ANGOLA

Republic of Angola

República de Angola

CAPITAL: Luanda

FLAG: The upper half is red, the lower half black; in the center, a five-pointed yellow star and half a yellow cogwheel are crossed by a yellow machete.

ANTHEM: Angola Avanti.

MONETARY UNIT: The Angolan escudo (ae) was the national currency until 1977, when the kwanza (Kw) of 100 lwei replaced it. There are coins of 50 lwei and 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 kwanza, and notes of 20, 50, 100, 500, and 1,000 kwanza. Kw1 = $0.01129 (or $1 = Kw88.6) as of 2005.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Anniversary of Outbreak of Anti-Portuguese Struggle, 4 February; Victory Day, 27 March; Youth Day, 14 April; Workers' Day, 1 May; Armed Forces Day, 1 August; National Heroes' Day, 17 September; Independence Day, 11 November; Pioneers' Day, 1 December; Anniversary of the Foundation of the MPLA, 10 December; Family Day, 25 December.

TIME: 1 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

Angola is located on the west coast of Africa, south of the equator. Angola is slightly less than twice the size of Texas, with a total area of 1,246,700 sq km (481,353 sq mi), including the exclave of Cabinda (7,270 sq km/2,810 sq mi), which is surrounded by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC—formerly Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (ROC). Angola proper extends 1,758 km (1,092 mi) se-nw and 1,491 km (926 mi) ne–sw; Cabinda extends 166 km (103 mi) nne–ssw and 62 km (39 mi) ese–wnw. Angola proper is bounded on the n and ne by the DROC, on the se by Zambia, on the s by Namibia (South West Africa), and on the w by the Atlantic Ocean. Its total boundary length, including Cabinda's, is 5,198 km (3,233 mi).

TOPOGRAPHY

Topographically, Angola consists mainly of broad tablelands above 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in altitude; a high plateau (planalto) in the center and south ranges up to 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The highest point in Angola is Mt. Moco, at 2,620 m (8,596 ft), in the Huambo region; other major peaks are Mt. Mejo (2,583 m/8,474 ft), in the Benguela region, and Mt. Vavéle (2,479 m/8,133 ft), in Cuanza Sul.

Rivers are numerous, but few are navigable. There are three types of rivers in Angola: constantly fed rivers (such as the Zaire River), seasonally fed rivers, and temporary rivers and streams. Only the Cuanza, in central Angola, and the Zaire, in the north, are navigable by boats of significant size.

CLIMATE

Angola's climate varies considerably from the coast to the central plateau and even between the north coast and the south coast. The north, from Cabinda to Ambriz, has a damp, tropical climate. The zone that begins a little to the north of Luanda and extends to Namibe, the Malanje region, and the eastern strip have a moderate tropical climate. Damp conditions prevail south of Namibe, dry conditions in the central plateau zone, and a desert climate in the southern strip between the plateau and the frontier with Namibia. There are two seasons: a dry, cool season from June to late September, and a rainy, hot season from October to April or May. The average temperature is 20°c (68°f); temperatures are warmer along the coast and cooler on the central plateau. The Benguela Current makes the coastal regions arid or semiarid. The annual rainfall is only 5 cm (2 in) at Namibe, 34 cm (13 in) at Luanda, and as high as 150 cm (59 in) in the northeast.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Thick forests (especially in Cabinda and in the Uíge area in the north) cover the wet regions, and in the drier areas there is a thinner savanna vegetation. Fauna includes the lion, impala, hyena, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant. There are thousands of types of birds and a wide variety of insects.

ENVIRONMENT

Long-standing environmental problems in Angola have been aggravated by a 30-year war. The main problems are land abuse, desertification, loss of forests, and impure water. The productivity of the land is continually threatened by drought and soil erosion, which contributes to water pollution and deposits silt in rivers and dams.

The cutting of tropical rain forests for international timber sale and domestic use as fuel contributes to the destruction of the land. Angola's forests and woodland declined 3.1% between 1983 and 1993. Between 1990–2000, a further decline of 0.2% was reported. In 2003, about 6.6% of the total land area was protected, including the Quicama National Park. In 2002, improved water sources were available to 70% of the urban population and 40% of rural dwellers.

Endangered species in Angola include the black-faced impala, three species of turtle (green, olive ridley, and leatherback), the giant sable antelope, the African slender-snouted (or long-snouted) crocodile, the African elephant, Vernay's climbing monkey, and the black rhinoceros. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 11 types of mammals, 20 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 9 species of fish, 5 types of mollusks, and 26 species of plants.

POPULATION

The population of Angola in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 15,375,000, which placed it at number 61 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 2% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 46% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 97 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 2.6%. This relatively high rate, which the government viewed as satisfactory, is due in part to the low rate of contraceptive use (about 4.5%) in country. The projected population for the year 2025 was 25,876,000. The population density was 12 per sq km (32 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 33% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 4.92%. The capital city, Luanda, had a population of 2,623,000 in that year. Other principal cities are Huambo (population about 400,000), Benguela, Lobito, Cabinda, Malanje, and Lubango (population about 136,000).

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Angola. The UN estimated that 5.5% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001, and that the number was increasing rapidly. In addition, years of civil conflict have had significant impact on the populace, including the creation of one million internally displaced persons and refugees. Life expectancy in Angola is an average of 41 years.

MIGRATION

From the 1960s until the mid-1990s, Angola was ravaged by civil war, with terrible effects on the Angolan population and social structure. Although fighting stopped in 1994, at the beginning of 1997 there were still an estimated 200,000 Angolan refugees in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DROC); 96,000 Angolan refugees in Zambia; 12,000 refugees in the Republic of the Congo; 1,000 refugees in Namibia; and 15,000 Angolan refugees in 15 other countries. As of May 1997, there were still 1.2 million Angolans displaced within their country as a result of the civil war. By June 1996, 74,000 Angolan refugees had returned to their country. However, with an upsurge in the fighting again between May 1998 and June 1999, some 100,000 refugees fled the country once again. The Angolan repatriation operation of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was suspended in September 1998. However, by June 2002 UNHCR had directly repatriated 45,000 Angolans and another 124,000 had returned on, their own. By October 2005 another 40,000 Angolans were repatriated from Zambia. This was more than half the total Angolan refugee population living in camps and settlements in Zambia and more than double the number that returned from Zambia in 2004, the UN reports. Besides Zambia major countries of asylum for Angolans in 2004 were the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, and South Africa.

In 2003, there were 450,000 internally displaced persons (IDP) within the country. Despite internal conflict, Angola still hosted some 105,145 refugees as of 2004. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as 0.28 migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The overwhelming majority of the population is Bantu, divided into a number of ethnolinguistic groupings. The main ones are the Ovimbundu, constituting some 37% of the population in 2005, the Kimbundu, totaling 25% of the population, and the Bakongo with 13%.

The mestiço (mixed European and Native African) make up about 2% of the population. Since the mestiços are generally better educated than the black population, they exercise influence in government disproportionate to their numbers. Europeans, mostly of Portuguese extraction, constitute 1% of the population; other varied groups account for the remaining 22%.

LANGUAGES

Portuguese is the official language, although Bantu and other African languages (and their dialects) are used at the local level.

RELIGIONS

Christianity is the primary religion, with Roman Catholicism being the largest denomination. An estimated five million people are Roman Catholic. About 3–5 million people are of Protestant denominations; the largest of which include Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists (United Church of Christ), and Assemblies of God. Almost half the population (47%) follow African traditional beliefs either exclusively or in conjunction with other faiths. The largest syncretic religious group is the Kimbanguist Church, whose followers believe that the mid-20th century Congolese pastor Joseph Kimbangu was a prophet. Communities in rural areas of the country practice animism and other indigenous religions. There is also a small Islamic community. There are very few declared atheists in the country.

The constitution provides for freedom of religion and this right is generally respected in practice. However, there is still a colonial-era law in effect banning non-Christian religions. Though this law has generally not been enforced, the minister of justice announced in 2004 that the law could be enforced against religious groups linked to public disturbances or acts of terrorism. Religious groups with a outreach for political and social change include the Inter-Church Committee for Peace in Angola and the Catholic Pro-Peace movement.

TRANSPORTATION

According to Portuguese estimates, there were 72,323 km (44,939 mi) of roads at the time of independence (1975), of which only 8,371 km (5,201 mi) were paved, all-weather highways. In the mid-1980s, these figures had increased to perhaps 80,000 km (50,000 mi), but by 2002 had fallen back to 76,626 km (47,615 mi), of which 19,156 km (11,904 mi) were paved. In 2003, there were 40,000 passenger cars and 63,400 commercial vehicles.

