Zimbabweans

PRONUNCIATION: zim-BAHB-wee-uhns
ALTERNATE NAMES: (Formerly) Rhodesians
LOCATION: Zimbabwe
POPULATION: 12.5 million
LANGUAGE: ChiShona; isiNdebele; English
RELIGION: Indigenous beliefs; Christianity; Islam
RELATED ARTICLES: Vol. 1: Ndebele

INTRODUCTION

Internationally, particularly in the West, Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) has been known for its rich tradition of stone sculpture and natural tourist attractions such as the Great Zimbabwe and Victoria Falls. Zimbabwe has a total area of about 400,000 sq km (150,000 sq mi). Before its colonization by Britain in 1896, the country was ruled by various autonomous ethnic kingdoms. The earliest people to inhabit the country were the San, sometimes referred to as the Qoisan or Khoisan (erroneously called “Bushmen”—this is a derogatory label). Their presence in the country can be deduced from the rock paintings scattered all over the country. After the San, the Shona arrived, who built stone walls in the region; the best-known of these are the Great Zimbabwe and Khami Ruins. Some of the well-known pre-colonial Shona kingdoms were the Great Zimbabwe, Munhumutapa, Torwa, Barwe, and the Rozvi.

Zimbabwe has been in a state of economic crisis since the early 2000s. The roots of the crisis date back to the mid-1960s and the era of African independence. In 1965, Ian Smith, the leader of Southern Rhodesia, declared unilateral independence from Britain, but imposed white minority rule, through the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). The UDI resulted in international backlash, including sanctions, and a guerrilla war, which lasted until 1979. More than 36,000 people died in the war and at least 15 million people were displaced. A peace deal was negotiated between Ian Smith's government, Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU).

Elections were held in 1980 and Mugabe became prime minister. In 1988, the ZANU and ZAPU parties merged into ZANU-PF, effectively creating a one-party state. In 1990, Mugabe's attempt to create a de jure one-party state failed, but despite that, in 1996, Mugabe succeeded in winning reelection on a platform of land reform. By 2000, Mugabe backed war veterans as they forcibly seized many of the white-owned farms. This led to shortages of commodities and a crippling of the economy.

The economic and political crisis has continued. Inflation is spiraling out of control. In January 2008, inflation was pegged at over 100,000%—the world's highest. Chronic food shortages, the collapse of basic services, compounded with over 20% HIV prevalence and corruption have led Zimbabwe to the brink of disaster. It remains to be seen if international pressure or negotiation will bring Zimbabwe back, or if collapse and chaos are inevitable.

LOCATION AND HOMELAND

Zimbabwe is situated in Southern Africa; it is one of South Africa's northern neighbors. It is located between 14° to 23°s and 25° to 33°e. By 2003, the country's population was estimated at 12.5 million—some 98% are African, and 2% are European, Asian, and mixed-race (sometimes referred to as “colored”). The geographic distribution of the population reflects the racial, ethnic, and economic make-up of the country. The rich farm land with favorable climatic conditions is inhabited and cultivated by the former colonial Europeans (whites), while Africans (blacks) cultivate poorer, overcrowded land. The industries in urban centers are controlled by the former colonial Europeans, Asians, and people of mixed race more than by Africans. Among Africans, those who live and work in the city are better-off economically than those who live in the countryside.

LANGUAGE

The African population of Zimbabwe is made up of at least 13 ethnic groups who speak different languages. Some of these ethnic groups are the Tonga, Kalanga, Nambya, Ndebele (who migrated from present-day South Africa), Shona (who migrated from present day northeast Africa), Shangani, Sotho, San (Abathwa), Dema, Shangwe, amaFengu, Sena, and Lemba. Two ethnic groups that have received much academic study and international visibility are the Shona and Ndebele. The Shona people make up over 70% of the country's population, while the Ndebele people make up less than 20%.

