Orcadians

ETHNONYM: Orkney Islanders

Orientation

Identification. The Orkney Islands constitute one of the three "Special Island Areas" of Scotland. Prior to the fifteenth century, the Norse were the majority of the population. After 1469, Scottish settlers arrived in increasing numbers and, in time, supplanted the older culture and Language. The Romans called the islands "Orcades." Early Irish writers called them "Insi Orc" or "Islands of the Boar."

Location. The Orkneys are located to the northeast of northern Scotland. They consist of 90 islands, of which only 23 are inhabited. They are separated from Scotland by the 10-kilometer-wide Pentland Firth and are 83 kilometers south of the Shetland Islands. They extend from 58°41′ to 59°24′ N and from 2°22′ to 3°26′ W. The largest island, Mainland, which makes up half the land area, is 39 kilometers long in an east-west direction. The northerly islands are Rousay, Shapinsay, Westray, Papa Westray, Sanday, Stronsay, and the more remote island of North Ronaldsay. The southern Islands, separated from Mainland by the inland sea of Scapa Flow, are Hoy and South Ronaldsay. With the exception of high cliffs and hills on the western coasts, the treeless islands consist of broad lowlands and low-lying hills. The spectacular red sandstone sea stack, the Old Man of Hoy, is a famous landmark. The highest point is Ward Hill (549.5 meters) on Hoy.

A subarctic oceanic climate and vegetation pattern prevails. This is conditioned by the Gulf Stream, North Sea, and Atlantic Ocean. Severe winter gales occur at times. The January mean temperature is 4° C and the July mean is 13° C. The annual rainfall averages between 150 and 250 centimeters.

Demography. In 1981, the population of the Orkney Islands was 19,040, of which 14,900 lived on Mainland. The largest town and the administrative center is Kirkwall (Population 4,600 in 1971); Stromness (population 1,477 in 1961) is the only other large town. All other communities are very small. Since 1861, the population has slowly declined.

Linguistic Affiliation. The local dialect of English is derived from earlier forms of lowland Scottish English. It still retains many words of Norn, the former dialect of Norwegian, which died out in the seventeenth century.

History and Cultural Relations

The islands are famous for their remains of Neolithic, Bronze Age, and Iron Age settlements. Of these, the best-known are Skara Brae, a Neolithic settlement first excavated by V. Gordon Childe in the 1920s; Maeshowe, a Bronze Age chambered cairn; and the Ring of Brogar, a henge-type monument. There are many brocks (round stone towers) from the Pictish Iron Age. Viking raiders first appeared in the eighth century; Viking settlers followed during the next few centuries. The emerging Viking-Norse culture, which became Christianized in the early twelfth century, continued until 1468-1469, when the Orkneys and Shetlands were transferred to Scotland as a pledge in lieu of a dowry for the daughter of King Christian I of Denmark and Norway when she married King James III of Scotland. This pledge was never redeemed and, in 1472, Scotland formally annexed the islands. Scottish settlers began arriving after 1230 and their increasing Presence influenced the local culture and language. During the late 1500s and early 1600s, the people suffered greatly under the tyrannical rule of the Scottish earls and the feudal system they imposed. During the nineteenth century, these restrictions were eased and agricultural improvements were Instituted, resulting in a greatly improved quality of life. In the eighteenth century, 75 percent of the employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada were recruited in the Orkneys. Commercial agriculture in the early twentieth Century and the discovery of the North Sea oil in the 1970s brought a new type of economic prosperity to these islands.

Settlements

Since Neolithic times, the Orkneys have been relatively sparsely settled. Even though clustered settlements, such as the village of Skara Brae, were present in the Neolithic period, dispersed farms and houses have been the norm. The few clusters of farmhouses are near crossroads where there is Usually a store, a pub, and a garage. During Norse times, the Udal land-tenure system, whereby each child received a share of the farm, led to a highly fragmented system of land tenure and demographic dispersal. Although many of these shares were consolidated into "feudal" estates by the Scottish earls, this system in part persisted. In 1886, the Udal system continued within the framework of the Crofters' Holdings Act and the emergence of commercial beef-cattle production. The largest settlement, Kirkwall, was founded by the Norse in the tenth century. Stromness is the main ferry port linking the islands to northern Scotland.

