 in (13–15 cm); male 0.42–0.79 oz (12.0–22.5 g), female 0.32–0.62 oz (9.1–17.5 g). Mostly dark green with long bill and short tail with two elongated tail feathers. Blackish wings with small yellow patch.

distribution

N. f. cupreonitens: highlands of Eritrea, Ethiopia, southern Sudan, eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Zimbabwe, northern Malawi, and northern Mozambique; N. f. famosa: Namibia, South Africa, Lesotho, western Swaziland, and Zimbabwe.

habitat

In South Africa from coast to 9,200 ft (2,800 m) high in fynbos, karoo vegetation, alpine moorland, and gardens, but not in forest. Elsewhere found in open areas, moorland, bamboo zone, and at forest edges.

behavior

Often seen singly but may congregate in flocks of more than 1,000 birds in patches of favorite food such as Leonotis leonurus. Aggressive, defending feeding areas against conspecifics involving physical duels in mid-air, other species of sunbirds, and wide variety of other birds. Can lower body temperature during cold nights.

Territorial. Males perform elaborate display flights, involving dive-bombing rivals from high up or twisting flights with wings stretched out. Song sometimes accompanied by pointing head upward and displaying pectoral tufts with wings half open. Courtship display by males involves drooping wings and whistling, followed by fast warbling and flapping of wings and showing of pectoral tufts, before vertical flight and landing on female to copulate.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on flowers to take nectar, especially from proteas, redhot pokers, and giant lobelias. Also takes wide variety of insects, sometimes catching them in mid-air like a flycatcher.

reproductive biology

Up to three greenish eggs with dark mottles laid in oval nest, often with porch of grass above entrance hole. Nest may be suspended or placed in a bush. Female incubates for two weeks. After two-week nestling period, both parents feed fledglings, who return to nest for roosting. May be double- or triple-brooded, sometimes reusing same nest. Parasitized by Klaas's cuckoo and by red-chested cuckoo (Cuculus solitarius).

conservation status

Not threatened. Locally common in highland areas.

significance to humans

Pollinator of proteas and other flowers.

Golden-winged sunbird

Drepanorhynchus reichenowi

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Drepanorhynchus reichenowi Fischer, 1884, Lake Naivasha, Kenya. Three subspecies.

other common names

English: Golden-wing sunbird; French: Souimanga à ailes dorées; German: Gelbschwanz-Sichelhopf; Spanish: Nectarina de Alas Doradas.

physical characteristics

Male 6.3–9.4 in (16–24 cm), female 5.5–5.9 in (14–15 cm); male 0.45–0.62 oz (12.8–17.5 g), female 0.39–0.56 oz (11–15.9 g).

Mostly chestnut-brown with decurved bill and yellow-golden wing and lateral tail feathers. Two elongated feathers extended from tail.

distribution

D. r. lathburyi: northern Kenya on isolated mountain ranges;D. r. reichenowi: southern and western Uganda, western and central Kenya, mountains in northeastern Tanzania; D. r. shelleyi: highlands of Democratic Republic of the Congo northwest of Lake Tanganyika.

habitat

Grasslands, clearings, forest edges, and gardens in highlands above 3,900 ft (1,200 m).

behavior

Altitudinal migrant, following flowering seasons. Sometimes forms large feeding flocks at nectar sources. Has groove in crown that collects pollen. Territorial; can obtain three-quarters of energy needs from within territory. Song consists of short twittering and high-pitched "chi-chi-chi."

feeding ecology and diet

Associated in particular with lion's claw flower (Crotalaria agatiflora) and Leonotis spp. Feeds from aloes and jacarandas, also on insects that are sometimes caught in flight.

reproductive biology

Single white egg, mottled with gray-brown, laid in globular nest made of grass and other plant material with porch over entrance hole.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Olive-bellied sunbird

Cinnyris chloropygius

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Nectarinia chloropygia Jardine, 1842, Aboh, River Niger, Nigeria. Four subspecies.

other common names

French: Souimanga à ventre olive; German: Olivbauch-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Vientre Olivo.

physical characteristics

4.1–4.3 in (10.5–11.0 cm); male 0.17–0.28 oz (4.7–8.0 g), female 0.18–0.26 oz (5–7.5 g). Glossy dark green forehead to back and throat; scarlet breast, brown wings and tail, and olive belly.

distribution

C. c. bineschensis: southwestern Ethiopia; C. c. chloropygius: southeastern Nigeria to Angola; C. c. kempi: Senegal to southwestern Nigeria; C. c. orphogaster: Congo River basin and northeastern Angola through Democratic Republic of the Congo to Burundi, southern Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, and northwestern Tanzania.

habitat

Lower levels of trees and bushes at edges of forests and in clearings, plantations, mangroves, farmland, well-wooded savanna, parks, and gardens.

behavior

Noisy, active, tame birds with a rapid flight. Territorial and aggressive to other sunbirds.

feeding ecology and diet

Commonly feeds on flowers of Hibiscus spp., bougainvillea, and other garden flowers, but also attracted to banana, cassava, and coffee flowers; takes small insects, spiders, and seeds.