While these ethnic population groups have distinct cultures and languages, most people in the country speak at least two languages, including one of the three official languages: chiS-hona, isiNdebele, and English. All the indigenous languages fall within the so-called Bantu group of languages. Most of them are tonal languages.

These African groups also share some cultural practices pertaining to their social organization, folklore, religion, and historical experiences such as colonialism, pastoral economies, and the war of national liberation against British colonialism. Ironically, it was colonialism that provided the context within which most of the integration between the various ethnic groups occurred, particularly the educational, religious, and political systems. Even today, the education system has provided one of the means of developing a national culture that cuts across ethnic and racial boundaries.

FOLKLORE

Each ethnic group has its own historical heroes or heroines, legends, and myths that recount their origins, traditions, and history. Some of the heroes such as Mbuya Nehanda, Kaguvi, and Lobengula have become national symbols.

RELIGION

Historical processes have resulted in changes that have altered indigenous African life. Most families live in two worlds—the African and the European (or Western), and in their daily lives, they blend these two. Thus, while ancestral worship is the most dominant religious practice, Christianity and Islam have a stronghold in Zimbabwe.

Every ethnic group has its particular language, folklore, history, religion, cultural practices, cultural heritage, and folk arts. All indigenous Zimbabweans practice some form of ancestral religion, and more than 75% of the population are also Christian or Muslim.

Some of the indigenous practices such as rites of passage, interpersonal relationships, family life, clothing, food, work, sports, and other forms of entertainment have borrowed some elements from European culture. Most of these changes are fostered by the education system. In essence, there is no longer what could be regarded as purely indigenous practices. However, some of the practices are heavily embedded in indigenous culture.

MAJOR HOLIDAYS

The various racial and ethnic groups of Zimbabwe share a number of holidays. There are about 12 public holidays observed nationally, as well as those observed by the various religious groups such as Muslims and Christians. There are no indigenous holidays observed nationally, but families may have special days in the year during which they remember their deceased relatives. The most important national holidays are Independence Day, April 18; Workers' Day, May 1; Africa Day, May 25; Heroes Day, August 11; and Defense Forces' Day, August 12. These are generally celebrated under the supervision of the state. Government officials, including the president of the country, usually address the nation, especially on Independence, Heroes', and Defense Forces' days. These celebrations are accompanied by poetry, music and dance, and plenty of food and drink. Workers' Day is run by trade unions.

Easter and Christmas holidays are Christian holidays celebrated by Zimbabwean Christians. For most people, these holidays are an opportunity for rest or travel. They provide urban workers with the opportunity to visit their families in the communal lands (in the country).

RITES OF PASSAGE

While most Zimbabweans still practice their indigenous culture, that culture has been significantly eroded by Christianity and European colonization. Most of the traditional practices and beliefs associated with rites of passage are being replaced with Western ones such as baptism and birthday parties. The public celebration of rites of passage associated with birth and puberty has almost ceased, except among a very few ethnic groups such as the amaFengu (a subgroup of the amaXhosa people of South Africa). The amaFengu practice public adolescent male circumcision, to announce boys' graduation to manhood. There is one minor ethnic group, the Remba, who still practice infibulation, an extreme form of female genital mutilation. Marriage and death are still conducted in a manner that is very close to tradition. Marriage has remained a symbol of one's graduation into adulthood, while death and burial mark one's passage into the world of the “living dead,” that is, ancestors.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS

Interpersonal relations in Zimbabwe are characterized by a combination of African and European cultural practices. These practices vary according to ethnic group, although different ethnic groups borrow some practices from one another. Each ethnic group has its particular greetings and visiting customs. In some groups, elders have to initiate greetings, while in others someone younger should initiate them. Some shake hands and some do not. Bowing one's head, and bending one's knees are other customs followed by some groups but not others. Whenever one visits another person's homestead, the visitor has to humble himself or herself before the hostess or host. Gesturing, including eye and facial expressions, are also an important aspect of greetings and interpersonal relations.