The rail network had a total extension in 2004 of 2,761 km (1,717 mi), of which 2,638 km (1,641 mi) were 1.067-m and 123 km (76.5 mi) were 0.600-m (narrow) gauge track. There was limited trackage in use because land mines were still in place from the civil war. There are three main railway lines, the Luando, Namibe, and Benguela railways, all of which experienced service disruptions as a result of the civil war. The Luanda railway connects the national capital with the provincial capital of Malanje in the north. The Namibe railway, which theoretically runs from Angola's port of Namibe to the provincial capital of Menongue in the south, formerly hauled an average of six million tons of iron ore a year from the Kassinga mines. The Benguela railway was formerly the main exit route for DROC and Zambian copper, extending through the country from the port of Benguela to the border with the DROC. As of 1991, service had resumed between Lobito and Huambo. By mid-1992, normal passenger traffic resumed from Lobito to Ganda. East of Ganda, however, the route was still severely damaged, with at least 75 bridges in serious disrepair. The Southern African Development Coordination Conference could not obtain the estimated $600 million in funds needed to repair the entire line, so a modest partial repair of the section from Lobito to Kuito was approved, for an estimated cost of $17 million. Angola has 1,300 km of navigable waterways. The merchant marine had 4 ships of 1,000 GRT or over in 2005, totaling 26,123 GRT.

Angola had an estimated total of 43 airports as of 2004, of which 31 had paved runways as of 2005. There is an international airport at Luanda. International and domestic services are maintained by Transportes Aéreos de Angola (TAAG), Air France, Air Namibe, Sabena, South African Airways, TAP (Portugal) and several regional carriers. In 2003, domestic and international carriers carried 198,000 passengers. There are airstrips for domestic transport at Benguela, Cabinda, Huambo, Namibe, and Catumbela (near Lobito).

HISTORY

Angola was inhabited first by people of the Khoisan group (Bushmen), and then by various Bantu peoples from farther north as well as east between 1300 and 1600. By the 15th century, several African kingdoms had developed in the area; the most notable included the kingdoms of the Kongo and Mbundu peoples. The Portuguese arrived on the coast in the late 15th century, and Luanda was founded as a trading settlement in 1575. The Portuguese developed trade with African nations, particularly with the Mbundu, whose ruler was called the ngola (from which the name of Angola comes). The slave trade assumed paramount importance during the 17th century, when slaves were carried to Portuguese plantations in Brazil. From the late 16th through the mid-19th century, Angola may have provided the New World with as many as two million slaves.

Slavery was formally abolished (with a 20-year grace period) in 1836, although under Portuguese rule forced labor was common until the early 1950s. Trade in other commodities was needed to replace the slave trade; hence, between 1870 and 1903 the Portuguese claimed control over more and more of the interior of the country. To strengthen their control, the Portuguese began building the Benguela railway in 1902. European domination continued until 1951, when Angola's status changed into an overseas province of Portugal. Increasing numbers of Portuguese settlers came to Angola, and by 1960 there were about 160,000 Europeans in the country.

Organized armed resistance to Portuguese rule began on 4 February 1961, when urban partisans of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) attacked the São Paulo fortress and police headquarters in Luanda. Within six weeks, the war had been extended to the north by the rural guerrillas of another organization, the Union of Angolan Peoples, which later became the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA). The FNLA, headed by Holden Roberto, set up a revolutionary government-in-exile in Zaire on 3 April 1962. A third movement, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), headed by Jonas Savimbi, came into being as the consequence of a split in the government-in-exile, of which Savimbi had been foreign minister. All three movements were divided by ideology, ethnic considerations, and personal rivalries; they were also active militarily in 1974 when the Portuguese decided to put an end to their African empire after the coup in Portugal on 25 April. After negotiations with FNLA, MPLA, and UNITA leaders, the Portuguese agreed on 15 January 1975 to grant complete independence to Angola on 11 November 1975. The agreement also established a coalition government headed by a three-man presidential council including MPLA leader António Agostinho Neto, Roberto, and Savimbi. As independence day approached, however, the coalition government fell apart; mediation attempts by other African countries failed.

Thus, at the dawn of Angola's independence, each of three rival organizations had its own army and sphere of influence. The FNLA primarily represented the Kongo people; it was based in Zaire and it received financial support mainly from China and the United States. Together UNITA and the FNLA established the Popular Democratic Republic of Angola (with its capital at Huambo); this was sustained with US funds, South African troops, and some white mercenaries (mostly former commandos in the Portuguese armed forces). UNITA had the support of the Ovimbundu, the largest ethnic group in Angola. The MPLA, a Marxist-oriented party, drew social support from mestiços in Luanda and other urban areas and from the Mbundu people. It received military as well as financial assistance from the USSR and from some 15,000 Cuban soldiers. The MPLA and Cuban forces soon seized the initiative, and by mid-February 1976 the FNLA and UNITA strongholds had fallen. On 11 February, the OAU formally recognized the MPLA government in Luanda as the legitimate government of Angola. South African troops subsequently withdrew, but the Cuban forces remained to consolidate the MPLA's control over the country and provide technical assistance. By 1982 there were 18,000 Cuban troops in Angola, with the number reportedly rising to 25,000 during the first half of 1983 and to 30,000 in late 1986.

A coup attempt on 27 May 1977 by an MPLA faction opposed to the Cuban involvement was suppressed and followed by a massive purge of the party. Activist groups were reined in, and the organization became more centralized. Meanwhile, UNITA, which had never been rooted out of southern Angola, began to regroup. Despite the Cuban troops and Soviet-bloc military assistance, the MPLA government remained vulnerable to the UNITA insurgency, operating from the southern Angolan countryside and from Namibia. Implicated in this conflict was the government of South Africa, whose continual incursions into southern Angola in the late 1970s and early 1980s were aimed chiefly at the forces of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), who were using Angola as a base in their bid to force South Africa to give up Namibia. By 1983, South African soldiers were said to be permanently stationed in southern Angola; in December, South Africa launched a major offensive in the region. In addition to harassing SWAPO, South Africa was continuing to provide supplies to UNITA. The Angolan government resisted efforts by the United States to secure the withdrawal of Cuban troops in return for Namibian independence and a South African pullback.

Under an agreement brokered by the United States, South African troops withdrew from southern Angola in 1985 but continued to raid SWAPO bases there and to supply military aid to UNITA, including air support. In 1986, the United States sent about $15 million in military aid to UNITA, reportedly through Zaire.

Fighting escalated in 1987 and 1988 even as negotiations for a settlement progressed. An Angolan settlement became entangled with the resolution of civil war in and the independence of Namibia. A controversial battle at Cuito Cuanavale in 1988, at which South African and Angolan/Cuban forces were stalemated, led to a South African willingness to agree to end its involvement in Angola and eventually to withdraw from Namibia. Included in the settlement was the Cuban commitment to a phased withdrawal of its military forces from Angola by mid-1991.

Those two agreements, signed on 22 December 1988 in New York by Angola, South Africa, and Cuba, also included a pledge that the signatories would not permit their territories to be used "by any state, organization, or person in connection with any acts of war, aggression, or violence against the territorial integrity…of any state of southwestern Africa." This meant that South Africa would be prohibited from aiding UNITA and Angola would remove the ANC's training bases.

All the major parties had been brought to the conclusion that a settlement was better than a prolongation of the fighting. The Soviet Union wanted to disentangle itself from Angola. The administration of US president Ronald Reagan wanted to take the lead in a successful resolution, and its Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs, Chester A. Crocker, took the lead in the negotiations.

But as settlement in Namibia was moving forward, it proved much harder to bring the Angolan government and UNITA to terms. At a summit at Gbadolite involving 19 African leaders, MPLA Leader José Edvardo dos Santos and Savimbi shook hands publicly and endorsed the "Gbadolite Declaration" (cease-fire and reconciliation plan) on 22 June 1989. But from the start, the terms were disputed and swiftly unraveled. The parties returned to the battlefield.

Yet, the powers began to scale back their support. The relaxation of cold war tensions provided the basis for contacts between the warring parties. Progress moved in fits and starts and in April 1991, Savimbi and dos Santos initialed an agreement that led to the establishment of a UN-supervised cease-fire and a process of national reconciliation.

Tension increased when UNITA took de facto control of several provinces, and its generals were withdrawn from the officially "merged" national army. Fighting broke out in Luanda in October and more than 1,000 were killed in a week. UNITA gained control of 75% of the country. Its refusal to accept UN-brokered cease-fire terms agreed to by the government in May led to a Security Council resolution on 1 June 1993, condemning unanimously UNITA for endangering the peace process and to US recognition of the Angolan government on 19 May. In 1994, it was estimated that 1,000 were dying every day in the fighting.

