Somalis

PRONUNCIATION: suh-MAH-leez
ALTERNATE NAMES: Somalians
LOCATION: Somalia
POPULATION: More than 7 million
LANGUAGE: Maxaad tiri; Arabic
RELIGION: Islam (Sunni)
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 1: Swahili

INTRODUCTION

Somalia was much in the news during the last two decades. Many people have therefore gained their knowledge of the country and the Somali people from brief television images of pick-up trucks fitted with large caliber weapons, American marines hitting the beach, tomahawk missile attacks on suspected terrorist enclaves, street fighting among different factions in Mogadishu and starving people in rural areas. This image of a country and people in distress does not convey the richness and complexity of Somali life and culture, a culture that stretches back hundreds of years with roots in Arabia and both North and sub-Saharan Africa.

Somalia, unlike the majority of nation-states in Africa, has only one ethnic group. That group does have, however, significant divisions based on membership in various clan-families. What unites the Somalis is a common language, a reliance on animal husbandry, a shared Islamic heritage, the long-term inhabitancy of the Horn of Africa, and a belief that all Somali speakers, whether they live within the boundaries of Somalia or not, are descended from a common ancestor. Th us, in addition to the approximately 7-8 million Somalis who inhabit Somalia proper, the Somali-speakers who live within the northern province of Kenya, the Ogaden region of eastern Ethiopia, and the country of Djibouti are all considered to be part of one Somali nation.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Somalia is located in eastern Africa on what is commonly termed the Horn of Africa. The Horn extends into the Indian Ocean to the east, and the Gulf of Aden to the north. As a result, Somalia has a coastline extending almost 3,200 km (2,000 mi). To the west, Somalia is bounded by Ethiopia; to the southwest, by Kenya; and to the northwest, by Djibouti. The total area of the country is about 647,500 sq km (250,000 sq mi). Two long, sandy coastal plains dominate the coastal areas of the country. The interior is characterized by a series of moderate mountain ranges in the north, and a large rugged plateau in the south. The major rivers in Somalia are the Jubba furthest south, and the Shabeelle in the south-central area. The climate can be described as ranging from semiarid to arid, with average rainfall being less than 28 cm (11 in) per year. Animal husbandry is the most common subsistence activity in Somalia, with the major animals kept being camels, cattle, sheep, and goats. Agriculture is possible between the country's two major rivers, with sorghum, maize (corn), and a variety of legumes being raised.

In the late 19th century, the northern half of Somalia became a British protectorate. The southern half of Somalia was an Italian colony until 1960 when it was united with the northern half to become an independent republic. However, independence did not unite all Somali people. A unification that would bring Somalis living in Kenya, Ethiopia, and Djibouti into an expanded nation-state has remained a political goal for the last half century.

LANGUAGE

The language spoken by the vast majority of the Somali people is referred to as Maxaad tiri, but various dialects are spoken by members of the major clans within the country. Maxaad tiri and Arabic are official languages in Somalia, and many older people in the south also speak Italian. Government officials in the cities often speak English. Names for both males and females follow the Islamic pattern of a given first name followed by one's father's name, then one's father's father's name, father's father's father's name, and so forth. It is therefore common for a Somali to have names stretching back 15 generations. Somalis take extreme pride in their patrilineal ancestry. The perpetuation of family names, and the ability to recite each of them, is an important way of maintaining a connection with these ancestors.

FOLKLORE

Ceremonial feasts among the Somali people always include the telling of heroic tales of ancestors, as well as stories of more recent events in the lives of the storytellers themselves. As patrilineal ancestors are held in such high esteem by the Somalis, much of their folklore revolves around these family “heroes” who have aggrandized the wealth or status of the clan through fighting or clever economic actions.

RELIGION

The official state religion of Somalia is Islam, and almost 100% of the Somali population is Sunni Muslim. Although the Somali follow the practices associated with Islam—praying five times a day, not eating pork products, abstaining from alcohol, and males having up to four wives at one time—they are not as traditional as many Muslims. Women do not practice purdah, or seclusion. They do not wear veils or cover their entire bodies when outside the home. They are full participants in subsistence activities in the rural areas, and they frequently own shops and work in a variety of occupations in urban areas, as well. (See section on Gender issues for more detail.)