Another important aspect of interpersonal relations that has been affected by Western culture is dating. Any form of dating in Zimbabwe always has a mediator. Most people do not usually date a stranger, for obvious reasons. Dating a complete stranger is regarded as one of the recipes for disharmony in a relationship. Another explanation has to do with incest. People who do not know each other's family histories risk being involved in an incestuous relationship. However, these beliefs are changing because most young people meet and date in schools, colleges, and universities with no prior knowledge of each other's family background.

LIVING CONDITIONS

Not all Zimbabweans enjoy the same living conditions, particularly health facilities, housing, and transportation. Rural parts of the country are the worst, and cities enjoy most of the best conditions. However, the current economic crisis has heavily impacted both rural and urban areas. Most rural families do not have tap water. Transportation has become challenging in all parts of the country due to both fuel shortages and poor upkeep of the road system. Many parts of the country no longer have regular transport. The same is true for health facilities. The whole country does not have adequate health facilities, but the rural population is hardest hit. Many communities do not always have access to a fully trained nurse let alone a doctor. Medicines are always inadequate. Some of the most common diseases are malaria, bilharzia, sexually transmitted diseases, tetanus, cholera, polio, and typhoid, and this is all compounded by the high HIV prevalence.

In both the city and the country, there are also local differences in the standard of living. In the city, the differences are based on race, gender, and class. People of European origin, Asians, people of mixed race, and elite blacks enjoy a better standard of living. In cities, women are the worst off because of the employment discrimination and related sexist practices that keep them from accessing resources such as land, credit, and housing.

FAMILY LIFE

Marriage and the family are the cornerstones of Zimbabwean society, regardless of ethnic group and race. Besides being an important rite of passage, marriage is regarded as a sacred practice. It is through marriage that the living are connected with their ancestors. It is within the family that gender roles are defined. Most ethnic groups have patriarchal families, in which women play a subordinate role. They are expected to serve their husbands, work for them, and bear them children. However, women have particular rights, and access to a form of power that is not usually expressed publicly. Families are usually headed by men, although there are a growing number of single-parent families headed by women. A typical family is made up of a husband and wife and at least two children. Traditional families are big, including five or more children, grandparents and children of relations. There are also what are known as extended families, composed of a father, a mother, and their son or sons with their own families.

Some men have more than one wife. It is not uncommon to find a man with 10 wives. One of the most common features of a Zimbabwean family, especially in the rural parts of the country, are animals. Most animals are not reared merely as pets but to serve other purposes. For instance, cats are kept in houses in order to kill pests such as mice and rats, and dogs are used to guard homes and for hunting.

CLOTHING

Most Zimbabweans do not wear traditional clothing as part of their everyday dress. European dress is the most dominant form of clothing in the country. There are very few people who wear traditional clothes on a regular basis. Traditional dress comprises a headdress, wraparound cloth, and ornamentation such as earrings, necklaces, and bracelets. This dress is usually seen during ceremonial and state occasions such as Independence Day and Heroes' Day.

FOOD

Zimbabwe's staple food is called sadza, made out of cornmeal and eaten with any relish, the most common being either greens or meat (particularly beef and chicken). Other traditional foods are milk, wild fruits, rice, green maize (corn on the cob), cucumbers, peanuts, beans, and home-brewed beer. While most of the utensils used are Western, some traditional utensils are still in use. Some of these are calabashes (gourds) that are used to store and cool water and milk; and clay pots used for cooking special foods such as meat, and for storing milk. Wooden plates and spoons are still in use alongside Western ones. Since colonization, Zimbabweans have adopted some of the European food or the foods introduced by Europeans, especially sugar, bread, and tea. Most families usually have a minimum of three meals: breakfast, lunch, and dinner. Nowadays, for breakfast people may eat porridge made out of cornmeal or oatmeal, cereal, or bread and tea. Leftovers from the previous day may be eaten for breakfast, too. For lunch, people usually have sadza with an accompanying relish, or any available heavy food. A similar meal might be eaten for dinner. However, foreign foods such as macaroni and cheese and mashed potatoes are now part of the staple diet. In cities, people can get meals from restaurants or take-out food places. Some of the fast-food places are Chicken Inn and Kentucky Fried Chicken.

