Barundi

ETHNONYMS: Rundi. The Barundi are culturally and linguistically closely related to other peoples of the so-called Great Lakes region in East Central Africa, especially the people of Rwanda and the Baha of Tanzania. Most Barundi live in the mountainous areas of Burundi.

Orientation

Identification and Location. The present-day Republic of Burundi is the successor state of the kingdom of Burundi, formerly also called Urundi. The great majority of its inhabitants are Barundi who speak Kirundi. The Barundi are culturally and linguistically homogeneous, though there are some regional differences.

Burundi is part of the so-called Great Lakes region in East Central Africa, which also includes large parts of Uganda and Tanzania, Rwanda, and a small area in the Republic of Congo.

Most of the territory of Burundi consists of mountainous highlands with a height of up to 9,840 feet (3,000 meters). Most of the land is cultivated or used for grazing. There are forests on some mountaintops in the western region of the country.

Demography. Burundi has one of the highest population densities in Africa. Its population was estimated in 1998 at about 6 million. It has been estimated that 80 to 85 percent of the Barundi are Hutu, with the rest being Tutsi and a very small minority of Twa.

Linguistic Affiliation. The language spoken in Burundi is Kirundi, a Bantu tone language that is closely related to other languages in the Great Lakes region A few dialectical differences exist, especially in peripheral areas such as the Imbo and Kumosso regions. French is used in educated circles and in government publications.

History and Cultural Relations

The region was inhabited long before the Christian era, and agriculture and cattle husbandry were practiced before that time. Solid historical evidence dates from the founding of the dynasty of the Baganwa clan at the end of the seventeenth century. Before that time many small kingdoms and chieftainships existed, but it was the first king (umwami ) of the dynasty, who was known as Ntare Rushatsi, who united large parts of the territory. The kings of the dynasty follow a cycle of four names given in a fixed succession: Ntare, Mutaga, Mwezi, and Mwambutsa.

The kingdom of Burundi fought many wars with its neighbors including the precursors of present-day Rwanda. It also faced many attacks from Arab slave traders that were repulsed.

Under the reign of King Ntare II Rugamba the geographic extent of the kingdom was doubled and approached the current size. This king placed his sons as chiefs in the conquered territories and established the practice of nominating the princes (Ganwa ) as territorial chiefs.

At the end of the nineteenth century Burundi became part of German East Africa, but after World War I it was combined with Rwanda to form, under Belgian administration, the territory of Ruanda-Urundi under the control of the League of Nations and later the United Nations. Its boundaries, with some exceptions, coincided with those in precolonial times.

In 1962 Burundi was declared independent as a kingdom separate from Rwanda under Mwambutsa II as mwami, as the king was called in Kirundi. This king, who had reigned since 1915 under Belgian supervision, stayed in power for only a few years after independence. He was dethroned in 1966 by his son, Ntare III, who held the throne for only three months and was later executed. In 1968 Burundi became a republic after a military coup by Tutsi officers. Its first president was Colonel Michel Micombero, who established a dictatorial regime.

After many years of Tutsi-dominated government a short democratic period began during which a Hutu president was elected. This president, Melchior Ndadaye, was killed in 1993, shortly after his election. Since that time a military regime has governed, with Colonel Pierre Buyayo as president. These events led to military uprisings by Hutu rebels. Burundi is in a state of endemic civil war in which up to 200,000 people have been killed.

Settlements

The Barundi are still a rural people, with about 90 percent of the labor force engaged in agriculture. The only urban center is Bujumbura, the capital, with 340,000 inhabitants There are a few commercial and administrative centers, such as Gitega and Muramvya, but they are of minor significance. Owing to wartime conditions that have led to extensive population movement, exact population figures are not available.

The Barundi have never lived in villages. The only exceptions were the royal residences, which had a few hundred nobles, functionaries, warriors, servants, and workers, many of whom were temporary residents. The majority of the Barundi lived in kraals spread over the hills. This type of kraal, or urugo, was composed of the members of a local patrilineal lineage and their wives, children, and dependents. The head of the kraal was a father or grandfather. Each individual household had its own house, granary, and fields.

The kraal was surrounded by an enclosure of branches within which the granaries and spirit huts were built and the cattle were kept during the night. The houses were of the beehive style, built of wooden branches and covered with grass.

On a higher level of organization people formed a hillside community called umusozi under the command of a representative of the chief.

Economy

Subsistence. The economy of Burundi is still largely a subsistence economy, although most farmers cultivate coffee for exportation. The main food crops are beans, sweet potatoes, sorghum, maize, manioc, and bananas. Bananas are used mainly for brewing beer, which is an important means of social communication. Fields are cultivated with hoes, the main agricultural instrument besides the banana sickle. Most meals are vegetarian; meat and milk are rarely available.

