Kenyans

PRONUNCIATION: KEN-yuhns
LOCATION: Kenya
POPULATION: 36.9 million
LANGUAGE: Kiswahili; English; regional ethnic languages
RELIGION: Christianity; Muslim; traditional indigenous beliefs; independent Christian churches; small numbers of Hindus, Sikhs, Parsees, Bahais, followers of Judaism
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 1: Embu; Gikuyu; Gusii; Kalenjin; Keiyo; Luhya; Maasai; Oromos

INTRODUCTION

Kenya is a multi-racial society of about 36.9 million people, the overwhelming majority comprising indigenous ethnic groups with the rest being Asian, Arab, and European. Arabs have, for many centuries, had historical connections with coastal Kenya, where the dominant language is Kiswahili and the major religion is Islam. Asians, mainly of Indian descent, who are significant in the professional and commercial sectors, were originally railway construction workers taken from India to Kenya by the British colonialists about 100 years ago. Europeans are primarily of British origin, having come to Kenya in search of commercial and agricultural opportunities. The “White Highlands” commonly included large, commercial farms so that indigenous Africans were displaced from their own extremely fertile land. The Land and Freedom Movement (Mau Mau) contributed, through armed resistance in the 1950s, to eventual independence from Britain. Under the leadership of President Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya became a republic in 1964, a year after winning its independence. Kenya currently is a multi-party democracy. Its government consists of a president and a legislative assembly composed of 12 members nominated by the president, 210 elected members, the attorney general, and a speaker. Kenya is divided into eight provinces under the authority of the president.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

The Republic of Kenya, which is 583,000 sq km, is located in East Africa on and near the Equator. The Indian Ocean is on its east coast; the neighboring countries of Ethiopia and Sudan are to the north; Somalia is to the northeast; Tanzania is to the south; and Uganda is to the west. There is considerable landform variation, ranging from the permanent snow of Mts. Kenya and Kilimanjaro, to palm-treed, tropical shores. Some areas are desert, but most land is forested or composed of rolling grassland. The major geological feature, the Rift Valley, stretches from Zimbabwe to the south to the Red Sea to the north, and is 50 mi wide and 9000 ft above sea level in some places. Numerous lakes are found along its base. Kenya's Lake Victoria is the second largest fresh water lake in the world.

Because of altitude extremes and seasonal rainfall, Kenya has regional climatic variation. Typically, there are two rainy seasons, with highest rainfall in April and lowest rainfall in January. Evenings can become quite chilly in the Central Highlands, and the coastal areas are characteristically hot and humid. Kenya's capital, Nairobi, although close to the Equator, is almost 1700 m above sea level, making it comfortably warm or cool most of the year.

Location and geological and climatic conditions combine to make Kenya a diverse and attractive place for everyday life as well as for visiting. Tourism is a major industry. Large numbers of international visitors come to witness spectacular game parks, the beautiful Rift Valley, and elaborate ocean resorts. One unforgettable sight is that of Lake Nakuru, covered with an unimaginable number of pink flamingoes. For even more excitement, one can visit the Masai Mara National Reserve with its varied wild life including thousands of wildebeest running over the land.

LANGUAGE

The official national languages of Kenya are Kiswahili and English. English is spoken in government, courts, universities, and secondary schools. National mass media such as newspapers and magazines, as well as radio and television, are overwhelmingly in English. Nevertheless, Kiswahili is widely spoken in everyday life as a lingua franca (common language), especially in commerce and by those who do not know English. It is the dominant language along the coast, particularly in the major port city of Mombasa. Nowadays, Kiswahili is usually taught along with English in schools throughout Kenya. Regional ethnic languages spoken at home are typically used for elementary school teaching along with English and Kiswahili. Major ethnic languages in Kenya include Kikuyu, Luo, Kiluyia, Kikamba, Samburu, and Masai, although there are numerous others. Major Asian languages are Hindi and Gujarati. A pronounced linguistic characteristic of Kenya is the multilingualism of its residents.

FOLKLORE

Prior to the modern era and before the introduction of literacy in English and Kiswahili, indigenous ethnic groups had developed a sophisticated folklore that embodied their ethnic history, as well as wisdom concerning everyday mysteries and dilemmas. In legends, the movements of people throughout East Africa, from river and lake to highland and plain, and the exploits of past leaders, were recounted in oratory. Riddles, proverbs, and sayings are still richly represented in daily speech to indicate morality and proper behavior for young and old alike. Puzzling questions such as, “Why do cats like to stay by the fireplace? Why do hyenas limp? How did circumcision come to be practiced? What is the origin of death?” are answered in folktales. Proverbs contain much wisdom, as the following examples from the Luo attest: “The eye you have treated will look at you contemptuously”; “A cowardly hyena lives for many years”; “The swimmer who races alone, praises the winner.” Riddles are also commonly heard. For example: “A lake with reeds all around? The eye.” Another is: “A snake that breathes out smoke? A train.”