There are taboos associated with certain types of foods. These taboos depend on a number of factors: family name, age, sex, and context. In some cultures, certain food is eaten only when it is in season. For instance, the amaNdebele discourage the eating of corn on the cob outside its season. Most ethnic groups also discourage the consumption of an animal, plant, or any other form of food that bears their family name. For instance, if one's family name is Nkomo (cattle: cow or oxen), one is not supposed to eat beef. Young children are discouraged from eating eggs. When a woman is menstruating, she is not supposed to drink milk because it is believed that doing so might harm cows and their calves.

EDUCATION

Zimbabwe has traditionally been one of the very fortunate countries in Southern Africa to have basic education facilities, especially for young people. While there are some people who cannot read or write, historically most people have at least three years of elementary education. Education has been regarded as an asset in a family since it is perceived as a passport to a good job. Thus, parents traditionally spend a lot of money on the education of their children as some form of future investment, because children are supposed to look after their elderly parents. After independence, especially in the late 1980s, the country invested many resources in education. This resulted in huge numbers of students graduating from four years of secondary school education. There was also an increase in the number of students with six years of secondary school education, the requirement for university enrollment. On average, the highest level of education is four years of high school. However, there have been growing numbers of people with a college education. Recently, the economic chaos has also had an impact on the education system. Many of the private schools have closed and the quality of public education has plummeted.

The national adult literacy rate increased from about 62% in 1982 to about 90% by 2004. The adult literacy rate is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. In both rural and urban areas, there are more literate males than females, and more males than females attain higher education levels. Attendance is mandatory for primary levels. Primary education is 7 years; secondary school, 6 years; college, about 2 to 3 years; and university at least 3 years to 7 for medical school.

University or college education gives one's family pride and happiness. However, the education system reflects the cultural and economic practices of Zimbabwean society. Most Africans in the country believe in educating sons rather than daughters because when daughters marry, they take family resources to another family.

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Zimbabwe has a very rich tradition of the arts, including music, dance, fine art and crafts, and literature. Traditionally, Africans transmitted knowledge through the arts, especially through music and dance. Music and dance were, and to some extent are still, part of ceremonial celebrations and rites of passage. Other media continue to be used as forms of communication, such as praise songs (an equivalent of poems), stories and proverbs.

WORK

Traditionally, work is defined along gender lines. Most domestic work such as cooking, brewing, and housekeeping is performed by women, while men work outside the home tending cattle, hunting and cultivating land. However, women also participate in agricultural work, by performing tasks that are defined as “light,” such as planting and cultivation. These roles are changing, however. Men help with some of the roles that were previously set aside for women, and women and girls now herd and milk cattle. In the early days of colonization, some families did not allow women to engage in waged employment in the city, mines, or commercial farms. The colonial state also did not allow the employment of women, especially black women, in wage-labor. However, despite these constraints, women found their way into cities to seek work. The independence government introduced legislation that abolished labor discrimination against women. As a result, the number of women in waged labor, such as factories, corporate, and government positions, increased. There is still a lot to be done, however, for women and the disabled to improve their opportunities.

SPORTS

The country's national sport is soccer. The Zimbabwe national soccer team is one of the rising soccer powerhouses in Southern Africa, if not in all of Africa. The team participates in the African Cup and World Cup competitions quite regularly. There are a handful of Zimbabweans who play on European soccer teams, especially in Britain, Germany, and Belgium. Other sports are track-and-field, golf, cricket, rugby, wrestling, boxing, netball (women's), tennis, and horse-racing. Sports in Zimbabwe are organized and funded along racial lines. Soccer, boxing, wrestling, and track-and-field are popular among Africans, while Europeans prefer golf, cricket, rugby, tennis, and horse-racing. However, people from either race cross over to other sports that are not common in their community.