In precolonial times the valleys were not cultivated, but Belgian colonial officers forced the Barundi to reclaim and cultivate them.

Cattle husbandry is important, and in some areas there is an agropastoral economy in which the use of cattle dung is essential. Beside cows, goats and sheep are kept; the sheep were used mostly for ritual purposes. In the past only the meat and blood of cattle were consumed, but today the meat of goats and chicken is eaten. Cattle owners drank the milk of their cows and used butter as an ointment.

Traditionally, markets were unknown, but since colonial times they have become not only centers of economic activity but also social meeting places. At markets people sell and buy small surpluses from their agricultural activities and products of their own making, especially pots, baskets, and mats. Western products such as cigarettes, soap, iron hoes, electric lamps, and knives are sold.

Commercial Activities. In the past commercial activities were restricted to barter with surrounding regions, mostly involving cattle, salt, and hoes. No money was used, but iron hoes served this function to some extent. Itinerant merchants called abayangayanga, mostly from peripheral regions, were involved. Later Arab and Swahili traders played an important role in the importation and distribution of Western goods and had shops in marketplaces. The use of money has been accepted for a long time, but transactions take place on a modest scale.

Industrial Arts. In the past there were several kinds of specialists, including potters, blacksmiths, salt makers, and makers of wooden utensils. Many of these trades have disappeared because of the importation of Western products, but people still make mats, pots, pestles, and baskets. Burundi had no tradition of making of wooden sculptures or masks, though woodworking is done today for sales to tourists. Formerly people wore locally made bark cloth, but this material has been replaced by manufactured textiles.

Trade. Burundi takes part in international trade on a very modest scale. Coffee is the main export, accounting for almost 90 percent of total exports, with tea and cotton occupying a secondary place.

Division of Labor. Men and women work in the fields, but heavier jobs such as cutting trees and constructing houses are mainly male activities. Milking and the herding of cattle are done by men and boys, while cooking and housework are considered tasks for women. The making of earthenware pots (mostly done by the Twa), baskets, and mats is a female activity, but the working of iron and the making of wooden articles are done by men.

Land Tenure. In principle the mwami was considered the proprietor of all the land in his kingdom. His land rights often were delegated to lower officials, especially chiefs. He and his chiefs could distribute lands to reward dignitaries, servants, and followers and could evict people from their land, though this happened only rarely. Land rights were held by the heads of individual households, but after the death of a landholders those rights returned to the lineage.

Many arrangements existed, from different forms of long-term leases to different kinds of servants to the temporary rental of land. The state has taken over the rights of kings and chiefs and has established Western forms of individual ownership. There is not widespread land ownership.

Kinship

Kin Groups and Descent. The term umuryango usually is translated as clan or lineage in the sense of the patrilineal descendants of a common male ancestor. There are more than 200 imiryango (the plural of umuryango), which are spread across the country. In most cases the name of the ancestor is not known, and many people with the same clan name do not know each other. A person's social position was determined largely by membership of a clan. Many functions at the royal courts had to be fulfilled by members of particular clans. For instance, only members of highly placed Tutsi clans were allowed to marry members of the royal family or milk the cows of the royal herds. Several Hutu families played important roles as ritualists.

The use of the term umuryango depends on the situation. In a local setting it may mean the local group of descendants of a known ancestor or all the people living in a kraal, including neighbors.

Kinship Terminology. Kinship terminology reflects the structure of Burundi society, as can be seen in the equivalence of terms for members of one's own patrilineage and one's mother's patrilineage and the distinction made between cross cousins with whom a marriage is allowed and parallel cousins between whom marriage is interdicted. The special terms for mother's brother and father's sister reflect the special relationship with those relatives.

Marriage and Family

Marriage. All Barundi are expected to marry and have children. No marriage can occur without the family of the bridegroom handing over a substantial marriage gift (inkwano ). Besides this main gift, which once consisted of one or more cows or hoes and today is usually money, many gifts are given and returned. These gifts are presented during the negotiations before the wedding and also are given later, especially after the birth of a baby. At all these occasions many kinsmen and friends offer pots of banana or sorghum beer and food. Without inkwano a couple cannot be considered married or have legitimate children. This is very important because the expressed aim of marriage is to have children. Birth control is met with heavy opposition.

Formerly marriage between cross cousins was allowed, but today people prefer to marry partners of their own choice. There are several rules of avoidance, especially involving a man and his mother-in-law, who are not supposed to visit or to speak with each other.