reproductive biology

One to three white or gray eggs laid in untidy oval nest made from grass, dead leaves, and bark, and suspended from bush or palm. Parasitized by emerald cuckoo and by Cassin's honeyguide (Prodotiscus regulus).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Greater double-collared sunbird

Cinnyris afra

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia afra Linnaeus, 1766, Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Larger double-collared sunbird, red-breasted sunbird; French: Souimanga à plastron rouge; German: Grosser Halsband-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Dos Collares Grande.

physical characteristics

4.5–4.9 in (11.5–12.5 cm); male 0.32–0.64 oz (9.0–18.0 g), female 0.29–0.49 oz (8.1–14.0 g). Similar in coloring to olive-bellied

sunbird, with a longer bill, larger size, and purplish bands cross throat and rump.

distribution

C. a. afra: Cape and Western Cape Provinces of South Africa; C.a. saliens: Eastern Cape, Free State, Northern, and Kwazulu-Natal Provinces of South Africa, Lesotho, and western Swaziland.

habitat

Open scrubland, plains, protea moorland, fynbos, parks, gardens, and forest edges.

behavior

Aggressive with both sexes chasing each other. Males may fan tail and display pectoral tufts, and they sing to one another when perched close and swing bodies from side to side, while pointing head skyward. Displaying birds sometimes swing upside-down on perch. Bathe in birdbaths and attack reflections in windows. Males perform elaborate courtship behaviors, bobbing heads up and down and swaying sideways; also indulge in display flights.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes nectar from flowers such as aloes, proteas, and figs, but also feeds on juices from figs and grapes, insects, and spiders. May take latter from their webs in hovering flight. Catches insects on the wing.

reproductive biology

Monogamous, but extra-pair copulations probably common, judging by frequency of cloaca-pecking. Female builds nest using spider webs to hold together grasses, bark twigs, rags, feathers, wool, and other debris into oval shape. Nest lined with feathers and wool, decorated with large leaves, lichen, and even cloth, and either placed in bush or suspended. Two heavily marked whitish eggs are laid at any time of year and incubated by female only for two weeks. Nestlings cared for by both parents for two weeks. Fledglings return to nest to roost for first few nights. May be triple-brooded. Parasitized by Klaas's cuckoo.

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Purple sunbird

Cinnyris asiaticus

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia asiatica Latham, 1790, Gurgaon, India. Three sub-species.

other common names

French: Souimanga Asiatique; German: Purpurnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina Asiática.

physical characteristics

4–4.5 in (10.1–11.4 cm); male 0.24–0.39 oz (6.9–11.0 g), female 0.17–0.35 oz (5–10 g). Medium-sized decurved bill. Male all dark, iridescent during breeding. Female brown and yellow.

distribution

C. a. asiaticus: India south of Himalayas, except northwest and north, and Sri Lanka; C. a. brevirostris: southeastern Oman, southern Iran, Baluchistan, and Pakistan, to western India at Rajasthan and western Gujarat; C. a. intermedius: India in northern Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Assam, and Bangladesh to Indochina and southern Yunnan.

habitat

Deciduous forest, thorn-scrub, farmland and gardens up to 7,875 ft (2,400 m) in hills.

behavior

Aggressive, active, and noisy. Probes flowers including mistletoes, and catches insects like a flycatcher. In India migrates northwards March through April, returning August through September. Also altitudinal migrant, traveling up after breeding. Migratory in Oman.

Male displays to female with slightly open wings to expose pectoral tufts, raises head and flutters while singing excited "cheewit-cheewit" song.

feeding ecology and diet

Mistletoe fruits, nectar, grapes, and small insects.

reproductive biology

Clutch of one to three grayish-white, streaked chocolate, eggs laid in oblong, purse-shaped nest made of grass, fibers, leaves, and cobwebs. Nest sometimes decorated with caterpillar droppings, bark, and other debris and is usually suspended. Only female incubates, but both parents feed young. Parasitized by plaintive cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Has pest status in grape-growing areas of India as it pierces the fruit and sucks out juices.

Olive-backed sunbird

Cinnyris jugularis

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Certhia jugularis Linnaeus, 1766, Philippines. Twenty-one sub-species.

other common names

English: Yellow-bellied sunbird, yellow-breasted sunbird, black-breasted sunbird, black-throated sunbird; French: Souimanga à dos vert; German: Grünrücken-Nektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de Lomo Olivo.

physical characteristics

4.5 in (11.4 cm); male 0.24–0.37 oz (6.7–10.5 g), female 0.21–0.32 oz (6.0–9.1 g). Dull olive-brown upperparts with contrasting yellow underparts. Metallic forehead, throat, and upper breast. All underparts bright yellow in females.

distribution

Myanmar, Thailand, Indochina, Malaysia, southeastern China, Philippines, New Guinea, and northeastern Australia.

habitat

Scrub, mangroves, forest, woodland, farmland, plantations, and gardens.

behavior

Tame but restless. Often in mixed-species groups. Aggressive. Male displays underneath female, exposing black breast and pectoral tufts while moving head from side to side and calling.

feeding ecology and diet

Often feeds low down. Sometimes hovers in front of flowers, leaves, and cobwebs to take nectar, insects, and spiders respectively. Also eats small fruits and pollen.

reproductive biology

Oval, purse-shaped nest with hooded side entrance built by female of grass, moss, lichens, and other vegetable matter. One to three grayish eggs incubated for two weeks. Young fledge after further two weeks. In Australia, parasitized by Gould's bronze cuckoo (Chrysococcyx russatus).

conservation status

Not threatened.

significance to humans

Sometimes nests near or on houses, otherwise none known.