Economy

Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Orkney economy was and still is based on farming; fishing is of minor importance. Fifty-two percent of the land is classified as arable land. In earlier centuries, black oats and bere barley were the staple grains. Kale and (later) potatoes were also Important. Every family had a pig, a cow, and a few hens and geese. Because of the cool and rainy growing season, the oats and barley had to be dried in small home kilns. In 1830, and especially after 1850, the estate owners began programs of "agricultural improvements." Fragmented small fields were consolidated, commons were enclosed, soil liming was used to enrich the soil, new grasses for hay were seeded, silage making was encouraged, and beef-cattle raising was encouraged. New, larger breeds of sheep and cattle replaced the smaller, older breeds. Sheep numbers declined, although the ancient sheep still survive on North Ronaldsay. Kelp burning for ash, which was sold to glass makers, ended, and the kelp was used to enrich the soil. Beef, mutton, and other farm products found a ready market in the growing industrial cities of Scotland and England. In the twentieth century, farm mechanization furthered this change to the extent that farming became a business rather than a way of life.

Other sources of livelihood include some fishing and fish processing, a whiskey distillery, cheese making, tourism (in the summer), and the development of the nearby North Sea oil fields (since 1970). Recently, crab and lobster fishing have been developed. Peat, the traditional local fuel, has to a great extent been supplemented by coal, electric power, and now petroleum products.

Industrial Arts. Industrial growth has been inhibited Because of the lack of trees, metallic ores, and coal on the Islands. Island crafts include some wooden fishing-boat building, a tweed mill, the making of silver jewelry using ancient Celtic and Norse designs, home knitting, and straw-backed chair making.

Trade. Trade in beef cattle, mutton, and frozen and processed fish link Kirkwall and Stromness with the major ports in Scotland. Shops and businesses such as bakeries, printers, food markets, hardware, clothing, and furniture are concentrated in Kirkwall and Stromness, the only towns of any size and importance.

Division of Labor. On the farms and crofts, women did the cooking, baking, dairying, and washing. Between 1900 and 1960, when poultry and egg production was important, women cared for the chickens and controlled the monies from them and the eggs. Men cared for the beef cattle, did the heavy agricultural fieldwork, and fished.

Land Tenure. The land-tenure system is a complex mixture that has evolved from the old Norse Udal system, Scottish feudalism of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Crofters' Holdings Act, and modern individually owned farms. In the Udal system, each legitimate child inherited part of the land and other property. After the Scottish earls arrived, they gained control of much of the land and became large estate owners. The farmers and others became tenants who paid rents in kind. After the Crofters' Holdings Act of 1886, the rents were fixed and land security was protected. In the twentieth century, the estates were broken up and private use and titles became more important.

Kinship, Marriage, and Family

Kin Groups and Descent. An unfocused variety of cognatic descent is characteristic of the rural areas of Orkney. Within the rural localities, most people are related to each other. Precise kin ties beyond that of first cousin are of little importance. However, people will invoke kinship in order to justify their relations to each other. The older patterns of local endogamy are breaking down as young people who board in Kirkwall to attend secondary school meet Individuals from other areas.

Kinship Terminology. Orkney kinship terms follow similar bifurcate-merging patterns in Scotland and the British Isles in general. Relationships to both sides of the family receive equal stress.

Marriage. Weddings have always been an important aspect of social life, especially in the rural farming areas. Local endogamy is common. In the past, young men often delayed marriage for years because of poverty. They would go to Scotland, England, Canada, etc. to earn enough money before Returning to marry and settle down. Prior to the formal wedding, announcements and visits took place between the two families. For most people, a marriage was socially valid only if it was performed by a minister in a church. Thursday was considered a lucky day for a wedding. The divorce rate is very low.

Domestic Unit. The basic domestic unit is the nuclear family with neolocal residence. However, on the smaller Islands, the housing shortage often forces a young couple to live for varying lengths of time in either his or her parental home. When a house becomes available, they leave.

Inheritance. Today, the farm or the inherited use of farmlands will usually go to one chosen child. Movable property will be passed on to various children. In some cases, land can now be sold to other islanders or even outsiders.

Socialization. The care and training of children was done by the mother, older siblings, and grandmother. In the past, much of this was done in the context of storytelling and rhyme. Homemade wooden toys—especially boats, domestic animals, and windmills—were common. Some villages had schools by the mid-eighteenth century. In 1971, there were twenty-nine local primary schools; only Kirkwall and Stromness had secondary schools. Children from the outer islands who attend secondary schools are boarded in Kirkwall.