The Gikuyu people account for the origins of their customary way of life as farmers and herders in the following way. The first tribal parents, Gikuyu and Mumbi, begot their own children, who then begot children who dispersed around Mt. Kenya. These children began diverse economic activities. The story goes as follows: One grandchild's knee started swelling one day. When he opened his knee, three little boys emerged, who became his sons. In time, one of them became a hunter; one enjoyed collecting fruits and plants; and the third made fire for cooking. In time, the hunter domesticated some animals, and the collector grew some crops such as bananas, cassava, and sweet potatoes. The third son applied fire to stones and metals and became a blacksmith. In this way, Gikuyu culture originated.

Traditionally, word games were commonly played by children who spent a great deal of time in the evenings listening to grandparents telling stories and legends. Tongue twisters such as the following might be heard among the Gikuyu: Kaanaka Nikora kona kora kora, nako kora kona kaanaka Nikora kora (refers to a child and a tadpole scaring each other when they come upon the other suddenly).

Coastal Kenya, particularly the city of Mombasa, had a rich Kiswahili folklore tradition, especially tales, legends, and stories of Islamic origin. The 19th century had a number of poets renowned for their popular Kiswahili poetry. Topics included advice about not being tempted by present fortune, in that misfortune could come at any time and the inability to explain strange events, such as a hyena and a goat walking arm in arm. There is also praise as well as scorn for public figures.

Although indigenous folklore is still plentiful throughout Kenya, it has been supplemented with English literary traditions in schools and universities. Modern movies, television, and radio, with their global subject matters, are popular forms of entertainment among young Kenyans. Nevertheless, radio and television regularly feature traditional folklore as part of their programming.

RELIGION

Kenya's religious heritage mirrors its ethnic history described previously. The majority religion is Christianity, with about 37% Protestant (including Quakers) and 25% Roman Catholic; about 4% are Muslim. The remainder practice traditional indigenous beliefs or are members of independent Christian churches that have broken away from Protestant and Catholic denominations, often over indigenous beliefs that are found incompatible with European dogma. Smaller numbers of Kenyans are Hindus, Sikhs, Parsees, Bahais, and followers of Judaism. Traditional religions generally believed in a high God, spiritual forces such as venerated ancestors, and malevolent forces such as witches. The creator God was known by different names, but was everywhere thought to be benevolent and forgiving. For example, the Abaluyia people believed that God was known as Were when he created Heaven first, then the earth. He created mankind so that the sun could have someone on whom to shine. Animals, plants, and birds were created by Were as food for mankind.

The first independent church in Kenya, and currently one of Kenya's largest, was called the Nomiya Luo Church. Its founder, Johana Owalo, was one of the early converts to Christianity around the year 1900. In 1906, he was baptized a Roman Catholic. In 1907, he had a vision and was taken to Heaven by the Angel Gabriel. Although he could enter Heaven, Europeans and Asians could not, suggesting that he was rebelling against colonialism. The Pope had also been banished because he permitted adoration of Mary and the saints. After this and other instructional visions, he left Catholicism for Anglicanism. Subsequent to this, he learned to speak Arabic and converted to the Islamic faith. In time, he began to teach that mission churches were contrary to African traditions and began to attract many followers. His beliefs are a mixture of Anglican and Catholic practices; in addition, they include a preference for traditional marital customs such as inheritance of widows by their deceased brothers, which was accepted in the Old Testament but not by Christians.