Gould's sunbird

Aethopyga gouldiae

subfamily

Nectariniinae

taxonomy

Cinnyris gouldiae Vigors, 1831, Simla-Almora District, Himalayas. Four subspecies.

other common names

English: Mrs. Gould's sunbird; French: Souimanga de Gould; German: Gouldnektarvogel; Spanish: Nectarina de la Gould.

physical characteristics

4.3 in (11 cm), but male's tail may be 1.75 in (4.5 cm) longer; male 0.23–0.28 oz (6.5–8.0 g), female 0.14–0.21 oz (4.0–6.1 g). A glossy purple head and tail; red back with two stripes to the bill on each side. Wings dull brown with yellow underparts and rump.

distribution

A. g. annamensis: southern Vietnam, southern Laos, and Thailand; A. g. dabryii: eastern Nagaland, west central and southern

China, southeastern Tibet, Manipur, Myanmar; A. g. gouldiae: Himalayas from Sutlej Valley to Aruchanel Pradesh and southeastern Tibet; A. g. isolata: south of River Brahmaputra in northern Assam, Ngaland, Manipur, and south to Chittagong Hills and northwestern Myanmar.

habitat

Highlands. Coniferous forest, oaks, scrub jungle, and rhododendrons.

behavior

Energetic but shy.

feeding ecology and diet

Takes nectar from mistletoes and rhododendrons, and also eats insects and spiders. Drinks readily from pools.

reproductive biology

Breeds as high as 14,000 ft (4,270 m). Clutch of two or three white eggs with small reddish brown marks laid mid-March to August. Nest oval and composed of grass, cobwebs, moss, fibers, and other vegetable matter, lined with down, and suspended from fern or low bush. In India parasitized by Asian emerald cuckoo (Chrysococcyx maculatus).

conservation status

Not threatened; but uncommon.

significance to humans

None known.

Yellow-eared spiderhunter

Arachnothera chrysogenys

subfamily

Arachnotherinae

taxonomy

Nectarinia chrysogenys Temminck, 1826, Bantam District, Java. Two subspecies.

other common names

English: Lesser yellow-eared spiderhunter; French: Arachnothère à joues jaunes; German: Gelbwangen-Spinnenjäger: Spanish: Arañera de Orejas Amarillas Menor.

physical characteristics

7 in (17.8 cm). Long-billed bird with greenish head fading to brown upperparts and yellow underparts. Yellow ear patch and ring around eye.

distribution

A. c. chrysogenys: southern Myanmar, southern Thailand, peninsular Malaysia, western Borneo, Java, and Sumatra; A. c. harrissoni: eastern Borneo.

habitat

Tops of trees in primary forest, secondary forests, plantations, villages, and gardens. Found up to 5,900 ft (1,800 m).

behavior

Forages singly or in pairs. Sometimes hovers and also hangs upside-down when feeding.

feeding ecology and diet

Feeds on nectar, pollen, seeds, small fruits, insects, and spiders.

reproductive biology

Nest is a neatly woven structure of vegetable matter sewn under banana leaf or palm frond, sometimes with long entrance tunnel. Inner cup, where eggs laid, made of finer material than rest of nest. Clutch two white eggs with black lines and speckles laid February to September.

conservation status

Scarce, but not threatened.

significance to humans

None known.

Resources

Books

Cheke, R. A., C. F. Mann, and R. Allen. Sunbirds: A Guide to the Sunbirds, Flowerpeckers, Spiderhunters, and Sugarbirds of the World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, eds. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 6. London: Academic Press, 2000.

Sibley, C. G., and B. L. Monroe. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.

Skead, C. J. The Sunbirds of Southern Africa; Also the Sugarbirds, the White-Eyes, and the Spotted Creeper. Cape Town: A. A. Balkema, 1967.

Stattersfield, Alison J., and David R. Capper, eds. Threatened Birds of the World: The Official Source for Birds on the IUCN Red List. Barcelona: Lynx Ediciones, 2001.

Periodicals

Delacour, J. A. "Revision of the Family Nectariniidae (Sunbirds)." Zoologica 29 (1944): 17–38.

Irwin, M. P. S. "The Genus Nectarinia and the Evolution and Diversification of Sunbirds: An Afrotropical Perspective." Honeyguide 45 (1999): 45–58.

Robert Alexander Cheke, PhD