As is common in many parts of the Islamic world, Somalis incorporate a belief in a spirit world into their religious system. These spirits, or jinns, can be good or evil and can affect the lives of individuals, families, and even large kinship groups. It is therefore necessary to placate them, and sometimes to metaphorically fight them, in order to avoid and overcome illness, loss of property, marital problems, infertility, and even death. There are specialists who “fight” jinns through prayer, ceremonies resembling exorcisms, and the ritual killing of animals. In addition to providing remedies for a variety of misfortunes, these ceremonies serve as important mechanisms for both enhancing clan solidarity and linking different kinship groups.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

Holidays in Somalia are associated with Islam. Ramadan is a month-long fast during which Muslims, in order to exhibit their beliefs, do not eat or drink during daylight hours. Ramadan ends with the feast of Id Al-Atah. This is also the first day of the month of Haaj during which believers are expected, at least once in their lives, to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Muhammad's birthday, Mowluud, is also a holy day among the Somalis and is celebrated with feasting.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Life events among the Somali are celebrated by feasting. The type and number of animals killed, and the particular individuals invited to the feast, depend on the wealth of the family involved and the nature of the event. The feasting is both an announcement that an important event has occurred, and a validation of the role of the family in the life of the clan. Birth is always an important event. Although boys are more highly valued among the Somali than girls, one or more sheep or goats will be killed to celebrate the birth of either. Death also results in feasting. The type and number of animals killed varies directly with the status of the deceased: a goat for a young child, to one or more camels for the death of an old, wealthy male.

Marriage is viewed by Somalis as a bond between two kinship groups, rather than only between two individuals, and is marked by a series of exchanges and ceremonies. The opening exchange is termed fad and usually consists of a relatively small amount of sorghum, a sheep, or a goat that the potential groom's patrilineal kin group presents to the kin group of the family of the potential bride. If the fad is accepted, then negotiations over the much larger bride-price (meher) can begin.

The meher is gathered by the groom's patrilineal kinfolk and can consist of camels, cattle, sheep, and goats. These animals are given to the family of the bride and are further distributed to close kin of the bride's father. The bride's family prepares the items necessary for family life: the aqal (a portable house), a bed, cooking utensils, mats, ropes, and skins. These are given to the married couple. The groom's family is responsible for slaughtering a camel and/or cow, which is consumed by the two immediate families. The bride's family will slaughter one or more animals to feed all the other guests.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Contrary to their depiction on television over the last two decades as rampaging killers, the vast majority of Somalis are extremely friendly, warm, and peaceable. There is a strong tradition of hospitality that obligates individuals to welcome close kinfolk, clan members, and even strangers with tea and food. Because of the continual movement of people and animals throughout a large territory, and the precariousness of the arid environment, this type of hospitality is not uncommon among pastoralists, but the Somalis take special pride in providing it. The most common greetings are “Maalin wanaagsan” (Good day) and “Nabad myah?” (How are you?). For men, these greetings are followed by an extended shaking of hands, which is usually repeated with the same person even after a short absence. Women are less formal when greeting each other, and men and women who are not closely related by blood never shake hands or express other forms of intimacy.

There is nothing that could be construed as dating in the rural areas of Somalia. Even in urban areas, the contact between unmarried men and women is limited. Marriage is closely controlled by older men, and premarital sex is strongly forbidden. Unmarried men in their 20s will display their virility and prowess to women of marriageable age by dancing as a group, but older men do all they can to keep the young men far away from the unmarried women.

Although chronological age is not the sole marker of elder status, there is a general level of respect given to “older” men, especially when age is combined with success in other areas of Somali life. In particular, wealthy older men are accorded great respect, since wealth can only be gained by making wise decisions about animals, labor allocations, and marriages. It is expected that these older men use their status to increase the wellbeing of their immediate patrilineal kin and their clan.

LIVING CONDITIONS

It is necessary to differentiate between the inhabitants of rural and urban areas when discussing the living conditions in Somalia. The vast majority (90%) of the Somali people live in small villages scattered throughout the rural areas of the country. Few of them have electricity, clean running water, paved roads, or public services. There are two types of housing utilized by people in the rural areas: mundals and aqals. Mundals are permanent structures made of a mud and dung mixture spread over a wooden frame and then topped with a thatched roof. These houses are occupied by a husband and wife, with their children. An aqal is a mobile house made of wooden sticks and hides, which can be transported on the back of a camel from one location to another. Every married woman owns an aqal and is responsible for erecting and dismantling it as animal camps are moved.