On 20 November 1994, the Lusaka Protocol was signed, promising a new, if tenuous, era of peace in Angola. The third peace effort between the opposing groups, it was the first to guarantee a share of power to UNITA and the first to be supported by over 6,000 armed UN peacekeepers. Demobilizations of fighters were suspended and renewed as new offensives broke out and were halted. In 1995, the international community imposed sanctions against UNITA, though several governments have violated them, including African countries serving as arms transshipment points. In September 1995, the United States pledged $190 million to support Angolan reconstruction and development at the Brussels Roundtable.

In June 1997, the government and UNITA found themselves involved on opposite sides of the Zaire civil war (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo—DROC). UNITA supported its ally, President Mobutu Sese Seko, while the government backed Laurent Kabila. Following Kabila's victory in May 1997, and subsequent to the 1998 invasion of DROC by Rwanda and Uganda, dos Santos joined other SADC leaders in providing military support to the Kabila government. By July 1999, all sides at war had signed the Lusaka Accords leading to an eventual withdrawal of most foreign troops by 2003.

In Angola, full-scale war resumed as the government launched offensives in December 1998, and again in March 1999. In February 1999, the UN Security Council voted to end its peacekeeping operations after Secretary-General Kofi Annan declared there was no longer any hope of carrying out the 1994 Lusaka peace agreement. In August 1999, the Office for Coordination of Human Affairs estimated 2.6 million persons were internally displaced in Angola. The following month, Human Rights Watch released a 200-page report detailing how the UN deliberately overlooked evidence showing rearmament and retraining of soldiers by both sides in breach of the 1994 accords. In October 1999, UNITA's main headquarters at Bailundo and Andulo had fallen, and in February 2000, the Fowler report was issued on strengthening UN sanctions against UNITA.

In February 2002, prospects for peace changed dramatically when the army announced that it had killed Savimbi in an attack in southeastern Angola. In addition, the death from illness of Savimbi's second-in-command, General Antonio, further weakened UNITA's military capacity. In March 2002 UNITA commanders issued a joint communiqué with the Angolan army (FAA) confirming a cessation of hostilities and reiterating unequivocal support for a political settlement based on the 1994 Lusaka Peace Accord. A peace accord between the government and UNITA followed in April.

As disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of the armed forces, the repatriation of refugees, and the arduous task of rebuilding the country got underway, dos Santos said he would not seek reelection in the elections scheduled for late 2003–early 2004. However, his departure depended on a successor who could be trusted not to prosecute him for human rights abuses and large-scale diversion of state funds. He may choose a hardliner to succeed him, who will permit dos Santos to run a shadow government. Yet another option for dos Santos would be to remain in power—for one extra term, or for as long as possible. To seek either option, he could cite difficulties arising from Angola's tortuous postwar reconstruction, the demilitarization of society, and the integration of former militias into the national army. The next elections were scheduled for September 2006.

GOVERNMENT

The constitution of 1975, amended in 1976 and 1980, was promulgated and revised by the MPLA. The president of the republic is both chief of state and head of government. He appoints and leads the council of ministers. In 1980, a 223-member National People's Assembly, indirectly elected, replaced the Council of the Revolution as the supreme organ of the state. In January 1987, the Assembly was enlarged to 289 members, and later reduced to 220. In 2006, there were 220 members elected by proportional vote to four-year terms.

A transitional government was established in December 1992 dominated by the MPLA. UNITA held six cabinet posts, and four other parties were also represented. In 1997, the MPLA and UNITA reached an agreement that allowed UNITA to participate in a Government of National Unity and Reconciliation. With the ruling party's approval, UNITA would nominate candidates for four ministerial positions: Trade, Geology and Mines, Health, and Hotels and Tourism. UNITA members would also occupy a number of deputy ministerial, governor, deputy governor, and ambassadorial posts. In early 1997, 70 elected UNITA deputies assumed their seats in the National Assembly, and Jonas Savimbi assumed the role of special advisor to President José Eduardo dos Santos.

The resumption of war in 1998 all but doomed this arrangement, and rendered the National Assembly nominally functional. In reality, it had little independence and did not have oversight over presidential appointments or the ability to initiate legislation. In 1999, dos Santos abolished the post of prime minister, vesting these powers in the director of his own office. He also created a parallel ministry of defense within the presidency.

The civil war officially ended in August 2002, after Jonas Savimbi died in a gun duel with government forces in February and UNITA signed a cease-fire agreement in April. In December 2002, Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos Nando was appointed prime minister, though the position had very little real power. Elections were slated for 2006, but they were likely to be constrained by the poor state of roads and railways. A postponement was likely to allow more progress on the clearing of land mines, infrastructure development, and the return and resettlement of refugees.

POLITICAL PARTIES

Until 1974, the Portuguese suppressed movements and political parties that stood for self-determination and independence. The three leading political organizations at independence were the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola—MPLA), founded in 1956; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola—FNLA), founded in 1962; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (União Nacional para a Indepêndencia Total de Angola—UNITA), founded in 1966. The victory of the MPLA and Cuban forces brought recognition to the MPLA government by the OAU and by most non-African countries. The MPLA-Workers' Party (MPLA–Partido de Trabalho, or MPLA–PT), a Marxist-Leninist vanguard party, was created in December 1977. UNITA remained in de facto control of part of the country, while the remnants of the FNLA continued low-level guerrilla activity in the northwest, as did the Front for the Liberation of the Cabinda Enclave.

Some 18 parties and 11 presidential candidates contested the 1992 elections. In the presidential contest, the MPLA's Dos Santos won 49.6% of the presidential vote and UNITA's Savimbi got 40.1%, requiring a runoff. Though international observers considered the elections reasonably free and fair, Savimbi repudiated the results and refused to participate in a second round. The contest was regarded as generally free and fair however; the MPLA won 54% of the votes and 129 seats, while UNITA took 34% of the votes and 70 seats. Also represented were the Angolan Democratic Forum (FDA), the Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), and the Angola Youth Worker, Peasant Alliance Party (PAJOCA). Separatist groups in Cabinda, such as the Frente Nacional de Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda (FLEC) and the National Union for the Liberation of Cabinda (UNLC) did not take part in the national elections. They continue to wage a low-level armed struggle for the independence of oil-rich Cabinda province.

Opposition parties are extremely weak and fractured, many with little apparent influence in the National Assembly. Some—the UNITA Renovada is one example—have formed working relationships with the MPLA. Such arrangements could well strengthen the ruling party's hands vis-a-vis small splinter groups; but they could also create opportunities for new opposition parties to spring up and find their feet. New elections were expected in September 2006.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Angola consists of 18 provinces. Cabinda is separated from the others. The provinces are divided into districts and communes. The communes are led by commissioners who are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the MPLA-PT.

Provincial legislatures consisting of 55–85 members were created in 1980. In 1986, these legislatures were expanded up to 100 members each. In the 1992 elections, MPLA carried 14 of the provinces to UNITA's four. The civil war severely disrupted the performance of local government, and for many years, severed ties between Luanda and the outlying provinces.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system is based on Portuguese civil law system and customary law, recently modified to accommodate political pluralism and increased use of free markets. Prior to independence, Portuguese civil and military law was applied by municipal courts, labor courts, ordinary courts, and administrative tribunals; final appeal was to the Metropolitan High Court in Lisbon. A 1978 law declared that people's courts with working class representatives would be courts of first instance. It also made provisions for criminal, police, and labor courts with lay judges whose voices would be equal to those of professional judges.

The judicial system includes municipal and provincial courts at the trial level and a Supreme Court at the appellate level. Municipal court judges are usually laymen. In theory, the Ministry of Justice administers provincial courts located in each of the 18 provincial capitals. The Supreme Court nominates provincial court judges. The judge of the provincial court, along with two laymen, acts as a jury.

In 1991, the constitution was amended to guarantee an independent judiciary. In practice, however, the president appoints the 16 Supreme Court judges for life upon recommendation of an association of magistrates, and he appoints the attorney general. Confirmation by the General Assembly is not required.

Several issues confront the legal system. Many of the seats on the Supreme Court remain vacant, and a Constitutional Court, authorized by law in 1992, has not yet been established. In addition, the courts were crippled by the war and are perceived as ineffective and untrustworthy by the few who have access to it. The system lacks the resources and independence to play an effective role and the legal framework is obsolete. Much of the criminal and commercial code reflects the colonial era with modifications from the Marxist era.

