Modeling (Airplanes, Trains, Etc.)

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MODELING (AIRPLANES, TRAINS, ETC.)

Models are representations of other things. Many different kinds of models are built and used for a variety of purposes. In particular, model collecting, model building, and other activities with models are important hobbies in the United States.

Models differ from what they represent in three important ways. First, they usually differ in scale: models are often smaller, although sometimes larger, than the real life thing or activity that they characterize. Model airplanes, such as those constructed by hobbyists, are normally much smaller than the originals, while models of molecules, such as those used in teaching chemistry, are much larger than reality. Models differ from what they represent in terms of complexity: some models of ships or trains constructed by hobbyists are exceedingly intricate, with many working parts, while toy ships or trains for children can be very simple. Finally, models differ in terms of verisimilitude, or true-to-lifeness. Plastic scale models of World War II aircraft, for example, may very accurately depict the external appearance of the originals, but represent few, if any, of their internal parts. Powered models are usually less accurate in their external appearance, but actually fly like the originals.

Models have a variety of purposes. For one, they act as information reduction devices. That is, they eliminate needless detail, although what specific detail is needless depends on the purpose served by a model. Maps, for instance, are models, but topographic maps and road maps each eliminate some and emphasize other details. Models also serve as information storage devices. The study and preservation of history is often an important function of models for hobbyists. The original trains, ships, airplanes, or other artifacts modeled may no longer exist, so the models store valuable information about them. Similarly, bow and arrow or black powder arms hunters maintain knowledge of the use of obsolete weaponry, just as paintings, drawings, and photographs preserve scenes, clothing styles, and behavior patterns from the past. Models are also used in teaching and learning, especially where learning with the real thing could pose a danger. One might learn to fly a jet fighter plane by strapping in and taking off, but the potential for disaster in such a situation is overwhelming. A flight simulator offers a far safer learning environment. Similarly, models of aircraft in their design stage are tested in wind tunnels in order to gain information about aspects of their aerodynamic characteristics, and model battlefields are constructed to appraise strategies. These are examples of the information generation function of models wherein they are used to safely simulate conditions that have never before existed.

Models, Miniatures, and Replicas

Models are sometimes referred to as miniatures or replicas. Each of these terms, however, has a slightly different connotation, principally in terms of the three characteristics of models—scale, complexity, and verisimilitude—and each is often used with respect to a certain genre of models. Miniatures are, as the term implies, models that are normally much smaller in scale than the originals, but are usually high in complexity and, especially, in verisimilitude. Models of buildings, such as the White House, the United States Capitol building, or various houses—especially historical colonial homes, but also houses from American frontier days, such as log houses—are generally referred to as miniatures. In creating miniatures, artisans and hobbyists are meticulous about detail, trying to make their creations as true-to-life as possible.

Replicas are often full-scale working models. That is, they are identical, or nearly so, to the original. While few flying examples of World War I or World War II aircraft remain, enthusiasts have built numerous full and partial scale replicas of Fokker Triplanes, Messerschmidt 109s, and other aircraft for recreational flying, air shows, and the like. Replica World War I aircraft can be seen at the Memorial Flight Association's site at http://memorial.flight.free.fr/indexuk.html.

Static and Dynamic Models

Models can be either static or dynamic. That is, they may be for display only or they may emulate that which they represent to some limited extent. Static models are primarily used for display purposes and, as such, are generally as nearly proportionate as possible to the real objects that they represent. Ships-in-bottles are classic examples of static display. The techniques for constructing shipsin-bottles were developed during the early nineteenth century by sailors on long voyages, who used materials at hand. While techniques differ among builders, basically ships-in-bottles must either be constructed of parts that can be inserted into a bottle and assembled or be constructed so that they collapse for insertion. The masts for model sailing ships, for example, are usually raised after insertion by extra long rigging that is then cut after the masts are up. Static models of cars, trains, ships, airplanes, animals, weapons, soldiers, buildings, terrain, and many other things exist, but those of various kinds of land, sea, and air vehicles are particularly popular. Some are constructed or carved from wood; others are paper, metal, or plastic; and still others are made from a combination of materials. Some are die cast (all of one piece) while others are assembled. Model airplanes provide an illustrative example: static die cast metal or assembled plastic scale models exist for aircraft, ranging from the first Wright Flyer to the Concorde and the latest fighter jet. There are even models of craft that have never existed, such as the USS Enterprise and Klingon battle cruisers of Star Trek fame.