Domestic Unit. The most important domestic unit in daily life is the local community of a patrilineage living in one kraal, urugo, including wives and other dependents. The inhabitants of a kraal eat and work together.

It is a common situation for a grandfather to live with his children and grandchildren in one kraal. In a polygynous situation, which is rare today, each woman has her own household. In the case of the king and the princes, the wives had their own kraals.

Traditionally, the father was the undisputed master of the house, but wives had great influence in the control on food resources. Men cared for the cattle and did the heavy work in cultivating, cutting trees, and constructing houses. Women fetched water, cooked, did the washing, and did most of the cultivation.

At ceremonial occasions such as weddings men were the official representatives of the household. Most men were seated outside where the official speeches were given; women remained in the house or in private places in the kraal.

Since 1980 marriages are supposed to be done only according to the regulations of a new civil code largely based on French/Belgian/Congolese examples but also incorporating elements of Burundian traditional law.

Inheritance. In principle one of the sons of a deceased man is designated as the principal heir and receives the parental authority (ubugabo ). During the lifetime of their father married men received part of his land or were supposed to be installed in it by him. Women did not inherit from their fathers but were given personal possessions from their mothers. In polygynous marriages the deceased's property went to the households of his spouses.

Socialization. Children are required to show unconditional obedience to their parents, especially their fathers, and to other adults. They start early in helping the same-sex parent. No rites of initiation existed in Burundi. The children of princes and nobles were taught to behave in a dignified and reserved manner and learned military valor, dancing, and singing.

Sociopolitical Organization

Social Organization. In the past social status was determined largely by a person's membership in a particular clan and the function the members of that clan fulfilled at the royal and princely courts. Noble functions were performed by judges, ritual experts, makers of royal drums, milkers at the courts, diviners, and rainmakers. Humble functions were performed by cultivators, watchmen, and collectors of cow dung. Status also was determined by the personal merits and riches of particular persons as counselors, judges, and warriors of the king and the princes.

It has been suggested that only two ethnic groups (ethnies in French), Tutsi and Hutu, are involved in the ethnic conflict. However, when the Barundi refer to ubwoko/amoko (race, family, kind, species, sort), they distinguish between at least five: Ganwa, Tutsi-abanyaruguru (nobles), Tutsi/Hima (lower-status Tutsi), Hutu, and Twa. Although the opposition between these groups has been simplified by conflict involving only the Tutsi and Hutu, the older distinctions have not been forgotten and both groups are internally divided. Tutsi and Hutu share the same language and culture.

Despite suggestions that Roman Catholic missionaries and the colonial administration fostered the distinction between Hutu and Tutsi, that division dates back to precolonial times. Clear physical differences exist ideotypicaly associated with the tall and slender Tutsi, the sturdy short Hutu, and the dwarflike Twa.

These physical differences led to the elaboration of the Hamitic theory, according to which Burundi and other kingdoms in the region originally were inhabited by a pygmoid group of hunters and food collectors, the Batwa, followed by a much more numerous group of cultivators, the Hutu. Then, a few centuries ago, the Tutsi entered the country and subjugated both Hutu and Twa. The Tutsi were said to come from a country to the north, such as Ethiopia, and to be of socalled Hamitic origin. They brought with them, along with cattle, the institution of kingship. The colonial authorities and the missions considered the Ganwa/Tutsi to be natural leaders and placed them in high positions.

Critics of the Hamitic theory point out that there is no proof of a massive influx of pastoral people. Instead, linguistic and archaeological evidence indicates that groups with different origins have lived together in the region for a very long time. For millennia agriculture and animal husbandry have been known, as well as several forms of leadership associated with the kind of rituals found in the later kingdoms.

In more recent times relations between Tutsi and Hutu certainly have changed. Some historians maintain that these relations were once peaceful. Power was in the hands of the ruling royal family, the Ganwa, with the majority of the Tutsi in the same inferior position as most of the Hutu. There were also Hutu, mostly in ritual positions, at the head of important domains. According to other interpretations, relations between Tutsi and Hutu have always been strained. Although the highest positions were reserved for the Ganwa, the Tutsi were the most privileged, partly because they could intermarry with the Ganwa. The Tutsi were in general the richest in cattle and had many Hutu in their service. Today these and other interpretations are used as ideological arguments.