Before colonization, people played indigenous games such as hide-and-seek, and engaged in various hobbies for amusement. Boys, while herding cattle, ran races or mounted small bulls, and played a type of stone game called intsoro or tsoro. Girls also had their own games such as nhoda, another kind of stone game. Today, most of the sports and games played are a mixture of indigenous and foreign ones. This has come about through the influence of schools and the mass media.

ENTERTAINMENT AND RECREATION

Traditional forms of entertainment such as drinking, singing, and dancing have persisted in contemporary society. Traditional ceremonies, state functions, and rites of passage also serve as entertainment. Race, class, and geographical location shape one's form of entertainment or recreation. Europeans (whites) have their own forms of entertainment such as going to movies, horseracing and riding, bird watching, stamp collecting, boating, watching plays, flying kites, and going to concerts. The concerts that whites and Asians go to are usually different from those that Africans attend.

Children have their own forms of entertainment and hobbies that are developed through the school system and the mass media, especially radio and television. They watch a lot of television and listen to Top 40 radio. Most of the television programs, videotapes, and films come from the United Kingdom and the United States. Children in Zimbabwe also play video and computer games. Zimbabwe is one of the dumping grounds of cheap and old popular culture products from the United States and the United Kingdom, such as TV shows like Dallas and Falcon Crest, professional wrestling, and soccer games. As a result, young people dress and try to imitate the lifestyles of musicians and actors from these two countries, especially African American performers. They also listen to local and regional pop artists, especially those from South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Some of the local well-known musicians are Oliver Mutukuzi, Dorothy Masuka, Thomas Mapfumo, Lovemore Majaivana, Bhundu Boys, and Andy Brown and Storm. Two internationally known films have come from Zimbabwe: Neria, a story about a woman whose property is about to be taken away from her by the relatives of her deceased husband; and Jit, a serious comedy centered on a young man who is torn between Western life and his ancestors.

FOLK ART, CRAFTS, AND HOBBIES

Zimbabwe is well known for its folk arts, particularly stone sculpture and woodcarving. Stone sculpture is a Shona tradition, while mat making and related arts and crafts are popular among the Ndebele, Kalanga, and Nambya people. Among the most-practiced arts in the past were house-decorating, bead-work, tie-dyeing material, mat- and basket-making, and iron-smelting. Pre-colonial Zimbabweans made weapons, hoes, and other tools for domestic use, such as knives from iron. Wild cotton and wild bark were used to weave mats, dresses, beehives, food containers, and water coolers. Baskets, storage containers, chairs, fish traps, carpets, and sleeping mats were and are made from cane, reed, grass, sisal, and related materials, both for domestic use and for sale.

Some of the traditional arts and crafts have continued to be used and adapted to the present. This can be seen in urban toys such as wire bicycles, hats, pieces of sculpture sold at airports, and related crafts, as well as popular culture such as music. Some dances and crafts are now used to attract and entertain tourists at places such as Victoria Falls.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

Despite the long strides that Zimbabwe has made in terms of building a democratic society, since the 2000s, these gains have been undermined. Soon after independence in the early 1980s, there was a lot of political instability and violation of human rights in the southwestern part of the country known as Mate-beleland, where the government claimed there was some rebel political activity (dissident activity). In an attempt to deal with the situation, government forces killed many civilians and violated other human rights in the region. This continued until 1988. It is estimated that more than 5,000 people were killed. Opposition is a political right in Zimbabwe, but it is not tolerated by the current government. Most opposition parties have found themselves having to give up because the state blocks their access to the government-controlled mass media and other resources that any political party requires. Most minority parties cannot access state funding because of existing legislation. As of 2008 the political crisis had shed light on more human rights abuses and raised concerns that the abuses could escalate. In 2005 the government undertook mass evictions and the demolition of many informal structures, known as Operation Murambatsvina. The United Nations reported that this operation deprived over 700,000 Zimbabweans of their homes or their livelihoods, or both. It has been suggested that this operation was conducted to punish those who were not supportive of the ruling party. There are concerns that more repressive laws are being introduced to suppress criticism of government policies. For example, in 2005 the parliament passed the Constitutional Amendment Act, giving government the power to expropriate property without the possibility of judicial appeal and to invalidate passports for those considered a threat to national security. Concerns have been expressed that while much of the international community has expressed outrage over these developments, the African leaders have been more conservative in their response, opting for “quiet diplomacy.”