Missionary churches, while still present, are now largely in the control of a Kenyan hierarchy. For example, there is a Kenyan Roman Catholic Cardinal and a Church Province of Kenya (Anglican) Archbishop, each with numerous subordinate Kenyan bishops. Kenyan languages, music, and dance are integral aspects of religious ritual in these and other Christian communities.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Kenya celebrates as public holidays the religious holidays of Good Friday, Easter Monday, Christmas Day, and the Muslim festival Idd-ul-fitr (which depends on the sighting of the new moon after Ramadan). Secular holidays include New Year's Day and Labor Day (May 1). The most significant secular holidays unique to Kenya are related to their colonial struggle and subsequent independence. Madaraka (June 1) celebrates internal self government day, and independence day is celebrated on December 12. Jomo Kenyatta, a major leader during the struggle for independence, was detained on 20 October 1952 for a period of seven years by the colonial government; Kenyatta Day (October 20) is celebrated annually in honor of Kenya's first president and patriot. During all holidays in Kenya, schools and businesses are closed. Many residents of cities return home to rural areas for family gatherings and visiting. Celebrations include festivities such as eating, drinking, and dancing in homes, bars, and night clubs. On such occasions, Nyama Choma (roasted meat) is a common treat. Goat or beef are consumed, although goat is considered the greater delicacy. On secular holidays, the Kenyan military is on parade, and politicians give speeches in public and on radio and television. Newspapers typically carry honorific testimonials to past and present political leaders.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Kenyans generally are raised in the context of a strong family and community ideology. Birth is typically a welcome event in all the ethnic groups of Kenya. Most births take place in hospitals or small rural clinics under the care of a midwife. Infants are commonly breast-fed and carried on the back or side in a sling of cloth. Mothers are assisted in the care of their infants and toddlers by young caretakers, who are often older siblings. For this reason, a special bond prevails between a caretaker and his “follower” in the birth order. If no girl is available, a boy can also be a caretaker. Parents desire to have both boys and girls. Boys are valued because in most societies in Kenya descent is traced through males (patrilineal), who then inherit land. The families of girls receive gifts from their future in-laws on the occasion of marriage into their family, a custom known as bride wealth. Although women may now own land, bride wealth is still common and a sign of prestige for highly educated women.

Puberty is marked in many societies by initiation rites such as male circumcision or female clitoridectomy. Circumcision serves to tie together young males into a common social group who will bond for life as they make the transition from childhood to manhood. Among the Bukusu, for example, circumcision ceremonies are held every four years. Young initiates of 12 or 13 years of age are carried on the shoulders of their male and female relatives in celebration of their new public identity. It is considered shameful to express pain while being publicly circumcised. Bukusu men from all walks of life and from all over the world return to Bukusu land to witness the circumcision of their relatives. There are, however, many societies in Kenya that do not circumcise such as the Luo, Kenya's second largest ethnic group. Most ethnic groups do not practice clitoridectomy, although it is found among the Gusii, Pokot, Kikuyu, and a few other societies. Unlike circumcision, this practice is very controversial and the subject of considerable national and international debate, even when it is undertaken with modern medical precautions. Many folk explanations for its existence, such as the control of female sexuality or the enhancement of female solidarity, are now largely discredited in contemporary Kenya.

Marriage and parenthood are still very significant events in the life cycle. Kenyans of all ethnic groups live out their lives with a strong sense of identity to their families and to their ethnic groups. Land is a strong symbol in this ideology, so that regardless of where a person lives in Kenya, there is a strong pull to return “home” whenever possible. Burial of a person of any age is a matter for not only the individual and his family and church, but not uncommonly for the person's ethnic group as well. The continued importance of being buried in one's home-land came to a dramatic conclusion in a much publicized case in Kenya known as the Otieno affair. Mr. Otieno, a Luo lawyer, had been married to a Kikuyu woman. They lived in Nairobi. Mrs. Otieno, on the occasion of his death, ordered that her husband be buried in that city. Members of Mr. Otieno's clan, however, insisted that he be buried in the Western Province, the homeland of his clan. This would insure that he would be buried properly in communal clan land, according to rituals necessary to the respectful repose of his body and spirit. Public cemeteries with individual grave sites are rare in Kenya. After many months of agonizing public debate throughout Kenya by all social strata over individual rights vs. clan rights, it was determined in the High Court of Kenya that he would be buried in the clan lands.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Kenyans can be characterized as very gregarious and very much involved in the social lives of their families, in such a way that “rugged individualism” is not valued. Ethnic groups contain very elaborate greeting patterns that are extended ritualistically and vigorously in rural areas. The simplest and most common Kiswahili greeting is Jambo (“hello”) to which a person replies likewise. Jambo or Hujambo, Bwana is said to a man (“You have nothing the matter, Sir?”) while a woman is addressed Jambo, mama. If addressing more than one person, the greeting would become Hamjambo. The reply to this is Sijambo, or Hatujambo if with others. These greetings are usually followed by additional salutations depending on social context, time of day, weather, and so forth.

Politicians frequently seek to mobilize Kenyans for development projects by encouraging a national slogan that has interpersonal content. The late President Kenyatta initiated Harambee (“Let's pull together”) as a national symbol, around which individuals and communities mobilized to raise money for such things as the construction of schools, hospitals, and other public works. Individuals are sponsored to attend school or to obtain medical treatment or other necessities through harambee. Today, political leaders and other prominent people attend harambee functions and give large sums of money, which are sometimes announced in newspapers or on the radio. Many Kenyans carry on their person a harambee card on which to note the amount given by a donor. Some Kenyans do not approve of this custom, although it is difficult to say no since requests may be made in public. Also, it is thought that some unscrupulous politicians may misuse the system for their own gain as a way to purchase votes.