Sociopolitical Organization

Social Organization. After 1468, the incoming Scottish earls slowly established a feudal system with large estates and increasing control over the rural population. By the nineteenth century, only a small minority of the farms remained as freehold. Beginning in the early nineteenth century, their control was slowly diminished. The 1886 Crofters' Holdings Act enabled the crofters to regain a high degree of freedom and security on their leaseholds. Today, there are very few distinctions in social rank, especially on the smaller islands.

Political Organization. Between 1973 and 1975, the old county of Orkney was abolished and the Orkneys became one of three Special Island Areas of Scotland. In this new Structure, they were allowed to retain a high degree of local authority. The island area operates through the Scottish Office in Edinburgh. Police and fire services are provided through the nearby Highland Region of northern Scotland. The Orkney Island Council has special linkages with London for Petroleum and energy development. Other services are provided through various Scottish development agencies.

Social Control. Local "ethnohistorical" pride, island isolation, and a small population are the primary means of social control. No murders have occurred here in over 120 years. On a formal level, the Scottish court system prevails.

Conflict. The major source of local conflict is rooted in the islanders' respect for their original Norse culture and identity. Many islanders resent the recent (post-1970) influx of Scottish and English migrants. Many prefer union with England rather than Scotland. The County Library, which was founded in 1683, the Tankerness House Museum, and the Stromness Museum serve as important centers that enhance island cultural identity.

Religion and Expressive Culture

Religious Beliefs. Since the Reformation, Protestant denominations have replaced the older Celtic-Norse form of Catholicism. The Church of Scotland was established by the Stuarts. Later, the United Presbyterian Church, the Free Church, and the United Secession denominations gained dominance. Saint Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall, which dates back to 1137, is unique in Britain in that it was deeded over to the Royal Burgh of Kirkwall and does not have a bishop. Most Orcadians are very religious, but the older strict Sabbatarianism has vanished. Today, the churches are important social centers.

Religious Practitioners. Protestant ministers traditionally have been respected as individuals and leaders by most People. However, there has always been some anticlericism over the past two centuries. The people of Harray District on Mainland were regarded as the most devout people.

Ceremonies. The weekly Sunday services are still of importance to many people, especially in the rural and smaller island areas. During the yearly religious cycle, the most important festive days are Yule, New Year's, Candlemas, Easter, Lammas, Harvest Home, and Halloween. On the secular side the annual Ba' (Ball) games on Christmas (Yule) and New Year's are major community events in Kirkwall. The two opposing "teams," the Uppies (uptowners) and the Doonies (downtowners), engage in a "free-for-all football match" on the narrow winding "main" street of Kirkwall.

Arts. The most important local art is the making of sterling silver jewelry; knitting is of less importance. The most important modern Orkney writers have been Edward Muir, Eric Linklater, and, currently, George Mackay Brown of Stromness.

Medicine. The medical services and practices are basically the same as those for the rest of the United Kingdom (i.e., Socialized medicine, modern clinics, and hospitalization). Rural doctors are present, but most services are centered in Kirkwall.

Death and Afterlife. Death and funerals were a reminder of the unity of the kin group and all households within the local community. In the past, wakes of eight days were held in the home. The wakes were accompanied by games among the younger people, condolences by others, and an ever-present fear that the ghost of the deceased might return. Drinking of ale and whiskey was an important part of the funeral. The basic Protestant beliefs in heaven and hell prevail.

Bibliography

Bailey, Patrick (1971). Orkney. Newton Abbott, U.K.: David & Charles.

Fenton, Alexander (1978). The Northern Isles: Orkney and Shetland. Edinburgh: John Donald.

Firth, John (1922). Reminiscences of an Orkney Parish. Stromness, Scotland: W. R. Rendali for the Stromness Museum. 2nd ed. 1974.

Marwick, Ernest W. (1975). The Folklore of Orkney and Shetland. London: B. T. Batsford.

Theodoratus, Robert J. (1977). "The Orkney Islands: A Bibliographic Survey of Printed Materials on Ethnography, Folklife, Folklore, and Local History." Behavior Science Research 12:29-44.

Tulloch, Peter A. (1974). A Window on North Ronaldsay. Kirkwall, Scotland: Kirkwall Press.

ROBERT J. THEODORATUS