Shiʿite Islam

Shiʿa comprise 10 to 15 percent of the world Muslim population, and are concentrated in the Middle East, particularly in Iran, where Shiʿism is the state religion. Shiʿa differ from the majority Sunni Muslims in matters of religious authority and leadership arising from disputes over the legitimate succession to Muhammad, with Shiʿa supporting the claim of ʿAli, grandson of the Prophet, and his family and descendants. The teachings of the Qurʾan are strictly interpreted and followed. However, the basic pattern of observances, including food-related behavior, is similar for Shiʿa and Sunnis.

Role of Food in Religious Tradition

Islamic food practices are derived first from the Qurʾan and secondly from the hadith—the sayings and deeds of Muhammad. Pre-Islamic Arabs had few food prohibitions, and these were more a matter of local custom, specific to particular tribes. The food laws of the Qurʾan provided one way of uniting the tribes in common observances, at the same time differentiating the Muslims from the Jews. The use of food to create and maintain boundaries and common identities is common among the world's religions.

Islamic law influences diet by prohibiting or restricting certain foods, based on Jewish dietary laws as mentioned in the Qurʾan, and by requiring fasting and feasting at specific times of year. It also enjoins moderation and reasonableness in all things and commends hospitality. Food was strongly linked to hospitality in Arabic cultures and the sharing of food was encouraged by Muhammad as a means of creating common bonds and sharing in common blessings.

Shiʿa follow general Qurʾanic food regulations. In the Qurʾan food is mentioned frequently as a fundamental beneficence, a Divine blessing. Believers are exhorted to eat of the good things with which God has supplied them and are given only minimal dietary restrictions. Forbidden, or halal, is that which dies naturally, blood, swine's flesh, and that over which any name other than God's has been invoked. Also prohibited are meat of the ass, of carnivorous animals such as the tiger, fox, dog, and leopard, which kill prey by using their paws, and of birds of prey. Alcohol is forbidden, along with any other substance that is debilitating to the faculties. The meat of permitted animals is only halal if slaughtered in accordance with Islamic law, by cutting the throat while pronouncing the words "Bismillah. Allah Akbar" ("I begin with God's name: God is great").

Further food regulations are contained in the hadith and have been elaborated over time by various schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Foods are allocated to one of the five categories of action in Islamic law: obligatory, recommended, neutral, disapproved, or prohibited. Each school of jurisprudence categorizes foods differently, though the differences between Shiʿa and Sunnis is, on the whole, of little practical everyday significance. Foods or parts of animals forbidden based on exclusively Shiʿite hadiths include hare and porcupine, fish without scales, sea creatures with shells (except shrimp is allowed), rabbits, and certain body parts such as the gallbladder and spleen.

Qurʾanic food laws are seen as a sign of God's will, but there is no sin in eating prohibited foods in small quantities if essential to sustain life. Sunnis generally permit the consumption of meat slaughtered by Jews or Christians, while Shiʿa do so only if necessity dictates. As in all religions, the strictness with which dietary laws and guidelines are observed differs with social status and circumstances, depending on the commitment to practice.

Fasting

There are different categories of fasting in Islam: those that are obligatory; those that are recommended but which may be broken without penalty; those that are blameworthy and discouraged; and those that are forbidden. Obligatory fasts include the month of Ramadan, expiatory fasts performed as kaffarah (atonement) for breaking the Ramadan fast, and those performed in fulfillment of a vow. The chief obligatory fast is Ramadan. Shiʿa generally break the fast a few minutes after the sun has set and commence the fast a few minutes before dawn. In both instances the intent is to ensure that the full fasting period is observed. The exemption categories for the fast are similar for Shiʿa and Sunnis, though with some variations in interpretation. For Shiʿa fasting is not valid if it would cause or aggravate illness or intensify pain or delay recovery; to do so is to cause harm, which is prohibited. Pregnant women in the final trimester and nursing mothers ought to break their fast if there is danger of harm. To continue fasting in such circumstances is not valid. In both instances breaking the fast is optional for Sunnis. Acute hunger, unless life-threatening, is not a sufficient reason for Shiʿa to break the fast, but is acceptable to Sunnis. There are other differences relating to travelers, to what precisely breaks the fast, and to what is required in the way of restitution for infractions. The most serious infraction, sexual intercourse with a spouse, is punished with extended fasting and fines in both Shiʿite and Sunni law; such fines include freeing a slave, feeding sixty poor, or fasting for two consecutive months.