Young people have many opportunities for social interaction, especially in the cities. Rural areas tend to have dating patterns that are supervised by family members. Attendance at funerals, where several days of rituals culminate in feasting and dancing, is a favorite venue for courtship. Secondary schools and churches in the town and country also sponsor social events where teenagers may interact. Dating in Nairobi is more elaborate and may involve nightclubs, restaurants, movie theaters, malls, and drive-in movie theaters. One club known as “The Carnivore” is very popular among secondary and university students, especially those returning from schooling in Europe and America during their holidays. The Carnivore, which is located in a Nairobi suburb, is a disco but also has an attached restaurant frequented by tourists in pursuit of zebra, antelope, and other meats.

LIVING CONDITIONS

The majority of Kenyans live in rural areas where electricity and running water are often not available, and roads are not paved. Homes are constructed of waddle and daub and thatch, although wealthier people do have access to more elaborately constructed homes of stone or brick and live near towns where electricity and running water are available. A growing number of Kenyans (about 25%) live in cities. Large cities in Kenya include Naivasha, Nakuru, Mombasa, and Kisumu, although Nairobi is by far the largest city. Nairobi originated at the time of the construction of the Uganda Railway in 1899. Population grew to 250,000 at the time of independence. By 1990, there were 1.5 million inhabitants residing in numerous estates and suburban areas around the city center, where businesses are clustered. In 2007 Nairobi boasted a total population of 2.8 million people in comparison to Mombasa, the second largest city with a total population of 828,500 people. A significant portion of Kenyans are middle class or richer and live in comfortable houses or even mansions in suburban areas. Nevertheless, Nairobi has many shanty towns such as Kibera or Mathare Valley, in which homes are little more than shacks built out of wood packing cases, flattened tin cans, cardboard, or other discarded items. Many who reside in these shanty towns are squatters with no ownership rights, so they can be forcibly evicted at a moment's notice. Many residents do pay rent to local landlords. Very small-scale commercial activities such as vegetable stalls, food stores, carpentry, and tailoring abound in these shanty towns. Numerous illegal activities such as illegal brewing of beer, prostitution, and petty theft are common. Notwithstanding, fear of entry into the shanty towns is greatly exaggerated in more affluent parts of town where homes are fenced or walled in and typically have house guards known as Askaris. Their fear of robbery is not always without foundation, in that it appears to be rising in these suburban areas. The majority of residents in these shanty towns are, however, hardworking people who must face difficult obstacles to survive in situations of meager resources.

Health problems in shanty towns are generally more severe and include gastrointestinal problems and diarrhea for children, and for all people respiratory infections, occasionally cholera, typhoid, and typhus, and a growing problem of HIV infection. Most Kenyans experience periodic bouts with malaria, although this disease is generally contracted when visiting areas outside of Nairobi where malaria-carrying mosquitoes are common. Hospitals are both public and private throughout the country. No fees are charged for visits to public hospitals and for medication, although extended waiting is required and medicines are often not available.

Transportation in Nairobi includes a Kenya bus service for the city and its environs. The matatu (van) is an alternative form of transportation operated along bus routes and frequently in competition with them. These vans, like the buses, are severely overcrowded, especially during rush hour, so that passengers are oppressively cramped and may even get injured. The matatu driver employs a “tout,” a teenager or young adult male, to yell out for passengers to board the van, to pack in as many as possible, and to collect the fare. These touts can be seen leaning from speeding matatus in a show of bravado matched only by their quick-witted tongues. Matatus are a frequent source of accidents in cities and in rural areas, where they are also common. Taxis are available for those who can afford this expensive means of transportation. The affluent frequently have their Mercedes as a show of prestige. More Kenyans now own cars than ever before, although the bicycle is a popular means of transportation in rural areas. For those traveling between cities or between town and country, Kenya rail service, Kenya airways, and a growing number of bus companies provide excellent service. International travel is available from many international carriers including Kenya Airways, from airports in Nairobi, Mombasa, and Eldoret. Th ose wishing to travel by sea can do so from the seaport of Mombasa.

FAMILY LIFE

Marriage and family are closely associated in all ethnic groups. The extended family is more important than the nuclear, monogamous family. It is not uncommon to see several generations living in the same compound or neighborhood. Nevertheless, national marriage laws recognize cultural variation. The European heritage is recognized in one legal code that privileges conjugal marriage, while prohibiting plural marriages such as polygyny and wife inheritance. These and other practices are permissible under customary law, where recognition is given to indigenous marital customs. Religiously contracted marriages are recognized for Muslim and Hindu unions under separate codes. Wife inheritance is very controversial, with traditional-ists arguing that this practice ensures that widows and their children will be cared for within their husbands' extended families. The new husband assumes all of the rights and obligations of his deceased brother. National Christian churches, unlike some independent Christian churches, are generally opposed to this practice.