Political Organization. Until 1966 Burundi was a kingdom headed by sacred king called umwami. The king was supposed to have supernatural characteristics and guaranteed the well-being of men, animals, and crops. The burial places of the kings were holy places, cared for by corporations of ritual guardians. At the court and in several places in the kingdoms ritual domains were headed by ritual experts who played special roles during the annual national ritual in which the king inaugurated the new planting season for sorghum. All chiefs and representatives from all segments of the population were supposed to be present and pay their respects to their sovereign. The main symbols of kingship were the royal drums, religious objects made and cared for by special corporations of ritual experts.

The king had many residences and domains with pastures and farmland that employed many servants, milkers, farmhands, and other workers. Each of the king's wives lived in her own residence and administrated it as his representative. The most important of the queens was the queen-mother, who had much power and influence.

Besides what was produced by the workers on the domains, the subjects of the king had to deliver agricultural and industrial products such as sorghum, beer, honey, salt, pestles, hoes, mats, weapons, and ornaments.

The king was involved in a constant process of receiving and giving cattle and owned herds of a special long-horned variety cared for by specially selected milkers who had to observe many restrictions. Some of his herds were cared for by special herders who mixed the royal cattle with their own cows to protect them against the seizure by chiefs.

The king had an army of young men armed with bows, spears, and shields but was also supposed to be supported by the armies of his chiefs in wartime. Most of the kings of Burundi have been involved in wars with their neighbors for conquest or defense.

The king was assisted in the administration of the kingdom by members of the royal lineage, the abaganwa, who ruled independently in their territories as long as they respected his sovereignty. They had their own armies, collected their own tributes, and had their own functionaries and workers. They also acted as judges assisted by a board of wise men, abashingantahe.

Not all the subjects living in the territory of a chief were subjected to his authority. Besides subjects who were inhabitants of a royal domain lying within the limits of the chiefdom there were subjects who could be considered direct clients of the kings. Also, a chief could assign parts of his territory to other abaganwa, such as his sons, to administer those regions in his name.

The ivyariho (singular icariho ), who acted as deputies, were men with little power and authority, both Hutu and Tutsi. They controlled the collection of taxes and the work done at the residences of the chiefs. Their field of activity was limited to the level of a hillside or part of it.

The royal domains also were administered by chiefs who were not Ganwa but had high prestige. This function was abolished in colonial times when the Belgians introduced a simplified hierarchical system in which, besides the king, the chiefs (chefs ) acted as the heads of the chefferies, assisted by sous-chefs/abatware, most of whom were princes or Tutsi.

The political system of Burundi has been characterized as feudal because of the institution of the ubugabire, a patron-client relationship. According to the rules of this institution, the patron (shebuja ) handed a gift in the form of a cow or land to a man of lower status who thus became his client. The patron was obliged to protect and help his client, and the client had to act as his follower and regularly give him gifts of food and beer. Many political relationships were based on the same principles of inequality.

After independence the Ganwa system was abolished and replaced by provinces and local organizations administered by governors and local administrators.

Social Control. The king, chiefs, and lower officials played an important role in keeping law and order by administering justice and using their armies as a kind of police. The king was the supreme judge in the country, assisted by his chiefs and by special judges, many of whom were Hutu. The sanctions were death penalties, fines, and eviction.

On all these levels as well as on the local level acted arbitrators known as abashingantahe. Each hill community had its own abashingantahe. They arbitrated in cases of marriage and divorce, boundary disputes, theft, physical assaults, and inheritance disputes. To become such an official a man had to go through several grades. Each promotion to the next grade was accompanied by a ceremony during which the candidate had to obtain the official approval of the authorities and his fellow abashingantahe and offer large quantities of beer. These arbitrators were supposed to be wise men who adhered to high moral standards and were widely respected. During colonial times and after independence the men in power have tried to make good use of this institution to increase their own interests; as a result, it has lost most of its social value.

Today the judicial system is based on Western models and administrated by Western-trained judges. Despite or because of efforts to incorporate the abashingantahe in the new system, this institution has been undermined.

Conflict. In precolonial times most large-scale conflicts took the form of rebellions or fights between Ganwa. There often were succession wars after the death of the king or one of his chiefs, but there also were conflicts between factions of the royal family. Conflicts between chiefs concerning territorial claims were common. In the first years after independence the political arena was characterized by parties based on affiliation with the different princely factions. The main figure was a son of King Mwambutsa, Prince Louis Rwagasore, who had played a major role in the winning of independence and was the founder of the political party UPRONA and a group of juniors called JRR. He won the sympathy of much of the public and was considered a national leader before his assassination by rival princes.