The approximately 10% of the Somali population who live in cities experience a life much different from those who live in the rural areas. Before the civil war began, the residents of Mogadishu, Baidoa, Hargeysa, Kismayu, Berbera, and Marka had access to electricity, running water, paved roads, hospitals, and large markets. Most urban dwellers lived in single-family houses and in the 1990s worked as shopkeepers, traders, or craftspeople, or for the government. Conditions brought about by continued civil-strife in several urban centers, especially Mogadishu and Baidoa, have made it impossible for normal life to function.

FAMILY LIFE

Since wealth is equated with the number of animals a man has, the goal for most men is to have more than one wife, and as many children as possible, in order to care for more animals. As Muslims, men are allowed as many as 4 wives at one time. It is not unusual for older wealthy men to have 3 or 4 wives. However, divorce is easy and common, and therefore some men may have had 10 or more wives during their lifetime. Likewise, many women will have been married to more than one man because of divorce or the death of a husband. Men do not usually marry until they are in their late 20s and have been able to accumulate some camels and cattle. Women, on the other hand, marry for the first time at 13 or 14 years of age. After marriage, women live in the village or animal camp of their husband.

Family structure is based on patrilineal descent. Men belong to the clan of their fathers and trace relationship through male lines back to the beginning of the clan, with inheritance (wahaad) from father to son. There are six major patrilineally based “clan-families” in Somalia. The Daarood, the largest, live in an area from the tip of the Horn westward into Ethiopia. The Hawiyya are found primarily in the central plains and eastern coastal regions, and the Dir inhabit the most northern area of Somalia into Djibouti. The Isxaaq occupy the area between the Dir and Daarood in the northern plains. The Digil live along the southern coast between the Jubba and Shabeelle rivers; and the Rahanwiin inhabit the fertile area north of the Digil.

CLOTHING

Clothing worn by Somalis is greatly influenced by the hot and dry climate of the Horn. Consequently, men have traditionally worn a long piece of lightweight cloth (mawhees) as a wraparound skirt. A lightweight shirt is usually worn, and most men also use a long piece of cloth as a shawl at night when the temperature can drop to near freezing, and as a turban during the heat of the day when temperatures can reach above 38°c (100°f).

Even though women do not keep purdah (seclusion), they still traditionally wear a dress that covers their entire body from shoulders to ankles. It is also customary for women to wear a shawl that they can use to cover their heads when in the presence of nonfamily males. This layering of clothing allows women to remove their shawl when indoors or when outside in the heat of the day, and yet have appropriate covering for modesty purposes and when temperatures fall.

Prior to puberty, young girls usually wear a simple dress made of a lightweight fabric. Young boys wear shorts and, most recently, imported tee-shirts with a variety of logos of American and European sports teams. Unmarried males in their late teens and early 20s are responsible for herding their family's camels and often spend months far away from their homes. They wear the traditional mawhees, but are almost always shirtless in order to show off their physiques. To further accentuate their virility, these young men cover their torsos and cake their hair with ghee—aged butterfat. This form of attire is worn to attract females and is abandoned immediately after marriage.

FOOD

Given that the main economic activity among Somalis is the raising of animals, it is not surprising that the most desired food is meat. Although camel, cattle, goat, sheep, and even chickens are killed and eaten, camel meat is the most desired. Even though animals are plentiful and meat is the most desired food, it would be a mistake to think that meat is eaten every day. In rural areas, animals are generally only killed and meat eaten on special occasions. In urban areas, meat is available at markets, but once again it is not eaten daily. Instead, grains and vegetables are the everyday staple.

Sorghum, a grain crop widely grown in sub-Saharan Africa, is the most common food. Maize (corn), both locally grown and imported, began to be available in the 1970s in the urban areas of the country, as did imported rice. All the grains are cooked as a porridge and are traditionally eaten from a common bowl. Following Islamic practice, the porridge is eaten using only the right hand, without utensils. When meat is eaten, it is cooked separately from the porridge and then placed on top of the cooked grain. It is common, especially in rural areas, for men and women to eat separately.

