Orang Asli

PRONUNCIATION: oh-RAHNG ahss-LEE
LOCATION: Malaysia
POPULATION: 132,873 (in 2000)
LANGUAGE: Orang Asli; Malay; Thai; other dialects
RELIGION: Animism; Islam; Christianity
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 3: China and Her National Minorities; Iban; Kelabit; Vol. 4: Malaysian Malays

INTRODUCTION

As a collective, the term Orang Asli can be transliterated as "original peoples," or "first peoples." The word orang means "people" and the term asli comes from the Arabic word "asali," meaning "original," "well-born," or "aristocratic." The Orang Asli of Malay Peninsula (or West Malaysia) are divided into a great number of different tribal groups, some of which have very little contact with each other. The various Orang Asli tribes, which include 19 subethnic groups, have traditionally been grouped for administrative purposes under three main categories: the Negritos, the Senoi, and the Aboriginal-Ma-lays (refer to Table 1). Each group is unique in that it has a language and a mode of living quite different from the others. Each group includes a number of related tribes who speak similar languages and who follow a similar way of life, although some of the tribes are rather mixed. Differences between the Negritos, the Senoi, and the Aboriginal-Malay groups are also shown by their physical appearances.

In spite of differences in languages and physical appearances, all Orang Asli tribes share one thing in common, which is that they are the descendants of the earliest known inhabitants who occupied the Malay Peninsula. In other words, the Orang Asli lived in West Malaysia long before the arrival of the other races, that is, the Malays, the Chinese, and the Indians. Some authorities claim that the Negritos came to the Malay Peninsula about 25,000 years ago. There are different opinions as to the origin of the Senoi. Some suggest that they are related to present-day Cambodian and Vietnamese mountain tribes, while others propose that they are related to indigenous groups from southern India and Sri Lanka. They are believed to have arrived in Malaysia in a second wave of migration about 6,000 or 8,000 years ago. The third group, the Aboriginal -Malays, is often called "Jakun." They are thought to have migrated about 4,000 years ago, constituting the third wave of Orang Asli migration to Malaya. Their ancestors are believed to have migrated from the Indonesian islands to the south of the peninsula and, prior to that, are believed to have come from a location in Yunan, in present-day China.

Because of their small population, the Orang Asli are insignificant players in present-day political spheres. One parliamentary seat is reserved solely to look into the affairs of the Orang Asli. Nonetheless, there is a need to have more representatives in both the parliament and state assemblies. This could be done through elections for seats where Orang Asli represent a sizable section in the constituency, or through appointment.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Numbering 132,873 people in 2000, the Orang Asli constitute an extremely small segment of the population of Malaysia, making up only 0.5% of the total population (21.9 million in 2000). The Senoi are by far the largest subgroup, constituting 53.4% of the Orang Asli population. The Aboriginal-Malays, with a population of 40,117 people, form about 43.3% of the total, while the remaining 3.3% consists of the Negritos, who form the smallest segment of the population. The Semai-Senoi represent the largest subethnic group among the Orang Asli, numbering 34,248 people or 29.4% of the total Orang Asli population in 1999.

The Orang Asli are found in all 11 states of Peninsular Malaysia. Many of the Negrito groups, and most of the Semai-Senoi, live in the northern parts of the Malay Peninsula, while the Aboriginal-Malays are concentrated in the center and southern part of the Peninsula. The Orang Asli subgroups and their locations are:

Traditionally, most of the Orang Asli were forest dwellers. However, official statistics by the Department of Orang Asli suggest that today not all groups live in the deep jungle. Out of 840 Orang Asli settlements in 1997, 387 were in forested areas, while 440 were in forest fringe areas, and the rest (13 settlements) in urban areas. In a sense urbanization seems to be encroaching faster and closer onto Orang Asli settlements.

LANGUAGE

None of the Orang Asli groups have a written language. There-fore, they do not have a written history. Their histories are passed down through generations by word of mouth.

It is very common for Orang Asli to speak more than one language. A great number still speak their own language and practice tradition, while at the same time also speak Malay, Thai, or other Orang Asli languages. Some of the northern Orang Asli groups, for instance, the Semai-Senoi and Negrito groups, speak languages now termed Aslian (Mon-Khmer speakers). Members of the Aboriginal-Malay tribes speak dialects that belong to the Austronesian family of languages (as does the Malay dialect), with the exceptions of the Semelai and Temoq dialects. Some Aboriginal-Malays speak nothing other than standard Malay.