ARMED FORCES

Defense responsibilities are vested in the Armed Popular Forces for the Liberation of Angola (Forças Amadas Populares de Libertação de Angola—FAPLA), which as of 2005, had 108,400 active personnel, divided into the Army, Navy, Air Force/Air Defense Force, and territorial troops (a militia). In 2005, FAPLA had a total of 90,000 active personnel of which the Army had 100,000 members, whose major equipment included over 300 main battle tanks, 600 reconnaissance vehicles, over 250 armored infantry fighting vehicles, 170 armored personnel carriers and more than 1,396 artillery pieces. The Navy had an estimated 2,400 personnel whose major naval units consisted of nine patrol/coastal vessels. The Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 6,000 personnel and 90 combat capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters. The defense budget in 2005 totaled $1.16 billion.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Angola, a United Nations member since 1 December 1976, participates in ECA and all the nonregional specialized agencies such as FAO, IAEA, IMF, ILO, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and IFC; the nation is a member of the WTO (1996) and the World Bank. Angola also participates in the African Development Bank, G-77, the ACP Group, Interpol, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD), and the African Union. It is one of 14 countries in the SADC. Angola has observer status in the OAS and CEMA. It is also a participant of COMESA. As a result of offshore oil discoveries in the Gulf of Guinea, Angola has recently strengthened cooperation with Equatorial Guinea and São Tomé and Principe. Angola promotes the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP). Angola is part of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, Angola is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Montréal Protocol, MARPOL, and the UN conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Angola is a potentially rich country of abundant natural resources, a surplus-producing agricultural sector, and a sizable manufacturing potential. This promise has remained unfulfilled due to the effects of the war for independence and a 27-year-long civil war that only ended in April 2002 when the army signed a peace agreement with the UNITA rebels. With the end of the war Angola has began to score astounding economic growth rates. In 2004 Angola's GDP grew by 12.2% and in 2005 the growth rate was 19.1%. This growth is expected to continue with heavy flow of foreign direct investments into the oil and mining sectors.

Having both temperate and tropical zones, Angola had the potential for producing a wide variety of agricultural products. Prior to the outbreak of hostilities, Angola produced major surpluses of coffee, sisal, cotton, and maize. Cassava was the staple food crop and the leader, though consumed almost entirely domestically, in terms of volume of agricultural output. The civil war resulted in famine conditions in many parts of Angola, especially during the 1990s. Although the civil war ended in 2002, farmers have been reluctant to return to their farms, and the country is littered with land mines. As such, food must be imported.

Petroleum production and diamond mining have led Angola's industrial sector. Economists estimated that Angola's alluvial reserves of diamonds totaled between 40 and 130 million carats. In addition, there were untapped diamond reserves in volcanic pipes called kimberlites. Angola's six known kimberlite pipes, among the ten largest on earth, held an estimated 180 million carats worth several billion dollars. Diamond production (official and unofficial) was estimated to be worth $1 billion per year in 2002.

The petroleum sector benefited from major investments, totaling over $2 billion since 1987, and from a relative immunity from the civil war. Producing around 980,000 barrels a day in 2004, up from 950,000 barrels a day in 2002, Angola was the second-largest oil producer in sub-Saharan Africa. Crude oil accounted for 90% of total exports, more than 80% of government revenues, and 45% of the country's GDP. Known recoverable reserves were estimated to total several billion barrels, but Angola was not a member of OPEC at the time. In 2000, Angola was one of three countries to receive the largest amount of global and US foreign investment to the sub-Saharan region (the other two were Nigeria and South Africa). Inflation, always a problem, ran at approximately 44% in 2004 down from a high of 150% in 2001. The IMF was critical of the government's economic policy on a number of aspects, such as persistent opacity and uncertainty in the government's accounts, lack of progress on structural reforms, failure to implement policies to deal with systematically with poverty, and corruption in the management of oil revenues. The IMF recommended a slate of reforms, such as increasing foreign exchange reserves and encouraging a more transparent accounting of government spending. In 2005 the IMF gave some credit to the government's handling of the economy, particularly the sustained progress in lowering inflation and improved transparency in government financial accounting.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Angola's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $27.7 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,500. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 14.1%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 8% of GDP, industry 67%, and services 25%.

Foreign aid receipts amounted to $499 million or about $37 per capita and accounted for approximately 4.6% of the gross national income (GNI).

The World Bank reports that in 1990 household consumption in Angola totaled $3.67 billion or about $272 per capita based on a GDP of $13.8 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1980 to 1990 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of -0.1%. It was estimated that in 2003 about 70% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, the Angolan workforce was estimated at 5.58 million. As of 2003, around 85% of the workforce was still engaged in agriculture, while the industry and services sectors together accounted for the remaining 15%. More recent employment figures are not currently available. In 2001, it was estimated that more than half of the population was unemployed or underemployed.

The 1991 constitution recognizes the right for Angolans to form unions, bargain collectively, and to strike. However, these rights are not respected in practice. While strikes are permitted by law, lockouts and the occupation of places of employment by workers are prohibited. Non-striking workers are also protected under the law. Armed forces personnel, firefighters, prison workers and police are prohibited from striking. Compulsory labor by children is also prohibited.

The government has established a 40-hour workweek, along with minimum health and safety standards, including 26 hours of rest per week. However, inadequate resources have prevented the government from enforcing these standards. The minimum working age is 14, but the government has been unable to enforce this standard. Although the legal minimum wage in 2005 was $60 per month, most wage earners must hold a second job, or rely on the informal economy, subsistance agriculture, or income from abroad in order to survive.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture has long been the backbone of the Angolan economy. Even though an abundance of arable land is available, only about 2.6% is cultivated. Agriculture engages about 85% of the population but accounts for 9% of GDP. Diverse climatic conditions favor a wide variety of crops, and there is also considerable irrigation potential. Coffee, primarily of the robust variety, at one time made Angola the world's fourth-largest producer, but during the civil war almost all the main plantations were abandoned, and crop disease set in. Moreover, the widespread use of landmines has discouraged farmers from venturing into their fields.

Marketed cash crops in 2004 included 1,250 tons of coffee (down from 225,000 tons in 1972), 4,400 tons of cotton (48,000 in 1972), and 500 tons of sisal. The principal food crops are cassava, with an estimated 5,600,000 tons in 2004, corn, 510,000 tons, and sweet potatoes, 430,000 tons. Other 2004 estimated yields included bananas, 300,000 tons; citrus fruits, 78,000 tons; millet, 96,000 tons; dry beans, 66,000 tons; potatoes, 27,000 tons; sugar cane, 360,000 tons; rice, 16,000 tons; and peanuts (in shell), 30,000 tons.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Lack of a pastoral tradition among northern Angolans, abundance of the tsetse fly in many regions, and the poor quality of natural pastures are some of the factors most frequently cited to explain the lag in animal husbandry in Portuguese Angola. What little there was of the livestock industry was virtually destroyed in the 1975–76 civil war.

Estimated livestock in 2004 included cattle, 4,150,000 head; goats, 2,050,000; hogs, 780,000; and sheep, 340,000. There were 6.8 million chickens. Livestock products included an estimated 85,000 tons of beef and veal and 195,000 tons of milk in 2004. Honey production totaled 23,000 tons in 2004 from 1.1 million beehives.

FISHING

Fresh fish, fishmeal, dried fish, and fish oil are produced for the domestic market and for export. During 1975–76, some of the processing plants were destroyed, and most of the modern fishing boats departed with refugees. In 2003, the Angolan catch was 211,539 tons (up from 122,781 tons in 1995), 95% from marine fishing. Exports of fish products in 2003 totaled $8.9 million. Some of the Spanish, Japanese, and Italian vessels fishing under license also pay in kind. About 13% of the 2003 catch consisted of cunene horse mackerel.

FORESTRY

About 18.4% of the country is classified as forest and woodland. Angola's large timber resources include the great Maiombe tropical rain forest in Cabinda. In addition, eucalyptus, pine, and cypress plantations cover 140,000 hectares (346,000 acres). In 2003, roundwood production was estimated at 4,518,000 cu m, and exports amounted to 1,000 cu m.

MINING

Diamonds are an important source of revenues to Angola, and are only second to petroleum. Petroleum accounted for more than 90% of exports by value ($7.56 billion) while diamonds followed at $638 million or 7.6% of the value of exports in 2002. Official reported diamond production in 2003 was 5 million carats, up from 5.022 million carats in 2002. However, that total does not include smuggled production. Sociedade Miniera de Catoca Ltd (SMC) is Angola's leading producer of diamonds, with an annual production of around 2.8 million carats from its Catoca kimberlite pipe. Reserves in the Catoca kimberlite were estimated to be at 189.3 million carats. SMC is a joint venture of Empressa Nacional de Diamantes de Angola (Endiama), the state-owned diamond mining company and the Joint Stock Company Almazy Rossii-Sakha (Russia), Odebrecht Mining Services Inc. (Brazil), and the Leviev Group (Israel).