Most static models are built to scale. That is, they are proportioned to match the original as closely as possible, at least in terms of external appearance. Model airplanes, for example, usually come in standard scales such as 1/32, 1/48, 1/72, and 1/144. The scale denotes the proportional relationship in size between the model and the actual aircraft. In a 1/48 scale model, one unit of measurement (inches usually) on the model represents forty-eight on the real airplane.

Dynamic, or working, models are those that emulate some functions of the original on a small scale. The first models that represented real aircraft were developed around 1930 in the United States. These models were made of wood (usually balsa, spruce, pine, or basswood) and covered with a tissue-like substance called silk span. The silk span was then covered with cellulose acetate nitrate dope (a type of lacquer finish) that, when hardened, provided a firm skin for the model. Working airplane models are of three basic types. "Free flight" models, as the name suggests, are designed to fly on their own, with no guidance from the ground. Very simple model airplanes made of balsa and powered by rubber bands that control a propeller are of this type. "Control line" model airplanes are flown by operators on the ground. Generally, control line models are flown by two wires or cables attached to a hand-held yoke. The pilot can then control up and down movements as the model flies in circles around him or her. "Radio control" models are flown by an operator who uses a transmitter to control servos that move the control surfaces of the craft. The first powered radio control aircraft were developed and flown by Walter and Bill Good in 1937.

The electric train is one of the most popular dynamic models, and it comes in a variety of sizes, usually indicated by gauge and scale. Gauge indicates the distance between the rails of a train. A full-size train track measures 1435.5 mm (4 feet, 8.5 inches between the inner sides of the rails. Gauge 1, the earliest model railroad size developed in the late nineteenth century in Germany by Märklin Bros. and Co., has a track width of 45 mm and a scale of 1/32. O gauge, introduced in the early 1900s, is 1/48 scale (1/43 in Great Britain and France, 1/45 in the rest of Europe). S gauge, introduced by the American Flyer Company in 1946, is 1/64 scale. HO gauge, by far the most common and commercially important, developed in the early 1930s and has a track width of 16.5 mm and a scale of 1/87. OO gauge, the most common size in England, has the same track width as HO, but a scale of 1/78. TT (which stands for table top) gauge has a track width of 9mm and a scale of 1/120. N gauge is somewhat smaller than TT, with a track width of 9 mm and a scale of 1:160. Finally, Z gauge, the smallest commercially available size, has a track width of 6.5 mm and a scale of 1/220.

Lionel, the company founded by Joshua Lionel Cowen, has dominated the model train market in the United States. Lionel began producing model trains in late 1900. After World War I, Cowen had the idea to include toy trains as part of crèche displays in department stores during the Christmas season. This marketing ploy led to a huge rise in the popularity of model trains, and the 1920s are often regarded as the golden age of model trains.

Commercial Aspects of Models

Models and modeling support large industries, as well as major hobby associations in the United States and elsewhere. Revell, Minicraft, Matchbox, and Testor are major producers of models of land, sea, and air craft in the United States. In addition to the models themselves, numerous books and magazines are devoted to building and collecting various kinds of models. Modeling associations include the National Association of Miniature Enthusiasts, founded in 1972 and devoted to the hobby of making and collecting doll houses and furniture; the Academy of Model Aeronautics, the official governing body for model aviation and publisher of Model Aviation magazine; and the National Model Railroad Association, founded in 1935, which is the largest model railroading association in the United States. Finally, shows and museums dedicated to model airplanes, trains, ships, and the many other genres of models attract millions of visitors each year.