Economic Activity: Cultivation and Resources

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Economic Activity: Cultivation and Resources

Agriculture. Agricultural production formed the foundation of the entire Roman economy. Most ancient historians even believe that agriculture all but eclipsed other economic activity. Certainly Roman tradition favored such a view. The most respectable wealth was was based on property and derived from farming. On the other hand, the Romans knew very well that farming did not generate the largest fortunes. Still, agriculture provided an established, stable, and profitable economic base.

Polyculture. Three agricultural products dominated trade and have been labeled the “Mediterranean Triad”: grain, wine, and olive oil. The demand for grain was constant and estate owners considered it a dependable investment. Grapevines represented a riskier market, but with a higher potential return. More importantly, grapevines and olive trees have different soil requirements and harvest times from grains, so farmers could grow all three different crops on the same farmland. “Polyculture” refers to farming the triad in this way. This efficient use of arable land provided a reliable source of food, which in turn permitted more permanent settlements. The development of this polyculture took place over several thousand years in prehistoric times, and scholars believe it was the key ingredient allowing civilization to flourish around the Mediterranean Sea. Consequently, by the time of the Romans, polyculture had a long and venerable history of providing the most basic needs for survival and growth, which may explain why the Romans esteemed farming so highly. In turn, the value and prestige associated with farmland meant that land throughout Italy in particular was parceled and farmed much more thoroughly than in modern times. Many small and large farms filled out all the land. The value of crops beyond the Mediterranean Triad is more difficult to determine, but the elder Cato once suggested a list of nine farming prospects in order of desirability: grapevines, irrigated gardens, willow, olives, grazing meadows, grain, timber, orchard trees, and nuts.

Ranch and Farm Animals. The life of a shepherd in particular had a literary tradition of being peaceful and idyllic. Few who idolized the shepherd’s life actually lived it, however, or would have been willing to do so. Thieves and rustlers were problems for herders of all sorts, the work was always demanding, and the profits perhaps not so promising. Romans rarely discussed the reality of raising animals for meat and other by-products, so it is difficult to know the scale or details about this activity. Archaeological evidence indicates that Romans throughout the empire fattened and slaughtered cattle, pigs, and sheep. Meat production was strong enough to support a fairly complex industry in butchery. Cases in Roman antiquity of raising poultry successfully, including thrushes and peahens have been known. Cows and goats could be kept not only for their milk, but also for the production of cheese, which was more easily stored and transported than fresh milk (and so had broader economic advantages). The Romans did not limit the exploitation of animals to edible products. The ever-increasing population of the Roman Empire meant a constant need for huge amounts of wool for clothing and leather for a variety of implements (for example, for much of a soldier’s equipment), needs met by ranch farmers throughout the empire and beyond.

Working on the Farm. While the Romans held up the farmer’s life as something of an ideal, the reality of practice varied. Some small farm owners worked their own land, though hired help must always have been a component. Especially as Rome conquered Italy, small farms struggled against much larger and better-organized plantations. Handbooks about how to manage such plantations survive, and these provide the most detailed knowledge about work on farms. In such circumstances, slaves did most of the physical labor. Farming, as always, was demanding labor. Clearing, planting, and maintaining land, then harvesting, processing, and storing crops all require constant, intense work. Slaves in urban households might consider work in the farm fields as banishment or punishment.

Fishing and Fish Farming. The Mediterranean region does not provide a consistent and reliable source of fish. Since fish provided an excellent source of protein in the ancient Mediterranean diet, it was worthwhile to stockpile fish as much as possible, so an industry in salting fish to preserve

and transport them flourished. Another strong demand supported the fish industry: one of the most popular ingredients in many dishes was garum, a fish sauce (perhaps some-what similar to modern Worcestershire sauce). In fact, cities with or near supplies of fish are known to have had factories devoted to the production of garum. This constant demand for fish made it possible to support fish farming in large tanks, dams, and channels around the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The most desirable fish, however, came from open sea fishing, but the dangers and difficulty of this enterprise meant such fish, especially fresh, were a quite expensive luxury.

Forests and Timber. As with raising animals, only scattered information is known about how the Romans harvested trees and to what extent. The wood required for ships and buildings alone meant a huge, consistent need for lumber and would have called for timbers of particular types, sizes, and quality. Archaeological evidence indicates that the Romans planted, fenced, and managed forested land to produce the wood necessary. Whenever possible, of course, Romans would acquire wood from nearby forests rather than have to transport heavy timbers over long distances, and so forestry remained mostly a local industry. In some cases, clearing forests could have motives other than economic ones. For example, Roman armies would clear forests for military purposes and use the wood to build their camp. Forests could also support a neighboring industry. There is evidence that in Roman Britain, pottery industries were set up near woods so as to be closer to their primary source of fuel, even if it meant transporting their finished products greater distances.

Mining. Italy itself provided relatively little metal to be mined. As the Romans conquered and absorbed their rivals around the Mediterranean, they took control of many mining operations. Mining could be extremely lucrative since valuable metals such as gold and silver not only were valuable in themselves but acted as the measure for most economic exchange. Less valuable metals were still in great demand for metalworking across the empire. On the other hand, mining itself was expensive, because it required huge numbers of laborers and a great many skilled workers. The Romans did not concentrate as much on starting new mines as expanding already operational ones. New sources of ore, when found, tended to be located by noticing traces of veins on the surface. The Romans would exploit a mining site by employing three basic methods, in order of increasing cost. First, ore discovered in gravel or sediment was uncovered by flushing the looser materials away with water. Nearby waterways could be diverted to wash away the lighter elements and leave the heavier, desirable metals and ores to be pulled up (similar to “panning” for gold). Next came “opencast” mining, which involved digging huge pits and clearing the necessary area to reach the desired metal. Although the Romans did not have modern explosives for blasting, they did have effective ways of clearing areas. They could, for example, set an area on fire and quickly flood it with cold water, causing rocks and hills to explode in the sudden temperature shift. Workers could then clear and dig out the rubble. The final and most-expensive method was shaft mining. Dropping shafts required intensive and hazardous labor along with excellent engineering. Nonetheless, Roman mine shafts deeper than one thousand feet have been discovered. As well as digging and maintaining the shafts themselves, mining would often involve draining subterranean water, for which the Romans devised and used an array of tools and techniques. Especially at this last stage, mining became extremely hazardous work for the miners (as it is in modern mines) and mines earned a comparably notorious reputation. Mine owners and supervisors were known to have used recalcitrant slaves, forced labor, and criminals for the most dangerous work. On the other hand, the enormous profits involved also supported an entire local economy around the mine. Workers had to be fed, clothed, cared for, and sheltered during their work. The distances some men traveled to work at a mine may suggest the wages were high enough to attract workers. Many skilled workers and engineers were always involved. Some records of lease agreements and labor contracts that indicate the complexity of these arrangements and even show that there were safety regulations have survived. The enormity of the work, the complexity of the organization, and the value of the projects meant that many mines were state owned and operated, but there always remained some private individuals who owned and ran mines.