Large iron ore deposits have been discovered in many areas. The deposits at Kassinga, with an estimated reserve of one billion tons of high-grade hematite iron ore, annually yielded millions of tons of ore exports before the civil war halted mining in 1975. Ferrangol, the state iron ore mining company, produced a slight quantity of ore in 1988; it has shown no output since. The mines in Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul provinces, previously controlled by UNITA rebel forces, were opened to foreign companies for exploration and development in 1996, and an Endiama-De Beers venture announced the discovery of 17 new kimberlites there in 2000. These areas contributed about $400 million to the annual $1.1 billion value of diamond production. SDM, an Endiama-Australian-Odebrecht venture formed in 1995 to mine alluvial diamonds in the Cuango River Valley, near Luzamba, produced 210,000 carats of high-quality diamonds in 2000 and 185,000 carats in 1999. Other such ventures saw their operations frequently suspended because of security problems. A feasibility study of the proposed Camafuca kimberlite estimated 23.24 million carats of diamonds valued at $109 per carat.

Salt production has remained steady at an estimated 30,000 metric tons annually from 1999 through 2003. Clay, granite, marble, and crushed stone were also reportedly mined throughout the country. The country is also rich in nickel, platinum-group metals, magnetite, copper, phosphates, gypsum, uranium, gold, asphalt, and feldspar, but areas have been off-limits to exploration during the civil war.

ENERGY AND POWER

Angola has extensive hydroelectric power resources that far exceed its present needs. The Cambambe Dam, on the Cuanza River, provides Luanda's industries with cheap power. Two dams on the Catumbela River produce power for the Lobito and Benguela areas. Matala Dam in southern Cunene provides power to Lubango and Namibe. The Ruacaná Falls Dam, near the Namibian border, was completed in the late 1970s, but the power station is in Namibia. A 52 million kW hydroelectric station on the Cuanza River at Kapanda was tentatively scheduled to have begun production in early 2003. As of late 2002, only three of the country's six dams (Cambambe, Biopo, and Matala) were operational; $200 million has been allocated to repair the remaining dams, which suffered major damage in the civil war. In 2002, electricity generation was 1.728 billion kWh, of which 34.5% came from fossil fuels and 65.5% from hydropower. In the same year, consumption of electricity totaled 1.607 billion kWh. Total capacity in 2002 was 0.635 million kW.

Crude oil, in the production of which Angola ranks second in sub-Saharan Africa, has been Angola's chief export since 1973; it is also the leading source of government revenue, accounting for $2.9 billion in exports in 1994, or 95% of the total. As of end 2004, Angola had proven oil reserves of 8.8 billion barrels. Oil reserves are along the Atlantic coast, mostly offshore Cabinda and the northern border area between Quinzau and Soyo. In 1999, several oil companies were engaged in production, of which the largest was a subsidiary of Chevron, Cabinda Gulf Oil Company. This firm has a 49/51% participation agreement with Sonangol, the state oil company. Other firms included Fina Petróleos de Angola (a Belgian subsidiary), Elf Aquitaine, and Texaco. In 2004, crude oil production averaged 991,000 barrels per day. ExxonMobil subsidiary Esso began development of a section of the Xikomba offshore oilfield in August 2002. Development was planned for a new 200,000 barrel per day refinery in the city of Lobito, on the coast.

Gross natural gas production totaled 296.65 billion cu ft in 2002. Total natural gas reserves were estimated at 45 billion cu m (1.6 trillion cu ft) as of 2002. Domestic demand for refined petroleum products is expected to increase as the economy gradually rebuilds following the end of the civil war. As of 2002, Sonangol and Chevron Texaco had joined forces in a $2 billion project to develop liquefied natural gas from natural gas in Angola's offshore fields. Production was slated to begin in 2007.

INDUSTRY

In its pre-1975 prime, the Angolan industrial sector centered on petroleum refining and machinery, construction inputs, food processing, electrical products, chemicals, steel, and vehicle assembly. As a consequence of the civil war, Angola's industrial sector started operating at a fraction of prewar levels.

Industrial production during the 1990s included food processing and the production of textiles, soap, shoes, matches, paint, plastic bottles, and glues. In 1993, industrial production also included 9,000 tons of crude steel, 250,000 tons of cement, and 9 million barrels of refined petroleum products. Heavy industry for that year (cement, steel, oil refining, vehicle assembly, and tire production) accounted for about 15% of Angola's manufacturing output. Angola is now an importer of machinery, vehicles, and spare parts.

Angola is the second-largest oil producer in sub-Saharan Africa, behind Nigeria. In 2004, the petroleum industry accounted for about half of the GDP and over 90% of export revenues. Sonangol is the state-owned oil company, which controls exploration and production, although foreign companies participate in joint ventures and production sharing agreements. Oil production was expected to surpass 1 million barrels per day in 2003 but this target had not been achieved by 2004. However, with the coming online of new oil drilling platforms such as the Kizomba B platform owned by ExxonMobil and the Dalia platform owned by Total, the 1 million barrels per day should be surpassed in 2006. It is expected that by 2007 Angola will be producing 2 million barrels per day. Angola has one oil refinery in Luanda, with a crude oil processing capacity of 39,000 barrels per day, but is planning to build a 200,000-barrels per day refinery in Lobito. Angolan oil exports to Asia are growing, and China's oil imports from Angola grew by more than 400% in 2001. The government stated in 2003 that foreign oil companies would invest $25 billion in Angola over a five-year period, by building offshore production ships and a liquefied natural gas plant, among other projects. Many of these investments, such as ExxonMobil's Kizomba B have already begun to produce oil.

The diamond mining industry also plays an important role in Angola's economy, but during the 27-year-old civil war, many of the gemstones had been sold on the black market and were referred to as "conflict diamonds" because the parties in the civil war used the sale of them to fund their military campaigns. Since the civil war ended in 2002, Angola began to restructure its diamond sector. The government in 2003 ended the four-year-old monopoly of the state-controlled diamond marketing company, Ascorp, which was controlled by the state diamond company Endiama. Ascorp now competes with other private companies to buy diamonds from miners and small producers. The government also planned to build a new diamond cutting factory, to create an industry of diamond cutting in Angola.

The Economist Intelligence Unit, quoting a new report published in June 2005 by a Canadian nongovernmental group, Partnership Africa Canada, highlighted the fact that, although some $900 million-worth of diamonds will be mined in 2005, relatively little of the revenue will be spent on development in the diamond areas or will benefit the poor. The report said that 145 diamond licenses had been granted in 2004, often through nontransparent processes, of which nine were already operational, around ten were in the process of starting up and the remainder were vacant and were steadily being recolonised by garimpeiros (artisanal miners). The report also highlighted a number of problem areas in the sector, saying that transparency is lacking not only in published tax data but also in the 10% revenue allocation due to the diamond-producing provinces.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Security considerations and a severe shortage of skilled personnel have limited Angola's development of its extensive mineral reserves and abundant fertile land. Angola's research institutes include the Cotton Scientific Research Center in Catete, the Agronomic Research Institute in Huambo (founded in 1962), the Institute for Veterinary Research in Lubango (founded in 1965), the Angola Medical Research Institute in Luanda (Founded in 1955), and the Angolan Directorate of Geological and Mining Services in Luanda (founded in 1914). The University Agostinho Neto (founded in 1963) has faculties of sciences, agriculture, medicine, and engineering, and the National Center of Scientific Investigation. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. The National Museum of Natural History and the National Anthropology Museum are located in Luanda.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Practically all domestic trade was in Portuguese hands before independence, when state people's stores and consumer cooperatives were established in the cities. Over half of Angolan consumer goods were still imported from Portugal in 1998. The Angolan domestic economy faced sporadic fighting during the late 1990s despite the 1994 peace accord, inhibiting domestic commerce. The rural population was displaced—first by the war for independence that started in 1961, and then by the civil war that started after independence was gained in 1975—and has not been able to fully return to agricultural production. Imports were strictly controlled due to a lack of foreign exchange, and barter was common. Though a privatization program has been in effect, there are very few groups or individuals in the private sector with the finances and/or administrative abilities to purchase and effectively run larger public corporations.

FOREIGN TRADE

Crude petroleum and products top the commodities export list for Angola (89%), while only accounting for a small percentage of the world's exportation. Diamonds and other precious and semiprecious stones are the second-largest export, and shellfish exports follow. A small amount of natural and manufactured gas is also exported from Angola. As of 1999, the United States was buying up to 75% of Angola's crude oil production. Since then China has entered the picture as a second major trading partner for Angola.

