The Class System and Social Change

Sources

Pre-Islamic Society . Because resources were scarce and the food supply was not always guaranteed, and because they were always on the move Arab nomads (Bedu, or Bedouins) developed into tightly knit family units whose allegiance was to protect and defend each other against outsiders. The survival of the group depended on each individual, and the survival of the individual depended on the collective group. Living in a seemingly changeless landscape and having meager resources on which to subsist, tribesmen became socially conservative, valuing and following the traditions of their ancestors, which were passed down from generation to generation through folktales and poetry recitals around the campfire or at festivals. The most important of these ideals and values, collectively known as muruwwa, were hospitality and courage. Hospitality was necessary because of their environment, where life sometimes depended on the kindness of others. Courage was greatly valued because clansmen were expected to defend, at any time, their fellow tribesmen. Each tribe, large or small (and some could reach several thousands), became a state unto itself, following its own traditions and customs. Each was governed by an elected chief, called a sayyid, whose authority was limited by a tribal council, called a majlis, made up of the clan heads and patriarchs. Decisions were reached collectively. When it was decided to move, the tribe moved as a whole. Despite the nomadic tendency to be egalitarian and to value each other’s individuality, pre-Islamic society, whether nomadic or settled, came to be stratified. Tribal chiefs, clan heads, and patriarchs—the sayyids—were the leaders and could form alliances with their equals in other tribes. They become known as halif (allies), and thus, larger groups and tribal confederations were formed. When an alliance was made it was usually sealed by marriage, creating kinship or new blood ties. Generally the rank-and-file members of the tribe were freemen cooperating with each other for the collective good of the tribe. They constituted the fighters who went out on raids and were expected to defend the tribe against all attackers. As in many ancient societies, slaves formed the lowest rung of society. People usually became enslaved by being captured in battle and then sold (war slavery), or by losing one’s freedom because of inability to pay one’s debts (debt bondage). In much of the ancient world debt bondage was the most common form of slavery. In Arab society, unlike many others, however, these slaves were allowed to purchase their freedom. Usually a contract was drawn up between the master and his slave. When the provisions of the contract had been satisfied, the slave became a freedman and acquired a new social status, that of a mawla (plural: mawali). Though free and able to move up the social ladder, a mawla remained part of his master’s household. As in most patriarchal, male-dominated societies, women in pre-Islamic

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Arabia did not enjoy the same rights as men. Although women were legally free, they were considered subservient to men. A husband could repudiate or divorce his wife, but this right was not available to women. Most often they were denied a share of the family’s inheritance. Because of poverty, concern for family honor, and perhaps some ancient practice, some families went to the extreme measure of female infanticide, known as wa’d. On the whole, women were treated as property, but there were exceptions. Some women chose their own husbands and could stipulate certain conditions in their marriage contracts. Some were wealthy, owning and managing businesses and property, and even employing men.

Formation of New Tribes . When a tribe became too large for its food supply, a section split off and moved away, establishing itself as a new tribe or joining another. This process help to create alliances between tribes in far-flung parts of the Arabian peninsula, which were crucial in the absence of a central government that could enforce laws and ensure peace and security. In a few instances, tribesmen were able to settle down in one place and begin changing to a sedentary lifestyle. Such was the case with the tribe of Quraysh who settled in and around Makkah sometime around the middle of the fourth century C.E.

The Sacred City . By the fourth century, Makkah was already recognized as the foremost holy center in the western region of Arabia. The area of Makkah was considered sacred, or haram. Belief in sacred space and sacred time was

central to the religious beliefs of the nomads, and it was also important to some settled communities, including those in Yemen. Because everyone who visited them was assured of safety, sacred centers became places where trade was conducted. Travel from one sacred center to another could take place during the four months of the year designated as sacred. While nomads did not build temples in which to worship their gods, relying instead on more temporary or portable shrines, settled communities built great temples in cities across southern Arabia. Among other deities reminiscent of Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Greek gods, the southern Arabs worshiped the moon god al-Maqah. Temples to al-Maqah were endowed with rich land and other gifts, and temple officials became a powerful influence in society. Settled and nomad groups alike believed in a higher deity, Dahr (loosely translated as Time). In addition, there were Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians in many parts of the Arabian peninsula, including Makkah, which was located on the trade route between Yemen and Syria, not far from the Red Sea coast. It was also near the juncture of another trade route that connected with Iraq. In Makkah a water well, known as Zamzam, had attracted settlers since the distant past. The site was considered holy and protected, or baram. The Arabs believed that Abraham had built a house dedicated to the worship of God on the site, where he had come with his wife Hagar and son Ismail (Ishmael). This structure became known as the Ka’bah and eventually became the object of pilgrimage during the holy months—Muharram, Rajab, Dhu al-Qi’da, and Du al-Hijjah, the first, sixth, eleventh, and twelfth months, respectively—during which life and property became inviolable and strict taboos were enforced assuring the safety and security of pilgrims. Trade fairs and festivals, including horse racing and poetry recitals, were held during the pilgrimage months (especially at the nearby market fair of ‘Ukaz), and the Makkans traded with passing caravans as well as with surrounding communities. Makkan merchants grew in wealth and influence.

