Horses and Carriages

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Horses and Carriages

Horse Raising. Rough terrain and inadequate pasture lands limited horse raising in ancient China. However, the industry developed steadily in the seventh and eighth centuries. At the beginning of the Tang dynasty (618-907) the government owned a total of about 5,000 horses. Before long, public stud farms were established, soon becoming so successful that by the middle of the seventh century the Tang government had 700,000 horses. This figure fell to 240,000 by 713. Within twelve years government-operated farms had 400,000 horses because of a revival in breeding and purchases from the nomadic people of the steppes. Private breeding developed in North China, especially in eastern Gansu, Shenxi, and Shaanxi, because the government decreed that all militiamen, most of whom belonged to great noble families, should have their own mounts. In the first half of the eighth century, members of the imperial family, high officials, and generals owned herds of horses, oxen, sheep, and camels. A horse market was established in 727 at Yinchuan in northwest China.

Tibetan Invasion. In 763 the Tibetans invaded Tang China, and most of the horses on the public stud farms in the Northwest were captured or destroyed. After this point the Tang government had to rely on purchases from private citizens and nomads, and it attempted unsuccessfully in 817-820 to establish state stud farms in the agricultural regions of Shared, Henan, and northern Hebei after occupying the lands of the peasants. Since the Tang military depended heavily on cavalry, the late empire was not able to protect its territories against the invasions of the mountaineers and nomads.

Use of Horses. In Tang times only government officials or traders who were rich enough to maintain their own stables used horses. For the everyday local distribution of large essential

commodities, transport relied, if not on water, then on the mule or the oxcart. Since the horse had greater prestige than the donkey, all officials were required to ride on horseback. In the Tang dynasty, artisans, merchants, peasants, and Buddhist and Daoist monks could not ride on horseback. In the Yuan era (1279-1368) the families of prostitutes were prohibited from riding on horseback. However, some officials still preferred to ride donkeys to their offices. Regarding this as undignified, Ming Emperor Taizu decreed that the government should provide officials with horses so that the difference between the officials and the commoners could be identified.

Sedan Chairs. Sedan chairs were not often used in ancient China. In Tang and Song (960-1279) times the sedan chairs of aristocrats and high ministers were only taken out during ceremonies. For everyday activities, horses were ridden, and even the high-ranking officials, such as the prime minister, had to observe this regulation. In 840 the Tang emperor decreed that all officials in the central government could ride in sedan chairs if they were sick. During the Song dynasty more opportunities arose by which the elite could use this conveyance. In the capital, where the emperor lived, high officials and nobles of the imperial family who were too old to ride horses were allowed to use sedan chairs. This regulation was enforced until the Song court moved to the South. After that point the emperor allowed all officials to ride in sedan chairs because the stone roads in the cities were too slippery for horses. During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) only officials of the third rank and above could ride in sedan chairs in the capital, while those of the fourth rank and below could ride horses. In the provinces, bureaucrats and military officers of all ranks had to use horses.

Ordinary People. In the Tang era the aged mothers and wives of low-ranking officials and traders could ride in a rushmat-covered vehicle or in a simple bamboo chair without cover or decoration. Ordinary people of the Song period had oxcarts and bamboo chairs, while women used sedan chairs. The commoners of the Yuan dynasty had permission to use sedan chairs if they were old or sick.

Status. People belonging to different classes were allowed to ride in sedan chairs, carriages, and on horseback, but the structure, color, and ornamentation of the vehicle or the accessories of the horse varied in line with the status of the rider. In Song times only officials of the third rank and above in the capital and all officials in the provinces could hang a tassel on their horses. In Ming times, however, black tassels could be used by officials and commoners.

Encounters. During the imperial era (617-1644), whenever two people of different ranks met, the inferior was required to give way before the superior. When ordi-nary people saw an aristocrat or official coming, they had to halt and stand at the edge of the road to let him and his attendants pass. Each dynasty had its own laws as to the manner in which a lower official should meet a higher one. Some regulations allowed them to share the same road, some asked the lower official to give way by riding along the side of the road or by halting, and some required them to take an alternative route so as to prevent an encounter. According to Tang, Song, and Ming laws, all violators would be punished with fifty strokes.

Attendants. Each government bureaucrat had a set number of attendants according to his rank. The attendants usually rode in front of the official, clearing the way. Wives of the elite had the same privileges as their husbands when they traveled. The commoner was allowed to have one or two servants following behind him. Since silk parasols indicated elite status, ordinary people could not use them and were allowed to carry only rain umbrellas made of oiled paper.