FOLKLORE

The Orang Asli, like many other indigenous people in Malaysia, have a rich folklore tradition. This tradition includes legends, fables, tales, and myths. One of their popular myths is the story of creation from the Jah Hut ethnic group. According to this myth, people originally inhabited an unnamed primeval land. Soon, however, the land became overcrowded, compelling some to leave. Some left in a ship with many decks. Some took with them a pair of every animal species and enough food for the journey. They left without really knowing where they were heading. After a while, turbulent waters caused the ship to break on a coral reef. In the confusion, those who happened to be at the top of the ship managed to cling to a few planks and to their blowpipes. Those inside the ship held onto tools, iron, and cloth and drifted away to other islands and other places. Thus, people were spread through the islands and mainland and moved from one island to another and from place to place.

RELIGION

Unlike other major religions of the world, the Orang Asli religion does not possess any written sacred script. Traditionally, the Orang Asli are animists and believe that there are spirits that dwell in inanimate objects, such as trees and rocks, and also in various natural phenomena, such as thunder and lightning. Beliefs in shamanism are still very strong among some of the tribes. Shamans are ritual specialists who have the gift of going into a trance. A shaman plays an important role in the life of Orang Asli as an intermediary between humans and the world of spirits, to combat evil spirits, cure illnesses, and also to strengthen the morale of the group.

Aside from shamanism, dreams occupy an important place in the spiritual life of the Orang Asli. Dreams are believed to foretell the future and are also used to control social behavior. Everyone in the tribe is encouraged to share their dreams, which are then interpreted by an expert in the community. Children are encouraged to mention their dreams to their fathers. As an agent of social control, a dream bestows obligations on its dreamer to warn his or her friends of any forthcoming danger. For instance, if a person dreams that one of his or her friends is attacked by a wild animal, the dreamer is responsible for warning his or her friend of the danger.

Today, some Orang Asli have embraced other major religions, particularly Islam and Christianity. Aboriginal-Malays have been Muslim for over 100 years.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

See the article entitled Malaysian Malays .

RITES OF PASSAGE

Socialization among the Orang Asli is an informal, natural, and gradual process. It is a major concern of the parents. The father is responsible for training the male children, while the mother concerns herself primarily with her daughters. A son is normally under the care of his mother until the age of five or so. At this age, a son begins to look upon his father both as an example and as a teacher. The father teaches the son how to hunt and use the blowpipe, and the son gradually begins to follow the father on hunting expeditions. The mother, on the other hand, is responsible for bringing up her daughters. As her daughters become older, she teaches them how to prepare food and look after the family's dwelling. Also, at this period, they begin to accompany the older women on their food-gathering forays.

In all the tribes, men and women marry at an early age. A man will normally marry at the age of 18 or so, while his bride may be a few years younger. Even though most marriages are informal arrangements and are not marked by any special ceremony, marriage as an institution is still highly regarded by the Orang Asli.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Sharing whatever one can afford with others in the community is highly valued among the Orang Asli. If one has only a little surplus over one's own immediate needs, one shares it with one's nuclear family. If the surplus is larger, it is shared with people in one's house or neighboring houses. If the surplus is very large, it is shared with all of the people in one's settlement.

Besides sharing, all the tribes stress values like cheerfulness, a lighthearted attitude to life, and a willingness to cooperate with others, especially with one's friends and kinfolk. These are very important attitudes for surviving in the Orang Asli's difficult and at times rather grim environment.

The Orang Asli are peace-loving and friendly people. Thus, they set a high value on nonviolence and avoidance of disputes. They are also very shy, and their first response to threat is flight rather than hostility. Respect for older people is also highly regarded, and children are taught from a very young age to respect their elders.

LIVING CONDITIONS

It is important to note that the majority of the Orang Asli are not jungle-dwellers or nomads although many live in forest or forest-fringe areas. The only exception is the Negritos, who lead a nomadic or seminomadic existence. These people normally live in remote areas of the jungle. Therefore, they are considered materially poorer and less developed than the others. Some of these tribes live together or in bands. Others have settled and live in villages, much like the Malays.

Most of their dwellings, called "wind screens," are made from jungle materials, such as bamboo, wood, leaves, sticks, and rattan. A very simple dwelling usually consists of a small and rather narrow sleeping platform. However, others, such as the Temiar, live in longhouses. Every longhouse has a number of divisions or compartments, each with a separate hearth or fireplace.