Bride-price, unlike widow inheritance, still continues to be a common practice and has been augmented by premarital rituals such as the engagement party, where members of the extended families of the future bride and groom formally meet each other. Families are quite large. Kenya's current total fertility rate of 4.82 children born per woman is among the highest in the world. A significant feature of family life is the obligation of extended family members to assist their kinsmen. Homes will typically have an extended family member in residence. School fees and other necessities are expected to be offered with the understanding that reciprocity will be forthcoming. Many Kenyans, even a majority in some parts of the country, experience their family life within the home of a relative. This practice occurs, in part, because it is thought unfortunate for any home not to have children, and because children are placed whenever possible in the home of a prosperous relative. Kinship terminology is also routinely extended so that one's mother's sister is called “mother,” and one's father's brother is called “father.” The term brother or sister is often extended to what would be called “cousin” elsewhere.

CLOTHING

Various ethnic groups in Kenya have their own traditional dress. Maasai men, for instance, can be seen wearing red tunics and sandals as well as elaborate bracelets, necklaces, and large earrings dangling from their much-elongated earlobes. Their hair may be shaved or elaborately braided and covered with red ochre. Feathers may be worn on certain occasions. Women wear long, plain cotton dresses decorated with elaborate belts, huge necklaces, and wear long earrings. On their arms are many copper bangles. Their hair is typically shaved or quite short. A person's status in Maasai society is indicated by the size and various combinations of adornment.

European and Arabic garb are now commonplace throughout the country, even among urban Maasai. In rural areas, for example, women wear multicolored cotton dresses or skirts and blouses. Large shawl-like cloths are worn commonly as protection from rain, sun, and cold. Babies can be seen carried on the back or on the side in a sling. Scarves are worn on the head. Flat shoes or bare feet are standard. Men generally wear Western-style trousers and shirts with jackets and ties for special occasions. Dress in urban areas reflects social class differences. The most stylish and expensive clothes in the latest international styles are available for those who can afford them. Long pieces of colorful cloth are often worn as skirts, wrapped around shorter dresses or by themselves along with matching headpieces. Arabic influences are strong, especially along the coast where the fez and turban are commonplace. Asian dress is the sari for women, and white cotton shirts and pants are prevalent for men. Secondary school children usually wear uniforms to school, but dress very much like American and European youth at home and for leisure. Nevertheless, ethnic or religious variations are also apparent.

FOOD

Pre-colonial food production included both agriculture and animal husbandry. Archaeological research has demonstrated that indigenous African crops included sorghum and finger millet. Later, some 2,000 years ago, crops such as bananas, yams, rice, and coconuts reached East Africa from Southeast Asia. About 400 years ago, crops from the Americas such as maize and cassava spread to East Africa from West Africa. Today, the major staple throughout Kenya is maize, which is also an important cash crop as well. Pastoralism, or cattle keeping, has a long history in Kenya. By the 17th century, for example, groups like the Maasai and Turkana subsisted exclusively on cattle, which were originally domesticated and developed through breeding in the Horn of Africa and East Africa. Cattle provide meat, milk, butter, and blood. Livestock includes poultry, sheep, and goats. Many societies in Kenya combine agriculture with livestock raising.

Currently, crops and livestock raised in Kenya also include those imported from Europe during the colonial era. Examples of crops are white potatoes, cucumbers, tomatoes, and many others. Indigenous fruits such as papaya and mangoes are especially favored throughout the country. Agriculture is the major component of Kenya's economy, employing about three-fourths of the population and generating a significant amount of export earnings. Coffee and tea are the main exports. A major staple throughout much of Kenya is maize, which is made into a thick porridge called Ugali and is eaten with meat, stews, or indigenous greens (sukuma wiki). Many Kenyans eat this combination on a daily basis. It takes much practice to cook the mixture of maize meal and boiling water to the right consistency without burning it. Sukuma wiki is a combination of chopped spinach or kale that is fried with onions, tomatoes, perhaps a green pepper, and any leftover meat if it is available. This is seasoned with a good bit of salt and some pepper. The main staple for the Gikuyu is Irio, a mixture of kernels from cooked green corn and beans, potatoes, and chopped greens.

Present-day Kenyans enjoy eating in a variety of international restaurants and fast food chains. Asian restaurants are also very popular. In rural areas, children can be seen snacking on roasted maize and sugar cane. Manufactured candy and bottled drinks such as Fanta (orange soda) and colas are very popular at birthday parties and other festive occasions. Bottled beer brewed in Kenya has largely replaced traditional beers made from millet, or maize, although coconut wine is popular on the coast. Modern eating utensils are common; nevertheless, most Kenyans prefer eating their Ugali with their right hand.