Another area of human rights concern is the treatment of women. It is a well-known fact that Zimbabwe had become one of the countries in the world with a very progressive legal system as far as human and women's rights are concerned. However, this legal system has not been backed with action. The current government continues to harass and detain women as prostitutes, and has taken away some of the gains that women had made since independence. Some of the laws that empowered women, such as the Legal Age of Majority Act that gave women the right to marry whomever they wanted independent of parental approval are likely to be repealed.

Economic and social problems are intertwined. Since the late 1980s, the country has seen growing unemployment, especially among high school graduates. Coupled with the effects of the war of national liberation and consistent drought cycles, this has resulted in more social problems such as crime, drug and alcohol abuse, disease, and a depressed health system.

GENDER ISSUES

The constitution says that “every person in Zimbabwe” has fundamental human rights, regardless of race/color, tribe, place of origin, political or religious opinion, or gender, however, domestic violence and discrimination against women remains a problem.

Women are underrepresented in government and politics. In the year 2000 only 20 of the 150 members of parliament were women. While women may legally participate in politics without legal restriction, traditionally husbands, particularly in rural communities, direct women to vote according to the husband's preferences.

Violence against women, especially wife beating, is common. In 1998 more than 60% of the murder cases tried in the Harare High Court were due to domestic violence. There has been increased media reporting on sexual violence against women, but it has been noted that some High Court Judges impose lenient sentences in such cases.

The health status of women is worse than men. Women are more likely to be infected with HIV than men, due to both biological and cultural reasons. While women normally carry a heavier burden of care-giving, this has been intensified as a result of the high prevalence of HIV. While fertility is relatively low, with only 3.34 children per woman, maternal mortality is very high, with almost 600 per 100,000 live births resulting in the death of the mother.

Despite the efforts of government and an active civil society supporting the empowerment of women, women remain disadvantaged in society. Widespread illiteracy, economic dependency, social norms and traditional practices reinforce discrimination. Girls are less educated than boys, more likely to marry at a young age and to a person not of their choosing. They are also less likely to have their own land, formal employment, or to achieve economic independence. Furthermore, tradition does not respect decision making among women.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bourdillon, M. F. C. The Shona Peoples: An Ethnography of the Contemporary Shona, with Special Reference to Their Religions. Gweru: Mambo Press, 1976.

Bozongwana, W. Ndebele Religion and Customs. Gweru: Mambo Press, 1983.

Central Statistical Office. Census 1992: Zimbabwe National Report. Harare: Central Statistical Office, 1994.

Diary Notebook: Southern African Women Artists. Harare: Zimbabwe Women In Contemporary Culture Trust, 1995.

Dube, Caleb. Ndebele Oral Art: Its Development within the Socioeconomic Context. Harare: University of Zimbabwe, 1987.

Hamutyinei, M. A., and A. B. Plangger. Shumo-Shumo: Shona Proverbial Lore and Wisdom. Gweru: Mambo Press, 1974.

Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch World Report, 2006.

International Crisis Group. CrisisWatch, 2008.

Kuper, Hilda, A. J. B. Hughes, and J. van Velsen. The Shona and Ndebele of Southern Rhodesia. London: International African Institute, 1954.

McCrea, Barbara, and Tony Pinchuck. Zimbabwe and Botswana: The Rough Guide. Kent: Harrap Columbus, 1990.

Spectrum Guide to Zimbabwe. Derbyshire: Moorland Publishing Co., Ltd, 1991.

—revised by E. Serlemitsos