The Orang Asli have a great deal of variation in their ways of life. However, as a community, the Orang Asli are not always well-off from a material and a nutritional point of view. There is a degree of malnutrition, as their diet is insufficient in protein. They normally supplement their starchy diet by hunting and fishing. Animals and fish provide the much-needed protein, but normally the amount is insufficient. This is aggravated by the need to share the food among the population.

Certain settlements lack basic amenities, such as piped water and electricity, and have to depend on water from the streams and kerosene for light. Nonetheless, at present, many own transistor radio sets.

FAMILY LIFE

The social structure of the various tribes is essentially similar. The most basic kinship unit is the nuclear family; a husband, wife, and their own children. This is considered to be the most important unit of the social structure. Besides being a social structure, the nuclear family is an economic unit and a basic working group. The father is always the leader of the family and will be replaced by his wife only if he dies.

A division of labor between men and women exists within the households. The father and sons are responsible for providing meat for the family and thus go out hunting together, while the mother, accompanied by her daughters, provides the jungle fruits and vegetables. The mother usually cooks the food for the whole family.

The concept of dating in the Western sense does not exist among the Orang Asli. When a young man is in love with a girl and wants to marry her, he will approach her father, but he will only do this after he has already reached a clear understanding with the girl.

CLOTHING

Traditionally, children up to the age of five or so generally went naked, but nowadays all Orang Asli wear clothes of some kind. The traditional skirt of the Negrito women is a short, fringed skirt, which is commonly made from pounded tree bark. Sometimes belts, headbands, and bracelets are also worn. While the women wear skirts, the men's traditional clothing consists essentially of a loincloth, called chawat in Malay, which again is made from pounded tree bark. In addition, the men frequently wear rattan belts, which are used for the carrying of knives and other small items such as tobacco pouches. Traditional clothing of this kind has become increasingly rare.

Orang Asli's contacts with other communities, especially with the Malays, facilitated the introduction of a Malay-type of cloth that is made from cotton and is of a Western dress code. For instance, the women today usually wear sarongs made from cotton, and men will normally wear a pair of trousers or shorts, putting on a shirt when he goes into the jungle.

FOOD

Some groups of Orang Asli are able to survive in the jungle for years, without resorting to the cultivation of any crops. They rely on varieties of tubers, rattan roots, different kinds of jungle fruits, and many other jungle shrubs and vegetables as their staple diet. For example, for the Negritos, wild tubers are the basis of their diet, cooked in a variety of ways.

Some other tribes, such as the Temiar, cultivate two staple crops: hill rice and tapioca. Other vegetation, such as millet, bananas, maize (corn), and other vegetables, are also grown. Some tribes also domesticate animals, mostly chickens, for domestic consumption.

EDUCATION

The government encourages formal education among the Orang Asli, as it does for other Malaysians. The Aboriginal Peoples Act of 1967 and 1974 stipulates that no Orang Asli child should be precluded from attending any school only by reason of being an Orang Asli. As a result, the overall enrollment of Orang Asli in school has increased. Nonetheless, there is still low rate of literacy and proportionally small number have attained tertiary education. For instance, by 1997, only 138 Orang Asli obtained tertiary education with government assistance, while 99 persons were still pursuing their education. Low educational attainment is mainly because of high dropout rate among Orang Asli children at the primary level. For the period 1971-1995, an average of 62.1% of Orang Asli students dropped out annually.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

The Orang Asli, like many other indigenous peoples across the world, depend partly on the forest for their living. All sorts of jungle products are put to good use as raw materials. Various jungle products, such as bamboo and wood, are used to build houses and to make household utensils and vessels, ornaments, and different kinds of musical instruments (such as flutes made from bamboo, and wooden and bamboo xylophones). Bamboo is used to build houses and for the construction of tools, weapons, baskets, waterpipes, rafts, traps, and hunting implements.

WORK

The Orang Asli have varied occupations and ways of life. For example, those who live close to the coastal areas are mainly fishermen and women This includes the Orang Laut, Orang Seletar, and Mah Meri. Others, such as some members of the Temuan, Jakun, and Semai, are involved in permanent agriculture and manage their own rubber, oil palm, or cocoa farms. There are also others who are engaged in traditional economic activities like shifting cultivation, cassava swiddening, and hunting and gathering. These are subgroups who still live close to or within forested areas, such as the Temiar, Chewong, Jah Hut, Semoq Beri, and all the Negrito groups. There are others who also engaged in some trading with the Malays, with jungle produce (such as petai, durian, rattan, and resins) being exchanged for salt, knives, and metal axe-heads. These groups live very close to, or within, the forest area.