EDUCATION

There are many schools throughout the country servicing young people from nursery school through university and professional training. Primary and secondary schools vary in size and quality, and education can be costly. Both secular and religious schools operate on a daily or boarding basis. Harambee schools often do not have the same resources as those with international connections through church or the state. Scholarships are available on a competitive basis for both boys and girls. Competitive sports such as football (soccer), swimming, and track and field are common. A system similar to that in the United States (8 years of elementary school, 4 years of secondary school, and 4 years of university) recently replaced a British system based on Ordinary and Advanced levels of secondary and advanced education following the primary years. The American system now includes more attention to practical subjects and local culture than did the British system, which emphasized comparatively more European historical and literary content.

Post-secondary education includes a wide variety of vocational and technical schools and a growing number of national universities and teacher training institutions. Post-graduate education includes academic subjects, law school, and medical school. There is much competition in Kenya for limited places in educational institutions, requiring many students to go abroad to the United States, Europe, and Asia for their education.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

A cultural mosaic characterizes Kenya's rich cultural heritage. The Muslim tradition is embodied in archaeological and written sources from the coastal region. The historical monument at Gedi, located between Malindi and Mombasa, was founded in the late 13th century. From a study of its tombs, monuments, and shards, it is clear that an urban Muslim civilization, combining indigenous African practices with those from Arabia and India, prevailed for many centuries at Gedi and elsewhere along the coast. Music, dance, and literature were associated here with a literate civilization.

The European (primarily British) heritage in Kenya is notable in Nairobi and some of its suburban areas such as Karen. The Norfolk Hotel in Nairobi opened in 1904 and was soon after nicknamed “The House of Lords” because of its predominantly European, titled visitors. President Theodore Roosevelt, among other prominent Americans, visited there also, especially to hunt big game. During the colonial era, Africans were not allowed to stay there. Today, the Norfolk retains some of its original architecture and caters to wealthy Kenyans and an international clientele. Movie viewers may remember seeing this hotel in the film Out of Africa, an account of the life of its author, Isak Dinesen, on a coffee farm in Kenya during the colonial period. Elspeth Huxley in her books (e.g., Flame Trees of Th ika) gives another account of Kenya's social life and customs from the perspective of a European living at that time.

Kenya's greatest contemporary writers are world-renowned for their short stories and novels. Ngugi wa Thiong'o, the author of such books as Petals of Blood and Devil on the Cross, writes in his traditional Gikuyu language rather than English to stress the importance of communicating with all members of his society in a language that the colonialists had suppressed. His novels contain a continuing critique of social inequality in Kenya today. Grace Ogot, in books such as The Other Woman, has developed the short story to a high standard.

Music and dance competitions are held frequently in the schools. These cultural expressions are heavily influenced by indigenous forms. Regularly, the National Theatre hosts final competitions among students who come from all over Kenya to display their skills in indigenous dance and song. The Bomas of Kenya is a professional dance troupe that holds regular performances of traditional dance, primarily for tourists. Radio and television shows commonly have programs that feature ethnic music and songs as a popular form of entertainment. Music from the United States is popular today, especially among teenagers. Zairian music is popular among Kenyans of all ages.

WORK

Although Kenya has a very significant industrial base that includes processed foods, textiles, glass, and chemicals, agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Women are engaged as subsistence farmers in those ethnic groups where agriculture is significant. Typically, men, however, clear the land and help in harvesting. In the rural economy, women also collect wood for charcoal, attend markets, and carry heavy loads. Men and women work on coffee and tea estates, these being important cash crops. Tourism is the principal source of foreign exchange and provides jobs for men and women in the hotel and game park industries. Men work as bus drivers, taxi drivers, and factory workers and play important roles in agriculture, primarily with cash crops.

Graduates of secondary schools in Kenya who do not go on to university or teacher training colleges seek technical or secretarial schooling. Training in computer technology is of growing importance, although use of e-mail and the Internet are still quite rare. All young people, however, experience difficulty in gaining employment because Kenya's infrastructure and industrial base is not large compared to its agricultural base. This is not attractive to many students, because young people do not wish to live in rural areas where social life is less varied. Government and industry have not successfully developed rural areas to guard against urban migration and a strong preference by young people to live in cities rather than in small towns or the countryside.