Food delicacies include camel's hump, sheep's tail, goat's liver, and camel's milk. Camel's hump and sheep's tail (which are primarily fat stored by the animal in order to be reabsorbed during the dry season) and goat's liver are fried, and are only served on special occasions. Camel's milk is drunk more frequently, especially by unmarried males who are responsible for herding these animals. Although these traditional foods are available in markets, urban dwellers have access to a much wider range of foods, including specialty foods imported from overseas.

EDUCATION

Although during the 1970s and 1980s education for all children was a high priority for the government of Somalia, few children in rural areas attended school. Even fewer of those who did completed more than the primary grades. Children in urban areas had a greater opportunity for education, and college attendance was increasing. However, the continuing civil strife has destroyed the educational infrastructure, and almost all government-run schools have been closed since the mid-1990s. The only schooling that exists today for the majority of children are Koran schools taught by Sheikhs, Muslim holy men. These schools are usually attended only by boys and emphasize the memorization of important portions of the Koran. However, since the factional fighting began, many of these schools have expanded their curriculum in order to provide a broader education.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

At feasts, usually associated with rites of passage, men recall past events affecting their animals and lives, tell heroic tales of patrilineal ancestors, and recite passages from the Koran. This feasting and storytelling promotes unity among members of a particular subclan, the larger clan family, and ultimately the entire Somali nation. Dancing, accompanied by singing, is usually only performed by unmarried males in their 20s. These sexually charged “dances” often involve the young men proving their bravery by slashing their arms and legs with large knives. Although leaving dramatic scars on their bodies, this expression of virility in most cases does not permanently harm the participants. Although “frowned upon” by married men, who themselves usually have numerous scars on their arms and legs, these ceremonies are an important activity.

WORK

Somalis practice a clear division of labor based on gender. Men and boys tend to the animals, and women and girls prepare meals and undertake other domestic tasks. Boys as young as 6 or 7 years old are responsible for the care of sheep and goats, which are kept close to the village or animal camp. Teenage boys and men care for the cattle, which are moved further from home in search of feed and therefore require more skill to handle. Camels are herded by young men in their late teens and 20s. The camels and their herders are often away from their homes for months at a time in search of grazing and water. Thus, the ability for these males to make decisions and protect this valuable asset is an important rite of passage. In rural areas, older men function as resource managers as they constantly adjust their labor force comprised of their wives and children to maximize production of animals and, in the southern part of the country, grain.

Women are primarily responsible for child-rearing, food preparation, and all other domestic tasks. Although at first glance these domestic roles appear far less dramatic, and perhaps even less important, than the care of the herds, without the completion of these tasks males would be unable to successfully care for the herd animals. One particularly important task undertaken by women is the preparation for moving the household from animal camp to animal camp. This involves dismantling the family's aqal (portable house), packing it and all other domestic items on a camel, trekking to the next camp site and reassembling the aqal, reestablishing the homestead, and preparing the evening meal, all in less than 10 hours. In areas where domestic crops can be grown, women undertake an even greater work role, as they, and their children, are largely responsible for tending, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In urban areas, it is very common for women to own and run small shops selling a wide-range of products.

SPORTS

Soccer is the most popular and widely played sport in Somalia. However, its play is primarily restricted to the cities and larger towns and is not that prevalent in the villages. This is because children assume important roles within the pastoral society at an early age and particularly boys have little time for organized sport. Boys and girls play games, but the responsibilities assumed by children at an early age restrict the free time necessary for the organization and play of games.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Most entertainment among rural Somalis is in the form of ceremonies associated with major life transitions: birth, puberty, marriage, and death. For these ceremonies, animals are killed and the meat distributed to all who are in attendance. Most patrilineal kinfolk will be invited to these ceremonies, as well as relatives through marriage and other members of a village or animal camp. The main object is to reinforce kinship and other relationships through feasting and talking. Storytelling, recitation of ancestral names, and recounting the accomplishments of kinfolk and ancestors is a form of entertainment that has been lost in Western society, but which provides hours of pleasure for the pastoral Somalis.