As a result of urbanization and migration trends a fair number also live in urban areas and are engaged in both waged employment and salaried jobs. These include the fields of agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, and hunting. There are others being employed in production and production-related activities, such as in electronic, textile, and rubber-products factories. Some are employed by the government, and some engage in seasonal work in Malay villages or work as laborers in the tea estates in places like the Cameron Highlands.

SPORTS

Hunting animals (by men) and gathering wild fruits and vegetables from the jungle are considered sports among the Orang Asli, as is true among many indigenous people in the tropics. Swimming in the rivers is a sport mainly enjoyed by the children. Other games, such as soccer, volleyball, and sepak takraw, are becoming popular among the Orang Asli.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Most Orang Asli, particularly those who still live close to or within forest areas, do not have televisions, compact discs, or tape players, though some do possess transistor radio sets. Traditional dances serve as a form of entertainment. These dances are always held after nightfall and are accompanied by public singing or chanting. Hunting, besides providing a reliable source of animal protein, generates much excitement for the hunters, who are invariably male, and is thus treated as a form of recreation as much as a task.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Orang Asli material culture consists of various types of household utensils woven by women and tools and weapons made by men. Women weave baskets from various pandanus leaves. This requires skill, knowledge, and experience. Some of the baskets are carried in the manner of a rucksack. Larger baskets are used to carry various household goods and clothes, while small baskets are used as tobacco pouches and for carrying other personal articles.

The blowpipe is an important weapon among the Orang Asli. The construction of a blowpipe is a very skilled job, and it sometimes takes longer to make a blowpipe than it does to build a house. Another work of art that is considered unique, particularly among the Negritos, is the beautifully incised and decorated comb, which is primarily used by women. These combs, with anywhere from 12 to over 20 teeth, are cut from a piece of split bamboo. The possession of these combs is a source of great satisfaction and pride to their owners.

Wooden statues and carvings, and beautiful wooden masks that are worn during dances and other ceremonies, are also highly valued by the Orang Asli.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Because of their geographical isolation, and also because of their relatively small population, the Orang Asli are economically and politically disadvantaged when compared to the rest of their Malaysian fellow citizens. The official statistics classify 35.2% of Orang Asli as extremely poor, and they lag behind in basic infrastructure and in political representation. However, today, the greatest threat to the Orang Asli culture, identity, and livelihood is their dispossession from their traditional homelands. Their lands are often used for development schemes, plantations, mining concessions, highways, dams, and various other forms of development. Land dispossession is a persistent issue facing the Orang Asli, and insecurity of land ownership is the most threatening social problem the Orang Asli have ever encountered.

GENDER ISSUES

Females comprise almost 49% of the Orang Asli population in Peninsula Malaysia. Traditionally there was a sexual division in roles and functions whereby women held important responsibilities as shamans and influential leaders in society. However, the spread of sexual differentiation and social inequality through contacts and internalization of external cultures have affected gender relations and the present position of women in Orang Asli society. This is made evident through the exclusion of women in most political functions and official meetings. Since all Orang Asli village heads (batins) are men, only the men attend official meetings with government representatives. In other words, Orang Asli women's involvement in the social and political domains is increasingly restricted and limited.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carey, Iskandar. Orang Asli: The Aboriginal Tribe of Peninsular Malaysia. Oxford University Press, 1976.

Nicholas, Colin. The Orang Asli and the Contest for Resources. Indigenous Politics, Development and Identity in Peninsular Malaysia. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, 2000.

Nicholas, Colin. Pathway to Dependence: Commodity Relations and the Dissolution of Semai Society. Monash Papers on Southeast Asia No. 33. Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994.

Nicholas, Colin, Chopil, Tijah Yok, and Sabak, Tiah. Orang Asli Women and the Forest. The Impact of Resource Depletion on Gender Relations among the Semai. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Center for Orang Asli Concerns, 2003.

Nicholas, Colin, and Raajen Singh. Indigenous Peoples of Asia: Many Peoples, One Struggles. Bangkok: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact, 1996.

—by P. Bala