In 2004, the United States bought 40% of Angola's crude oil while China bought 30%, Taiwan 8%, and France 7%.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Oil exports produced substantial trade surpluses during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Despite this positive cash flow, Angola in 1979 began to request lines of credit in order to finance its reconstruction projects. By 1991 the government's economic policies encouraged neither private investment or non-oil exports. Furthermore, poor monetary policy created price distortions, which exacerbated a trade deficit and rapidly diminished agricultural exports. The results of the end of the 27-year-old civil war in 2002 on trade had yet to be assessed as of 2005.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reported that in 2004 the purchasing power parity of Angola's exports was $12.8 billion while imports totaled $4.9 billion resulting in a trade surplus of $7.9 billion. With high prices of crude oil, the Economist Intelligence Unit predicts sustained trade surpluses in the near future.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

In 1976, the government nationalized the two major banks, the Bank of Angola and the Commercial Bank of Angola (renamed the People's Bank of Angola). The Bank of Angola became the central bank, renamed the National Bank of Angola (Banco National de Angola-BNA). In 1996, this bank transferred its commercial accounts to the Caixa de Credito Agro-Pecuaria e Pescas (CAP) in order to function more as a regulatory organization for other state-owned banks. CAP, established in 1991, was owned by the Ministry of Finance and used to finance government activities. It has had liquidity problems in recent years, making it unable to clear checks at times, so some businesses refuse to accept CAP checks.

Banco de Comercio e Industria (The Bank of Commercial and Industrial Commerce-BCI) was a semiprivate bank, but was occasionally restricted to government financing. The government owns about 40% of the BCI's shares.

The opening in mid-November 1996 of the Banco Africano de Investimento (BAI) was Angola's first private bank launched since it gained independence in 1975, and Angola's only investment bank. Other major banks included Banco de Poupanca e Credito (BPC), serving primarily the trade sector and construction; and Banco Fomento Exterior and Banco Totta e Azores, both Portuguese commercial banks.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $648.2 million. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $1.9 billion. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 150%.

There were no securities exchanges in 2000.

INSURANCE

The conflicts that began in the mid-1970s greatly shook the insurance industry, which was nationalized in 1978. At that time, the National Insurance and Reinsurance Co. of Angola was created. All private company policies were declared null and void except for life insurance.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Liberal monetary policies financed large public sector deficits, which led to high inflation and price distortions. Military expenditures consumed an enormous portion of the national budget. Since the 1970s, Angola has relied heavily on oil exports for revenue. However, revenues from oil sales went down as the result of a fall in the international price of oil in the late 1990s. Until 1991, Angola had a Soviet-style, centrally planned economy. The government planned privatization for the 1990s, but most companies remain state-run as of 2000, including the major energy companies and the diamond distributor.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Angola's central government took in revenues of approximately $8.5 billion and had expenditures of $10 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$1.5 billion. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 40.9% of GDP. Total external debt was $9.879 billion.

TAXATION

The ordinary corporate tax is 35%, with a reduced rate of 20% for agricultural and forestry enterprises. Various corporate tax exemptions and reductions, and exemptions from real estate taxes on land and buildings are offered by the government as investment incentives.

Income tax for individuals ranges from 1–40% for employees, and 3–60% for self-employed professionals. Also levied are inheritance and gift taxes, and a payroll tax for social security.

The main indirect tax is a manufacturer's sales tax with rates ranging from 5–50% on 100 listed products.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Both specific and ad valorem duties are levied; but, as a member of the World Trade Organization, Angola is reviewing the need for reductions in tariffs and nontariff barriers. Specific duties are assessed by weight. Additional taxes are levied on luxury items and preferential treatment is accorded to goods from Portugal, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Princípe. All imports require a license and are handled by one of several state companies. Most exports are similarly handled by state agencies.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

In spite of the civil war and the socialist legacy, sizable investments in the petroleum sector were made during the 1990s. In 1994, Texaco announced plans for a five-year, $600 million investment in its Angolan oil exploration and production efforts aimed at increasing the company's Angolan oil output by 50%. Approximately 15 foreign companies, including Chevron, Texaco, ExxonMobil, and Occidental, had invested more than $8 billion in Angola as of 1997. Elf Oil and Chevron both had major investments underway. In 1999, the Angolan government issued three new licenses to oil drilling companies in order to conduct exploration in ultra-deep water. By 2005, ExxonMobil's Kizomba B deep water platform had begun the production of oil. Total was also in the process of completing its Dalia platform and other oil companies were in the process of construction of new platforms.

Countering the illegal trade in diamonds, De Beers, in a 1991 agreement with the government diamond company Endiama, invested in new diamond exploration. A UN sanction on the purchase of black market diamonds has been hard to enforce and corruption in the diamond business continued as of 2005.

In spite of a 27-year civil war (1975 to 2002), an investment climate characterized by corruption, ineffective governance, arbitrary decision making, a deteriorating infrastructure, kidnappings for ransom targeted at foreigners in the Cabinda enclave, socialist suspicions about free markets, openly solicited bribes, no capital market or stock exchange, scarce skilled labor, and scarcer foreign exchange, Angola ranked second in the world in 2000 (after Lesotho) in foreign investment as a percent of GDP. The statistic is a result of both Angola's small economy and substantial investments in its oil sector that continued despite the civil war. With the war over and a semblance of peace and normalcy back to Angola, more investments should be forthcoming both in the oil and gas industries as well as the diamond mining sector.

On the basis of joint ventures (JVs) or production sharing contracts (PSCs), at least $8 billion ($1 billion a year average) was invested by foreign oil companies from 1990 to 1997 with the state oil company, Sonangol, which dominates both upstream and downstream operations. The main foreign operators upstream were Energy Africa (South Africa), Agip (Italy; now ENI-Agip), Elf (France; now TotalFinaElf), Chevron and Texaco (United States; now ChevronTexaco). About 30 other foreign companies have substantial interests in upstream enterprises. Petrofina of Belgium is both a major producer and a major downstream partner with Sonangol. Downstream operations are hampered by poor infrastructure and a small domestic market.

From 1998 to 2001, reported foreign direct investment (FDI) totaled about $5.6 billion, averaging about $1.2 billion a year from 1997 to 2001. This performance was driven by giant class offshore discoveries, particularly in 1999 when FDI peaked at close to $2.5 billion. Between 2000 and 2004 annual FDI flows averaged $2.05 billion with a peak in 2003 of $3.5 billion. With a combination of Diamond and oil reserves, Angola is expected to become one of the largest destination for FDI inflows in Africa.

FDI outflows are insignificant. FDI inward stock grew steadily from $1 billion in 1990 to $2.9 billion in 1995, and in 2002 it rose to $11.4 billion. In 1999, the Angolan government issued three new licenses to oil drilling companies in order to conduct exploration in deep-water, including ExxonMobil, the major investor in the offshore Kizomba field that began operations in August 2002. The only substantial FDI outside the oil sector before 2002 was a $36 million Coca-Cola bottling plant in 2000, 45% of which was bought in 2001 by SAB Miller of South Africa, which in 2003 was considering adding a brewery.

Before the peace accords of April 2002, there had been three other peace agreements, starting with the Lusaka Protocol of 1994, which had had virtually no effect. However, with the death of UNITA leader, Jonas Savimbi, in February 2002, Angola finally seemed to be able to move past the civil war. In September 2002, IDAS Resources, a subsidiary of London-based American Mineral Fields, Ltd., was granted the first clearance for diamond mining in 27 years. Under the contract, IDAS holds 51%; the state diamond company Endiama, 36%; and private investors 13%.

A 1991 agreement between Endiama and De Beers for diamond exploration was moribund because the territory was under the control of UNITA, which used smuggled diamonds to finance its operations. In 1998 the UN Security Council imposed an embargo on diamonds from areas controlled by UNITA. A report in 2000 implicated De Beers in the purchase of "blood diamonds," prompting the company to alter its policy of buying up diamonds to uphold the world price to a world certification system. In 2000, Angola set up ASCORP, a state-controlled company in partnership with Lev Leviev (Russian/Israeli diamond manufacturer), and established a monopoly on certified diamond buying. De Beers' plans to build a $30 million diamond processing facility in Luanda did not come to fruition, but in April 2003 the newly established National Private Investment Agency (ANIP) announced it was seeking funding for a diamond cutting and polishing factory in Luanda.