The Arrival of Islam . Few changes had taken place by the time the Prophet Muhammad appeared on the scene some two centuries after the Quraysh settled in Makkah, but these changes were significant. The states in southern Arabia were weaker than ever and their authority was limited. The Byzantines and the Sasanids, the two established imperial powers to the north, had been engaged in intermittent conflict with one another for nearly a century. This warfare not only weakened their armies and defenses but also disrupted their lines of communication with the Arabian peninsula so that their merchants were unable to reach the markets in the south. Their absence created room for merchants from various parts of Arabia, especially Makkah, to engage in commerce with merchants in the surrounding regions. Makkah merchants began to grow wealthier and more powerful than others, impacting the social structure in Makkah, hastening its breakdown. Tribal ideals and values became difficult to follow and enforce in a settled, urban environment. Kinship ties, though they never disappeared, became weaker as new identities, loyalties, and affiliations based on profession and wealth began to form. Thus, values based on kinship ties, such as hospitality and taking care of orphans and the poor, were not followed as before. The social structure in Makkah began to show cracks, and the whole population and the reputation of the city were bound to suffer if this state of affairs continued. When Muhammad began to preach Islam around 610, no central government with any meaningful strength existed in the whole of Arabia. Tribal fragmentation and conflict was the order of the day, and muruww ideals had been largely replaced by social relations oriented toward wealth and its accumulation through trade.

Prophethood . When the Prophet Muhammad began to preach Islam in the Makkan community, he singled out the social ills that had become common in Makkah, advising his townsmen to fear God almighty in their dealings with other members of society. To remind them of their social responsibility, Muhammad pointed out that orphans, widows, the poor, and the homeless were to be treated fairly and kindly. Makkans were asked to purify their souls before Judgment Day by giving alms to the needy. This social component was included in a religious message that preached the worship of one God, Allah, who is ever present, all powerful and eternal. One particular incident in Muhammad’s life illustrates the breakdown of the social structure in Makkah. According to tribal tradition, a clan leader had to offer protection to his clansmen and defend them whether he agreed with them or not. Sometime around 618, a change in the leadership of Muhammad’s clan brought to power an uncle who was opposed to Muhammad’s teachings. This new clan leader, instead of extending the customary familial protection, denounced his nephew and aligned himself with other merchants in opposition to the Prophet. Kinship ties were superseded by the business interests of the clan leader. The willingness of the Makkan leadership to boycott, ostracize, and even torture their own relatives signaled a serious breakdown of traditional kinship relations. The position of Muhammad and his followers in Makkah became precarious, so he looked elsewhere to continue his preaching. By 622 he was able to settle in Madinah, about 215 miles to the north of Makkah, at the invitation of its inhabitants, who pledged to protect him. This event is called the hijrah and it marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar (622 C.E. = 1 A.H.). Those Makkans who followed the prophet (about four hundred to five hundred from various clans) came to be known as the Muhajiru (Immigrants). The people in Madinah who welcomed the Prophet and his followers and became Muslims were known as the Ansar (Helpers).

Qur’anic Social Principles . In Madinah, Muhammad was able to put into practice the Qur’anic principles, and there the Qur’anic message was expressed in its political and social dimensions. Apart from establishing Islam with its five pillars of the faith in Madinah, Muhammad carried out far-reaching social reforms. Realizing that the tribe was losing effectiveness as a social and political unit and was less responsive to the rapid changes taking place around it, the Prophet introduced the concept of the ummah, a community where belief in Allah and the Prophet was the basis of identification and solidarity. Replacing the tribe, the ummah became a social and political unit that could be easily expanded since the basis of inclusion was belief in God, not kinship relations. To cement the idea that belief in God was the basis of inclusion, the Prophet introduced the practice of fraternization, pairing as brothers each person of the Muhajirun with one from the Ansar. During the last years of his life, the Prophet proclaimed that all Muslims are brethren, that they should protect and not wrong each other. Repeatedly during confrontations between the Muslims and their enemies, the ummah proved to be an enduring institution. Indeed, the Muslim ummah will continue to exist as long as there are Muslims and keep expanding as long as there are more people accepting Islam.