SPORTS

Clubs where sports can be practiced by members and their guests are very important in the urban areas. These clubs commonly have billiards, squash, swimming, and tennis available. Golf is available at some clubs and hotels. Cricket is also a popular sport. Automobile races are common. Over the Easter weekend, the Malboro/Epson Safari Rally attracts an international audience. At the Ngong Road Race Course, on many Sunday afternoons, horse racing is held with legalized gambling. Football (soccer) is a national pastime, with some ethnic groups comprising teams that compete against teams from industries, armed forces, and the police. Boxing is another spectator sport enjoyed periodically. Schools sponsor competitive sports for boys and girls, including soccer and track and field. In rural areas, there is a widespread game of strategy known as Bao in Kiswahili. This game involves a wooden board containing a varying number of holes or divisions and seeds. A player attempts to capture the seeds of an opponent through a series of complex plays whereby the opponent's seeds end up on his side of the board. National Bao competitions are held to determine the best players. Children play a simplified version of this game, much to the amusement of adult spectators.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Sports, theater, television, and cultural activities such as reading, dancing, and music are popular forms of entertainment and recreation. Going to movie theaters is a particularly popular amusement for younger people. International films can be seen in theaters in Nairobi and other cities. Popular films include adventure stories, martial arts, and romances. Asian moviegoers also have the choice of seeing the latest Asian films in their own languages.

Sunday is a special day, particularly for Asian families, to dine out, buy treats such as ice cream, and to walk throughout the city. Jamhuri Park, a large open area with a lake for boating and places to purchase ice cream and candy treats, is popular with other ethnic groups. On weekends and in the evenings, walking, window shopping, and shopping in malls is a frequent pastime for all Kenyans. The most popular form of entertainment, however, is visiting with friends and relatives. Much food, drink, news, and joviality are exchanged, mixing people of all ages. Visiting between rural and urban relatives is an occasion for the exchange of food from the rural area for money and material goods from the urban area.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Carvings, batiks, basketry, jewelry, ceramics, and other indigenous crafts are made largely for tourist consumption. Masai artifacts are very popular with tourists. Development projects stimulate local cooperative groups by encouraging them to manufacture baskets, women's purses, and mats for sale. Kiondos are particularly popular in the United States among college students for carrying books. These are multicolored, tightly woven straw bags with leather straps. Soap stone bowls, carved animals, and other artifacts from western Kenya are also popular abroad.

Until recently, craft objects were made of various animal products, including skins and hides from zebras, giraffes, bushbuck, civet cats, and crocodiles. Such articles as shoes, purses, wallets, and musical instruments were sources of major international attraction. Jewelry, carvings, and other products made from ivory were especially valued.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Wildlife management and conservation are major concerns of the Kenya government and tourist industry. For this reason, commercial artifacts made from wild animals that are considered endangered or are living on game reserves have been banned. Tourists are now limited to photographic rather than hunting safaris. In spite of these limitations, poaching continues to be a problem. Some conservationists have expressed concerns that the elephant population (the source of valuable ivory) has grown too large in certain regions, where farmers have been killed by elephants on rampage rummaging for food in their gardens. Meeting a happy balance between animal and human environmental needs remains an elusive goal at present.

Street children can be seen in cities and large towns of Kenya. These children come from poor families in rural areas where the alcoholism of one or both parents is a contributing factor. They earn money by begging, collecting waste products for sale to wholesalers, who resell them to recyclers. Street girls often earn money through prostitution or begging. Glue-sniffing is a widespread addiction among the younger street children.

Because of the large volume of tourists and the relatively poor quality of Kenya's highways, death by motor vehicle accidents has become a major problem in the country. Alcohol use is a contributing factor, although also significant are the unavailability of spare parts and the age of most vehicles in a country where all vehicles and parts are imported. Crashes with wild and domesticated animals are not uncommon in rural areas.

From its independence until the early 1990s, Kenya had a one-party democratic system. It is now experiencing a transition to multi-party democracy, where members of the opposition parties feel that their political rights are not respected. Members of the ruling party, however, claim that political parties tend to be coterminous with ethnic groups, and that multi-party democracy promotes tribalism. Young people commonly complain that all political parties are lead by primarily very old men, leaving little visible leadership by the young or by women. Patriarchal leadership (at least in public) was a strong value in traditional political systems within Kenya. Nevertheless, there are now women judges and members of parliament in the Kenya government.