Before peace in 2002, the foreign investment regime as laid out in the foreign investment law of 1994 and administered by the Foreign Investment Institute (IIE) stood little chance of implementation. In February 2003, a new law on private investment and a companion law on tax incentives for private capital were passed, forming a new agency, the National Private Investment Agency (ANIP), for their implementation. As under the old regime, foreign companies are guaranteed national treatment, the right to repatriate profits, and the right to indemnification for property nationalized or expropriated. Added are incentives for private investment and provisions for streamlining the approval process. New investments receive up to 15 years exemption from industrial taxes and smaller investments, $50,000 to $250,000, are exempted from all customs duties. By law, approval requests for investments less than $5 million must be processed in 15 days and requests for larger investments, in 30 days. Despite the reforms, serious obstacles remain: poor infrastructure, a small market, single-entry visas, and registration costs that range from $20,000 to $60,000 for foreign corporations.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In March 2003, the South Africa-Angola Chamber of Commerce (SAACC) was established with the potential of channeling considerable investment from South Africa. In 2003, major South African investors included the construction company Grinaker-LTA, Investec Bank, Securicor Gray and the Shoprite Supermarket chain. In May 2003, TotalFinaElf announced a major offshore oil discovery and awarded contracts totaling $780 million to the French oil services company, Technip, for its development. Since then to 2005, a number of other partnerships have also been announced, which should see a large increase in diamond prospecting. For example in 2005 De Beers signed a prospecting agreement. On 22 June 2005, Russia's Technopromexport signed a $112 million contract to build a new, 260-MW generating unit at the Capanda dam near the northern town of Malange. The project will be financed with a ten-year, $225 million loan from a consortium of Russian banks, led by the Russian Regional Unified Bank. As well as this contract, two other contracts relating to the supply of equipment and the completion of civil engineering works have been signed with Brazil's Odebrecht. By 2005 the government of Angola was involved in diversifying the economy by continued attraction of foreign investors to partner with local private firms and government owned companies.

With the exception of the petroleum industry and possibly the fishing industry, economic development in Angola depended upon a political settlement of the civil war, which came in 2002. The diamond industry was no exception to this rule. In 1997, the Angolan state diamond enterprise, Endiama, provided for the establishment of a UNITA-backed mining company, SGM. Although the government initially granted SGM the right to prospect, UNITA claimed that the government was attempting to gain control over its mining operations. The continuation of the Angolan civil war began shortly thereafter (1998), with diamonds acting as the UNITA rebels' main source of income. The termination of the UN mission to Angola in early 1999 spelled disaster for any form of economic growth during the following years.

In 2000, Angola entered into a Staff-Monitored Program (SMP) with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Although the program lapsed in 2001, the IMF remained engaged in the country. The World Bank prepared a Transitional Support Strategy (TSS) as a short- to medium-term plan for involvement in Angola. In 2002, the IMF reported that $900 million had disappeared from government finances in 2001. That amount was greater than the value of humanitarian assistance sent to Angola in 2002. In all, over $4 billion was unaccounted for from 1997–2005. These difficulties notwithstanding, the IMF in 2005 concluded that oil and diamonds will continue to form the backbone of Angola's economy for the unforeseeable future.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Until recently, social services for Africans were almost entirely the responsibility of the various tribal groups. The Roman Catholic Church also played an integral part in the administration of welfare, health, and educational programs. A number of international nongovernmental organizations have also gotten involved, particularly in the provision of health care.

Although women's rights are protected in the constitution, in practice there is discrimination in the workplace and in the home, and most women hold low-paid jobs. Spousal abuse against women is widespread. Credible evidence suggests that the majority of homicides against women were a result of a domestic dispute. Women and children are also at high risk for mutilation from land mines, due to foraging in the fields for food and firewood. Children are recruited to fight in both the government and UNITA forces. There were an estimated 1,500 children living on the street in Luanda in 2004, many of them engaging in prostitution. Angola's government has a poor human rights record. Security forces have reportedly been responsible for torture, beatings, rapes, and disappearances and prison conditions are life-threatening.

HEALTH

Angola lies in the yellow fever endemic zone. Cholera incidence is high. Only a small fraction of the population receives even rudimentary medical attention. As of 2004, the ratio of physicians per population was estimated at 7.7 per 100,000 people. In 2005, average life expectancy was estimated at only 38.43 years, one of the lowest in the world. That year infant mortality was estimated at 187.49 per 1,000 live births, the highest in the world. The incidence of tuberculosis in 1999 was 271 per 100,000 people. Immunization rates for one-year-old children in 1999 were estimated at 22% for diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus and 46% for measles. Malnutrition affected an estimated 53% of children under five years of age as of 1999. From 1975 to 1992, there were 300,000 civil war-related deaths. The overall death rate was estimated at 24 per 1,000 in 2002. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 3.90 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 240,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 21,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003.

In 2000, 38% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 44% had adequate sanitation.

HOUSING

Decades of war and lack of appropriate economic and legal reforms have posed a serious housing problem in Angola. During the war for independence, a majority of the Portuguese residents abandoned homes that were then confiscated by the government. In fact, all urban land is considered to be property of the State. But management and administration of dwellings is under the control of provincial governments and leasing or other housing and property regulations are ambiguous or nonexistent. As a result, a UN report indicated that about 90% of urban residents live in settlements without a clearly defined legal status.

Most people live in multi-family dwellings that were constructed in the 1960s and have since deteriorated to the point that basic utilities are limited or unavailable. Housing shortages have led to urban slum developments. These are most prominent in Luanda, where about four million people are living in a city designed for about 700,000.

Over the years, the government has made some efforts to ease the situation. The most recent has included government-sponsored housing construction projects. In April 2003, 331 houses were completed in Kilamba-Kiaxi. At least 65 of them were given to government employees and other civil servants.

EDUCATION

In 1999 the adult illiteracy rate was estimated at 42%. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of six and ten. As of 2001, the basic educational program consisted of a primary education system lasting for six years and a secondary education system divided into two cycles of three years each. There are also three-year vocational and four-year technical programs available for secondary students. In 2000, about 61% of eligible children were enrolled in primary school. Similar figures for secondary students were unavailable. The pupil to teacher ratio for primary school was at about 42:1 in 2003. The ratio for secondary school was about 18:1.

While Portuguese was the language of instruction in earlier times, the vernacular is more commonly used now. The academic year runs from October to July. The Ministry of Education oversees the national public programs. The government spends and estimated 2.8% of the GDP on education.

The University Agostinho Neto in Luanda was established in 1963 and has a faculty for science, engineering, law, medicine, economics, and agriculture. In 2001, all higher-level institutions had about 8,000 students and 800 faculty members.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Library of Angola, founded in Luanda in 1969, had 84,000 volumes in 2002 and the library of the University of Luanda (1963) had 75,000 volumes. The Municipal Library in Luanda has more than 30,000 volumes. Additional libraries of note are the Geological and Mining Services Directorate Library (1914) in Luanda (40,000 volumes) and the National Historical Center Library (1982) with 12,000 volumes located in Luanda.

The Angola Museum (which contains Angola's historical archives), the Coffee Museum, Museum of Geology, National Museum of Natural History, National Museum of Archaeology, Central Museum of the Armed Forces, and National Museum of Anthropology are all located in Luanda. There are regional museums in Namibe, Huambo, Lobito, Lumbango, and Uíge. The Museum of Chitato, located in Dundo, houses a distinctive ethnographic collection featuring the art of the local Chokue people, recordings of local folk music, and a photographic collection dating to the 1880s. The Municipal Museum of New Lisbon houses a collection of traditional and modern African sculpture. Elinga Teatro is gaining popularity as a modern urban art gallery and theater in Mutamba.

MEDIA

Telephone service is primarily limited to government and business use. In 2003, there were an estimated seven mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 240,300 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately nine mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

Most of the media is controlled by the state. Rádio Nacional de Angola broadcasts in Portuguese, English, French, Spanish, and major local languages; government-owned, it is the only station with the capacity to broadcast nationwide. In 2004, there were five commercial radio stations, including the Catholic Church's Radio Ecclesia and Radio Lac Luanda. The primary news agency is the Angola Press. The only television station was the government Angola Public Television (TPA), which broadcasts in Luanda and most provincial capitals. In 2003, there were an estimated 78 radios and 52 television sets for every 1,000 people.

In 2005, the only national daily newspaper was the government-owned Jornal de Angola (circulation in 2000 was 41,000). There were at least seven private weekly publications with circulation in the low thousands.

In 2003 the country had about 17 Internet hosts. The same year, there were 1.9 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 3 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet.

Though a constitution provides for basic freedom of speech and press, the government is said to restrict these freedoms in practice. Journalists are intimidated into practicing self-censorship, and the government tightly restricts the main newspapers, television stations, and radio broadcasts.

ORGANIZATIONS

Organizations established by the MPLA include the Organization of Angolan Women, the Medical Assistance Service, and the Centers for Revolutionary Instruction. There are professional associations for a variety of fields.