Television is nonexistent in Somalia, although before the civil war the government did provide a radio service. Many urban and rural Somalis listen regularly to BBC broadcasts on the radio and are consequently well-informed about world events. Movie theaters also operated in all major cities and towns before the outbreak of widespread fighting. Most movies shown were either produced in India or were adventure movies from Hollywood.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

The Somali have little activity that could be described as folk art or crafts, but this does not mean that they make few objects. Quite the contrary, the Somali are quite proficient in crafts, producing fine wooden utensils, leather goods, woven mats and ropes, knife blades, and arrow points. However, each of these products has a definite utilitarian function, rather than being a remnant of a previous folk art or craft. Just as there are religious specialists and healers, there are people who specialize in, for example, ironworking or woodcarving. Much of the craft work, however, is undertaken by ordinary inhabitants of villages who have need of a woven rope or a carved knife handle. Perhaps in the future these utilitarian crafts will become a folk art, but until then, these are skills that are necessary for the functioning of Somali society.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Because of the continuing civil strife, there has been a complete breakdown of civil government since the early 1990s, resulting in the cessation of most public services in many of the areas of the country. This civil strife is the culmination of a movement to depose General Muhammad Siad Barre, who seized power in a military coup in 1969 and ruled as a virtual dictator until 1991.Unfortunately, the united clans that drove Barre from the country could not agree on a governmental structure. Fighting among them began in late 1991 and in some form or another, has been going on ever since. During the fighting, agriculture and livestock-raising has been disrupted, and well over one-half million people died of starvation and at least another 100,000, mostly in Mogadishu and surrounding areas, died in the fighting. The United Nations and a variety of non-governmental relief organizations (NGOs) have launched relief efforts over the last two decades, but the lack of a central government has resulted in little actual help for the people who need it most. The lack of a central government that could control the various clan factions, eliminate fighting and provide basic services for the population resulted in the rise of the Union of Islamic Courts (UIC) in 2005. By 2006, the UIC had gained control of Mogadishu and much of southern Somalia and, through the imposition of Sharia courts (the application of traditional Islamic justice), had brought relative peace to much of Mogadishu and the south. However, splinter groups of the UIC, especially a group of young Islamist fighters known as al-Shabab, made alliances with other world-wide radical Islamists resulting, in 2006, with the United States placing the UIC on its list of “foreign terrorist organizations.” In response to this action, Ethiopian troops invaded Somalia in late 2006 to aid Somalia's government in its fight against the UIC. Since Ethiopia is the traditional enemy of the Somali peoples, this action resulted in the formation of the Alliance for the Liberation of Somalia (ALS) in late 2006 to launch both military and diplomatic actions to force the Ethiopians out of the country. In 2007 the African Union sent the first troops to Mogadishu in an attempt to reestablish civil order, but these efforts have had little positive impact. As of early 2008 over 250,000 Somali had been displaced from urban centers and were living in squalid refugee camps in rural areas of the country.

GENDER ISSUES

Gender issues among the Somali are largely dependent on the local interpretation of Islamic law and traditional practice. Although traditionally Somali women have had more rights and independence of actions than in many other Islamic countries, the rise of more fundamentalist factions has resulted in purdah being imposed, depending on which faction is in control, in Mogadishu and other urban areas.

Since traditionally marriage functions to unite kin groupings, most marriages are arranged by older males within the clan with neither groom nor bride having input in the marriage choice. Men dominate marriages and can easily initiate and be granted divorce, while women have only limited ability to initiate divorce. It is very common for men to not only have more than one wife at any given time, but to marry and divorce frequently. Women can remarry after divorce, but most frequently these marriages are less desirable. Because they have lost the ability to provide children to the clan of a potential husband, post-menopausal women have the most difficulty remarrying. Within marriages, men dominate almost all economic matters and it is difficult, but not impossible, for women to own and control animals and land independent of their husbands. Children are members of their father's clan with the result that mothers, although having normal maternal responsibilities, have little say in the most important matters impacting their children, e.g., marriage partner and inheritance. This does not mean that children do not feel strong affection towards their mothers and it is not unusual for sons to support their mothers once widowed or divorced, but the patrilineal bond dominates all kin relationships. It is not an exaggeration to term traditional Somali society as patriarchal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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—by A. P. Glascock