The Status of Women . Another important area of social reform under Islam was in rules pertaining to the position of women, marriage, and divorce. On the whole, through teachings of the Prophet that were reinforced by Qur’anic verse, Islam raised the status of women and introduced legal guarantees for their improved conditions. Men and women were placed on equal footing before Allah spiritually and in their duties and obligations as Muslims. A woman had to be consulted before she could be married and given a dowry that was hers alone, to dispose of as she chose. A woman was given the right to a specific share of the family inheritance, which was regarded as her God-given portion. Among other advances that elevated her position in society, she had the right to own, buy, and sell property and to manage her own business. As revealed in the Qur’an, the Prophet emphasized that the powerful must protect the weak, that widows and orphans must be provided for, and that honesty, justice, and equity should prevail in order to cure the ills of society: “And the believers, men and women, are protecting friends one of another, they enjoin the right and forbid the wrong, and they establish worship and they pay the poor-due, and they obey Allah and His messenger. As for these, Allah will have mercy on them. Lo! Allah is Mighty, Wise” (Surah al-Tauba, v. 72).

Slavery . Islam considered that the natural state of individuals was one of being born in a state of freedom. Yet, Islam did not abolish slavery outright; it mitigated its conditions and created many situations in which a slave could earn freedom. If a war captive converted to Islam, for example, he or she should be immediately set free. If a

slave owner missed a prayer or broke his fast during the holy month of Ramadan, then he was to expiate the sin by setting slaves free. Those who owned slaves were admonished to free them as an act of sadaqa (charity), and obligatory alms could be spent for the liberation of slaves. A slave woman who gave birth was to be freed and married. Charitable acts were different from zakat (alms giving), which became one of the five pillars of Islam. While sadaqa was voluntary, zakat was a divine requirement incumbent on every Muslim. In earlier periods the amount was set at nearly 2.5 percent of the individual’s wealth and came to constitute the genesis of the central treasury of the Islamic state, called Bayt al Mai. The Qur’an stipulated that the recipients of the proceeds of the zakat should be the homeless, wayfarers, the widows, orphans, and the poor. The rest of the money was to be spent in “God’s way.” As Muslim society grew, especially after its expansion beyond the Arabian peninsula, the state no longer engaged in the collection and distribution of the zakat. Charity once again became an individual responsibility, and it became traditional practice that a wealthy family distributed alms discretely to needy households in its neighborhood just before major Islamic holidays, such as the feast days at the end of Ramadan.

Expansion of the Muslim State . This ideal, egalitarian Islamic society changed soon after the death of the Prophet and the commencement of Muslim expansion outside the Arabian peninsula in 632. Arab Muslim troops quickly defeated Byzantine and Sasanid armies and overran Syria, Iran, and Egypt—the area that, along the Arabian peninsula, came to constitute the core of Islamic lands. After taking over all the land that had been under the control of the defunct Sasanid Empire in Iran, Muslim armies continued to expand eastward, taking cities such as Samarqand and Bukhara. They also moved westward, taking over northern Africa and most of the Iberian peninsula and then crossing the Pyrenees in southern France. When in 732 Charles Martel (Charlemagne’s grandfather) stopped the Muslim advance at Tours, the Muslims had already established—after only a century of expansion—the largest land-based empire humanity had known. The success of the Muslim military campaigns was not without several social consequences. Significant and profound changes led to the emergence of a new society.

The People of the Book . First, inhabitants of the conquered territories were adherents of various Jewish and Christian sects. These followers of monotheistic religions were considered “the People of the Book,” followers of divinely revealed books (the Torah and the Evangelium). According to treaties and other agreements reached between the Muslims and the inhabitants of various areas, Jews and Christians (regardless of sect) were given the status of dhimmis and came to be known as the Protected People. Although dhimmis did not necessarily constitute a social class at first, they soon developed into one as the new society continued to take shape. Dhimmis, whether Christians or Jews, were economically diversified, as demonstrated by the graduated taxation they were required to pay; it ranged from four gold dinars for the wealthy to one dinar for the less-well-to-do. (The word dinar derives from the Greek word dinarius). Women, children, the infirm, the old, priests, and monks were exempted from taxation. The economically diverse People of the Book lived either in rural areas as peasants, farmers, or landlords or urban communities, where they were artisans, craftsmen, and merchants, as well as professionals such as physicians and government bureaucrats. In Persia, Zoroastrians, followers of Zoroaster (or Zarathustra), were also given the status of People of the Book.