Muhurram, the first month of the Muslim year, is a time of major public affirmations of Shiʿa beliefs. The one-day fast of Ashura, which falls on the 10th of Muhurram, was, according to Sunni tradition, instituted by Muhammad in imitation of the Jewish practice of marking the deliverance of the children of Israel from the Pharoah. Although the fast was soon abrogated in favor of Ramadan, it remained as a voluntary observance. For Sunni Muslims Ashura is a joyous festival, commemorated precisely because it is Sunnah—the Way of the Prophet. But for Shiʿa it is a time of mourning, the anniversary of the murder of Husayn, son of ʿAli and grandson of Muhammad, by the Caliph Yazid at the battle of Kerbala. Husayn opposed caliphate rule and was killed in an attempt to restore the imamate. Shiʿa mark this occasion with large public parades, at which loud lamentations are accompanied by beating of drums and penitents who scourge themselves with whips or knives. In some places dancers enact scenes from Kerbala and decorated replicas of the martyrs' tombs are carried through the streets. A specific Shiʿa practice during Muhurram is the provision of food and drink to the community. In Shiʿa neighborhoods children distribute ladles of water to passersby, while tables of food may be set up for the poor. This allows believers to symbolically compensate for the fact that Husayn was allowed to die hungry and thirsty while, at the same time, alleviating the thirst and hunger of the oppressed.

Supererogatory fasts are meritorious for all Muslims on any day when fasting is not specifically forbidden. The first and last Thursdays and the 13th, 14th, and 15th of each month are particularly auspicious, as are a number of other days during the year. It is reprehensible to single out Fridays or Saturdays for fasting, or to fast on Naw Rouz (New Year) or on the day preceding Ramadan. Fasting is forbidden on the first days of ʿId al-fitr and ʿId aladha. For Shiʿa fasting is also forbidden on the 9th of Muhurram, as on this day the enemies of Husayn fasted in preparation for the battle of Kerbala.

Holidays and Festivals

Shiʿa observe the major Islamic festivals of ʿId al-fitr and ʿId al-adha, as well as commemorating many events in the lives of the Imams. ʿId al-fitr is a three-day festival following the Ramadan fast and is celebrated to give thanks to God for providing the strength to complete the fast. It is marked with visiting, gift-giving and preparation, and exchange of favorite foods. Specially prepared sweet dishes are characteristic of the festival, giving it the popular name of Sweet Id. ʿId al-Adha, the feast of sacrifice, is a four-day public holiday occurring at the end of the pilgrimage to Mecca. It celebrates Abraham's complete obedience to God in being willing to sacrifice his son Ishmael, and God's dispensation in allowing Abraham to substitute a sacrificial ram. At public ceremonies the imam sacrifices a sheep for the community. Every Muslim who can afford it should sacrifice at home a goat, lamb, cow, or camel and share the meat with family and friends and with the poor.

ʿId al-Ghadir, held on the eighteenth day of the month of pilgrimage, is a Shiʿite feast instituted in 962

C.E. to commemorate the events of Ghadir Khumm, when Shiʿa believe that the Prophet designated ʿAli as his successor. This is not observed by Sunnis.

See also Fasting and Abstinence: Islam; Ramadan .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbas, Ali, ed. A Shi ʿite Encyclopedia. Available on the Internet at http:/www.al-Islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter7/3.html.

This section of the on-line encyclopedia provides minute detail on the variations in Ramadan fasting requirements among schools of Islamic jurisprudence.

Glasse, C. A Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1989.

Tabatabaʿi, Muhammad. Shi ʿite Islam. Translated by Seyyid

Hossain Nasr. New York: Albany State University Press, 1975.

Paul Fieldhouse