In 2007 and 2008 political turmoil in Kenya testified to the tensions and mistrust brought about by a long history of a one party system followed by a multiparty system of government that is seen as being controlled by a few greedy politicians. The country erupted in violence when the incumbent President Mwai Kibaki was controversially declared the winner of the presidential election held on 27 December 2007, which was widely believed to have been won by Raila Odinga of the Orange Democratic Movement. Hon. Raila Odinga had led in most opinion polls prior to the elections and was leading by significant margins in the earlier presidential vote returns, until the surprise announcement of Kibaki as the eventual winner. Many Kenyans were angered by allegations of electoral manipulation and went on a violent rampage in many parts of the country. Police fatally shot hundreds of civilian demonstrators, causing more violence directed toward the police and eventually degenerating into inter-ethnic conflicts. Initial targets of violence included some Kikuyu people—the community of which Kibaki is a member—living outside their traditional settlement areas, especially in the Rift Valley Province. Some of the Kikuyu also engaged in retributive violence against groups supportive of Odinga, primarily Luos and Kalenjin.

Many deaths were recorded with large numbers of homes and private properties destroyed, resulting in significant internal displacement of people. By 28 January 2008 the death toll from the violence was around 800 and by the end of March 2008 it had reached 1,600. The largest single loss of life occurred when a church providing shelter from the violence to 200 people was set alight by rioters, burning 35 people to death. The people who were sheltering there were members of President Kibaki's tribe, the Kikuyu. Another 16 people from Odinga's tribe, the Luo, were also burned to death by Kibaki supporters while sheltering in a house in Naivasha. As of April 2008, up to 600,000 people were internally displaced in Kenya due to the political turmoil.

The violence in Kenya has had serious economic ramifications not only for Kenya, but throughout East Africa, particularly for the landlocked countries of the Great Lakes region (Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and eastern parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo). These countries depend upon Kenyan infrastructure links (particularly the port at Mombasa) for important import and export routes. Significant shortages of gasoline were reported in Uganda as well as Zanzibar following the 2007 elections. Kenya's tourism industry came to a standstill that resulted in a loss of millions of dollars to the Kenyan economy. As of 28 February 2008 Kibaki and Odinga had signed a power-sharing and peace deal called the National Accord and Reconciliation Act, which constitutionally establishes the office of prime minister and creates a coalition government with Raila Odinga designated to be prime minister.

GENDER ISSUES

The recent riots and violence following the December 2007 presidential elections brought to the fore the widening gender gap in Kenya. Numerous instances of women being raped and sexual violence against women were reported in the 2008 post-election period. The gender gap can easily be illustrated in the political arena. With respect to political representation, 2.7% of elected representatives on country, urban, and municipal councils are women. In the judicial service establishment, women only account for 17.6%. Indeed, gender representation statistics from the World Economic Forum's Gender Gap Index for the year 2007 for Kenya are abysmal. Out of 128 countries Kenya is ranked 83 in terms of inequality between the sexes, and is scored at 0.651 on the gender gap index, where 0.00 equals inequality and 1.00 equals equality. On the same scale, the existence of legislation punishing acts of violence against women is scored at 0.17. In other words, violence against women largely goes unpunished. Women and girls continue to suffer from violence in the home, the community and in state custody.

During the Moi regime violations against human rights were commonplace. People were imprisoned or detained without charge or trial. Political assassinations were also a common occurrence. However, when Mwai Kibaki replaced Moi some progress was made in addressing human rights. With the recent post-election violence the little progress that had been made in fostering human rights seems to have been shattered. Human Rights Watch (HRW) has charged that the government in 2008 was implementing a “shoot-to-kill” policy. Evidence indicates the excessive use of force, torture, and arbitrary shootings by the police. Prison conditions are also deplorable and life threatening.

With reference to homosexuality, it remains illegal in Kenya. However, lifestyles are a slowly changing in Kenya. Male homosexuality is becoming fashionable among young men and is practiced in prisons, boarding schools, colleges, and in tourist resorts along the coast. In spite of its illegality nobody gets imprisoned for homosexual acts in Kenya. Many homosexuals adopt heterosexual lifestyles in an attempt to fit into a society that finds homosexuality repugnant.

BIBLIOGRPAHY

Abdulaziz, Mohamed H. Muyaka: 19th Century Swahili Popular Poetry. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1979.

Bahemuka, Judith Mbula. Our Religious Heritage. Nairobi: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 1983.

“Kenya's Rival Politicians Reach an Agreement.” International Herald Tribune, 28 February 2008.

Kilbride, Philip L., and Janet C. Kilbride. Changing Family Life in East Africa: Women and Children at Risk. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1990.

Liyong, Taban lo. Popular Culture of East Africa. Nairobi: Longman Kenya Ltd., 1983.

Ochieng', W. R., and R. M. Maxon, eds. An Economic History of Kenya, Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers Ltd., 1992.

Pritchard, J. M. A Geography of East Africa. London: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1977.

Rigby, Peter. Cattle, Capitalism, and Class: Ilparakuyo Maasai Transformations. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.

Shorter, Aylward. The Church in the African City. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1991.

—revised by E. Kalipeni