Urbanization . The expansion of territory under Arab/ Muslim rule resulted in an unprecedented level of urbanization in the Near East, as one city after another was built in newly won territories. Garrison cities, built to house the fighters and their families and to make the conquests more permanent and secure, were strategically located close to water supplies and trade routes. Some garrison cities became provincial capitals and later played significant roles in the formation of Islamic civilization. Some, such as Basrah, Cairo, Baghdad, and Fez, continue to flourish today. The first garrison cities to be established were Kufah and Basrah in Iraq and Fustat (later Cairo) in Egypt. After a large area was designated as a public square and the main thoroughfares were marked, the land was distributed to Muslim fighters according to tribal affiliations and alliances. In the initial phases of settlement, the houses were makeshift and temporary, but eventually clay and bricks were used to build permanent structures. Tribal divisions were also transformed into the administratively convenient quarters of the city, or districts for various resident groups.

Since these cities quickly became the most important in the provinces, they also became seats of administration. A governor, who was usually the army commander, was appointed by the khalifah (whether in Madinah or later in Damascus or Baghdad). The governor was usually assisted by a growing number of officials, including a treasurer and various heads of diwans (bureaus), who kept track of taxation and other sources of revenue as well as payments to the military and other officials. At first officials were drawn from the local population, and records were kept in the local language or that of the former imperial government, Persian or Greek. Later, as the spread of Arabic literacy increased, records were kept in Arabic as a matter of policy. As the populations of these towns continued to increase, open areas of land were built up. Although cities were initially laid out in a grid pattern, as time passed the pattern of streets and alleyways grew in complexity, becoming more like a maze. This unprecedented urbanization was the basis of Islamic civilization. Even though the population was made up of fighters (jund) they were usually mobilized only about four or five months of each year. When these fighters were at home, they engaged in professions or arti-sanal activity. Merchants benefited the most from the growth of the cities. With growing opportunities for trade and employment, cities also became magnets for newly converted Muslims and for local Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians (the predominant religious group in Persia). Gradually, Muslim cities became cosmopolitan centers in which various cultural and religious traditions interacted and influenced each other.

Growth of an Intellectual Class . A notable consequence of this interaction was the beginning of an elaboration of Islamic theology. Faced with established religious traditions, Muslims began to ask theological questions that had been asked in other monotheistic religions, such as those pertaining to free will and predestination, the position of man in relation to God, and the nature of Heaven and Hell. Challenged by the traumatic events of the First Civil War (656–661), Muslims sought answers to questions regarding the nature of authority, the community, and human responsibility. When Muslims debated Christians and Jews, who contemplated those very issues, they found that they needed “intellectual tools” to help them respond to such vexing problems. Muslims began to resort to Greek philosophy, and many of the works of Aristotle and Plato, among others, were translated into Arabic. The foremost translator was Hunain ibn Ishaq, who set the standards for accuracy and thoroughness. Eventually, a special educated class of Muslims began to appear. Known collectively as ulama (learned scholars), they studied a variety of subjects, including grammar, the Qur’an, hadith (the Prophet’s sayings), biography, history, and geography. Later, hard sciences such as medicine, mathematics, alchemy, optics, and mechanics were added to the list of scholarly disciplines, especially after Greek, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit books on these subjects were translated into Arabic. Astronomy was a particularly relevant science for Muslims, and they excelled in

it. Many observatories were built throughout the Islamic world. Astronomy was used to locate the direction of Mak-kah (so that Muslims could face it during prayer), to predict the occurrence of the new moon for accurately determining the beginnings of the lunar months in the Muslim calendar (especially for pinpointing the start and end of fasting in the holy month of Ramadan), and to determine the times of prayer. Members of the ulama’ class were also engaged in the study of Islamic law. At first scholars met in the corners or by the pillars of a masjid (mosque), forming a circle around a teacher. These groups began to create what might be called schools of thought.

Charitable Foundations . In time, caliphs, government officials, and wealthy Muslims began to endow special places for the education of the ulama These endowments—called waqf-—were established not only for the building and upkeep of schools (called madrasahs) but also to provide salaries for the teachers and to cover books and other expenses for students. Some wealthy Muslims established waqfs for schools in several cities. Some of these madrasahs began to teach specific subjects or a particular approach to Islamic law. The best-known school was the Madrasah Nizamiyya, established by the Saljuk wazir Nizam-i-Mulk in Baghdad. Waqfs allowed for the building of several madrasahs in each of the major cities, and education became a well-respected endeavor among Muslims, leading to a whole new activity and a new genre of literature: traveling in search of knowledge and writing an account of one’s journey. Several travelers—including Nasri-Khusro, Ibn

Jubayr, and the noteworthy Ibn Battuta—left accounts of their travel throughout the Islamic world.

Social Status . As the pursuit of knowledge became a respected endeavor in Muslim society, the ulama became a socially respected class whose members were generally assured of upward mobility. As a socially desirable group, they could form alliances, either through marriage or business partnerships, with wealthy families, whether merchants or landowners. Having gained wealth and influence, these ulama’ were often artisans, merchants, and urban and rural landlords as well.

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