After that time political conflicts were fought mainly along the line of the Hutu-Tutsi dichotomy. In 1966 a revolutionary coup by Tutsi army officers ended the monarchy. The Republic of Burundi was proclaimed with captain Michel Micombero as its first president. This heralded a period of military regimes dominated by Tutsi. Only during a few years of democratization in the 1990s was a president elected, the Hutu Melchior Ndadaye, who was assassinated), inaugurating the civil war. Armed rebel forces with bases in Congo and Tanzania attack the government, many fugitives live in neighboring countries, and peace talks have not yielded positive results. Many people fear that the type of genocide that occurred in Rwanda could occur in Burundi.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. The notion of Imana is considered central in Burundi beliefs and was translated as God by Christian missionaries. Burundi theologians maintain that Christian monotheism was not new in the country. However, Imana also means life principle or chance. Many names and places derive from Imana, but he was not worshiped in regular services. The belief in abazimu, or the spirits of deceased people, was prevalent. The term applies to the spirits of the ancestors and to spirits of unknown ancestry belonging to a widespread cult called kubandwa. Ceremonial huts for both kinds of spirits were erected in the kraal.

Kubandwa was known under several different names in the region of the Great Lakes. In Burundi the central figure was Kiranga, who was said to have been the brother of the first king, Ntare Rushatsi. At the royal court a Hutu woman resided who was called Mukakiranga, the wife of Kiranga.

These and other kinds of spirits and unseen forces could be manipulated through the use of magic by a medicine man. The Barundi were subject to a multitude of prohibitions (imiziro ), mostly involving eating certain foods or marrying certain relatives. Christianity has not entirely eliminated these beliefs.

Religious Practitioners. The main religious practitioners are the umupfumu (medicine man, diviner) and the umuvurati (rainmaker). Both were present at the courts and often played an important role as advisers. These men were esteemed by the people, in contrast to the umurozi, a sorcerer, who practiced black magic and harmed people.

Since the end of the nineteenth century Christian missionaries have been active, most of them Catholic White Fathers. Besides converting the majority of the population to Christianity, they have played a major role in transportation, education, and health care. During colonial times government officials and missionaries often worked together, though there was some mutual mistrust. After independence the Tutsi government suspected the missions of Hutu sympathies and expelled most of the White Fathers and reduced the power of the Church. Most of the clergy now are African priests, and all the bishops are Barundi.

Ceremonies. During the ceremonies addressed to Kiranga, his family, and his followers, cult members were supposed to be possessed by his spirit. The spirits were approached to heal sick people and grant favors such fertility of men and animals. During the ceremonies the initiates permit themselves all kinds of liberties. The Christian missions were very much opposed to the cult of Kiranga, whom they called the devil. Today African priests approach the ancestor cult as well as the cult in a much more positive way. Several cults are amalgams of Christian, Barundi, and newly found elements. Childbirth, marriages, and funerals are accompanied by Christian ceremonies but are followed or preceded by customary practices.

Arts. The Barundi excelled in oral literature and singing (myths, legends, praise songs, stories, and proverbs), but woodcarving was little developed and they did not practice weaving. Drums were the most important royal symbols and a royal prerogative. The king had a special corporation of drum makers and players. The Barundi also used a board cyther to accompany songs. Several other musical instruments were played, such as the hand piano, the sanza, and the musical bow. To embellish homes small decorated baskets were made mostly by women; today these baskets are sold to the tourist market. Baskets are also used as containers and a means of transport for food.

Medicine. To protect themselves against illnesses and misfortune the Barundi wore wooden amulets, since wood had high symbolic and magical value. They also used a great variety of medicinal herbs. The umupfumu was the specialist in these matters and used divination and other magic means to heal his consultants. The missionaries introduced modern methods of medicine and started to build hospitals. Today there is a faculty of medicine exists at the Université du Burundi and many Barundi are fully trained doctors, nurses, and medical assistants. Abapfumu continue to offer their services.

AIDS is a very serious threat to the health situation. Up to 30 percent of the adult population is estimated to be affected.

Death and Afterlife. After his death the master of the house was immediately buried in the middle of the kraal. Parts of his possessions were destroyed, and the fire in the house was extinguished. Rich mourners left their houses and went to live elsewhere. For common people mourning took only a few days; for rich people and the Ganwa it took much longer (for the king, a year). During the period of mourning it was forbidden to cultivate, and bulls had to be separated from cows. The king was cremated and placed in one of the burial places cared for by Hutu ritualists.

Today Christian funeral ceremonies are common, but many old customs are maintained. Dead people were supposed to continue to live as spirits to whom offerings were made once a year or if misfortune occurred.

For other cultures in Burundi, see List of Cultures by Country in Volume 10 and under specific culture names in Volume 9, Africa and the Middle East.

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ALBERT TROUWBORST