The Angolan National Youth Council, founded in 1991, serves as a major nongovernmental organization representing the opinions and concerns of the nation's youth. The Association of Students of Higher Education (AEES: Associazao dos Estudiantes de Educacao Superior) and the National Union of Angolan Students (UNEA) have been major student movements. A scouting organization (Associação de Escuteros de Angola) is also present. There are branches of the YMCA and YWCA present. There are a few sports associations.

Angolan Action For Development (A.A.D.), the Angolan Women's Organization, and the League Of Angolan Women (LIMA) are groups focusing on the political, social, and developmental issues and concerns of women. There are associations for professional women in the fields of journalism, law, and law enforcement.

Africare–Angola provides aid to the rural population. The ACM - YMCA of Kuanza Sul offers assistance to displaced persons within the country. There are active chapters of the Red Cross, Caritas, and UNICEF.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourism was an important activity until 1972, when the guerrilla war and the subsequent civil war led to a precipitous drop in the number of tourists and hence of tourist revenues. Throughout the late 1990s, a yo-yo effect seemed to hit the tourist industry. In 1996, only about 21,000 visitors came to the country. In 1997, the number jumped to 45,000 and increased to 52,000 the following year. In 2003, the number of visitors again jumped to 106,625. Tourism receipts totaled approximately $71 million. A valid passport, visa, and International Certificate of Vaccination against yellow fever and cholera are required.

The US Department of State estimated the daily cost of staying in Luanda at $289 in 2005. Staying in rural areas would cost much less.

FAMOUS ANGOLANS

António Agostinho Neto (1922–79), a poet and physician who served as the president of MPLA (1962–79) and president of Angola (1975–79), was Angola's dominant political figure. José Eduardo dos Santos (b.1942) succeeded Neto in both these posts. Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (1934–2002), the son of a pastor, founded UNITA in 1966.

DEPENDENCIES

Angola has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brittain, Victoria. The Death of Dignity: Angola's Civil War. Chicago: Pluto Press, 1998.

Ciment, James. Angola and Mozambique: Postcolonial Wars in Southern Africa. New York: Facts on File, 1997.

Hodges, Tony. Angola: Anatomy of an Oil State. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004.

James, W. Martin. Historical Dictionary of Angola. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2004.

——. Historical Dictionary of Angola [computer file], 2nd ed. Boulder, Colo.: netLibrary, Inc., 2000.

Kreike, Emmanuel. Re-creating Eden: Land Use, Environment, and Society in Southern Angola and Northern Namibia. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann, 2004.

McElrath, Karen (ed.). HIV and AIDS: A Global View. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Rotberg, Robert I. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy: The Tribulations of Southern Africa, 1960–2000. Cambridge, Mass.: World Peace Foundation, 2002.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Angola

Compiled from the January 2008 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name

Republic of Angola (Republica de Angola)

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,246,700 sq. km. (481,400 sq. mi), about twice the size of Texas.

Cities: Capital—Luanda (est. pop. 5.0 million); Huambo (750,000); Benguela (600,000).

Terrain: A narrow, dry coastal strip extending from the far north (Luanda) to Namibia in the south; well-watered agricultural highlands; savanna in the far east and south; and rain forest in the north and the enclave of Cabinda.

Climate: Tropical and tropical highland.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Angolan(s).

Population: (2005 est.) 15,500,000.

Annual population growth rate: (2004) 2.8%.

Ethnic groups: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mixed racial 2%, European 1%.

Religions: 2001 official est.) Roman Catholic 68%, various Protestant 20%; indigenous beliefs 12%.

Languages: Portuguese (official), Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, Bakongo, and others.

Education: Years compulsory—8. Enrollment (combined gross enrollment for primary, secondary, and tertiary schools, 2004 est.)—26%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2004 est.)— 67.4% (female 54.2%, male 82.9%).

Health: Life expectancy (2004 est.)— total population 40.7 years. Infant mortality rate (2004 est.)—154/1,000.

Work force: (2003 est. 5.6 million) Agriculture—85%; industry and commerce—15%; services—6%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: November 11, 1975.

Government branches: Executive—elected president (chief of state), appointed prime minister, and 31 appointed civilian ministers and 55 vice ministers. Legislative—elected National Assembly (223 seats). Judicial—Supreme Court (also functions as Constitutional Court).

Political subdivisions: Province, municipality, commune.

Political parties: 111 with legal status; in 1992, 12 won seats in the National Assembly. Ruling party—Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). Opposition—National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), Social Renewal Party (PRS), National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), Party for Democratic Progress—Angola National Alliance (PDP-ANA), Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), Party of the Alliance of Youth, Workers, and Peasants (PAJOCA), Liberal Democratic Party (PLD), Democratic Alliance (AD), Angolan Democratic Forum (FDA), Social Democratic Party (PSD), Front for Democracy (FPD), and the Angolan National Democratic Party (PNDA). Suffrage: Universal age 18 and over.

Economy

GDP: (2006 est. using purchasing power parity) $53.9 billion.

Annual real GDP growth rate: (2006 est.) 15.3%.

Per capita GDP: (2006 est. using purchasing power parity) $3,399.

Avg. inflation rate: (2006) 12.3%.

Natural resources: Petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, bauxite, uranium, gold, granite, copper, feldspar.

Agriculture: Products—bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fisheries products.

Industry: Types—petroleum drilling and refining, mining, cement, basic metal products, fish processing, food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar refining, textiles.

Trade: Exports (2007 projected)— petroleum $35.6 billion. 2006 exports consisted of petroleum and derivatives (94%), diamonds (3.5%), other (2.2%), coffee, sisal, timber, cotton, fish, scrap metal. Major markets (2004)—U.S. (37.70%), China (35.6%), France (6.4%), South Korea (2.95%). Imports (2006)—$10.7 billion: machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts, medicines, food, textiles. Major sources (2006)—Portugal (17.1%), U.S. (9.8%), South Africa (8.0%), China (8.5%), Brazil (8.6%).

GEOGRAPHY

Angola is located on the South Atlantic Coast of West Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north and east and Zambia to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The upper reaches of the Zambezi River pass through Angola, and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Baja California. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October when overnight temperatures can fall to freezing. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.

PEOPLE

Estimates of Angola's population vary widely, as there has been no census since 1970, but it is estimated at no less than 15.5 million. Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovim-bundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, and Bakongo 13%. Other groups include Chokwe, Lunda, Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xind-unga. In addition, mixed racial (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). Portuguese is both the official and predominant language.

HISTORY

In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of 50,000 people. South of this kingdom were various important states, of which the Kingdom of Ndongo, ruled by the ngola (king), was most significant. Modern Angola derives its name from the king of Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648, Brazilian-based Portuguese forces re-took Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Congo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery. The slaving system began early in the 16th century with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil, but also for the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the 19th century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal, under the Salazar and Caetano dictatorships, rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country and links to the People's Republic of China and apartheid South Africa.

From the early 1960s, elements of these movements fought against the Portuguese. A 1974 coup d′etat in Portugal established a military government that promptly ceased the war and agreed, in the Alvor Accords, to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October

1975 and the MPLA’ importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon Neto's death from cancer in 1979, then-Planning Minister Jose Eduardo dos Santos ascended to the presidency.

The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, internal divisions, and abandonment by international supporters. An internationalized conventional civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained in support of the MPLA, often fighting South Africans on the front lines. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. When UNITA's Jonas Savimbi failed to win the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (he won 40% to dos Santos's 49%, which required a runoff), he called the election fraudulent and returned to war.

Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.

On April 4, 2002, the Angolan Government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which formalized the de facto cease-fire that prevailed following Savimbi's death. In accordance with the MOU, UNITA recommitted to the peace framework in the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, returned all remaining territory to Angolan Government control, quartered all military personnel in predetermined locations, and relinquished all arms. In August 2002, UNITA demobilized all military personnel. UN Security Council sanctions on UNITA were lifted on December 9, 2002. UNITA and the MPLA held their first postwar party congresses in 2003. The UNITA Congress saw the democratic transfer of power from interim leader General Paulo Lukumba "Gato" to former UNITA representative in Paris Isaias Henriqué Samakuva, while the MPLA Congress reaffirmed President dos Santos’ leadership of party structures. Samakuva was reelected to a second 4-year term as UNITA party president at a UNITA party congress in July 2007.

The signing of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda on August 1, 2006, was intended as a step toward ending conflict in Cabinda and in bringing about greater representation for the people of Cabinda. It followed a successful counterinsurgency campaign by the Angolan Armed Forces (FAA), who still maintain a strong troop presence there. The MOU rejects the notion of Cabin-dan independence, calls for the demobilization and reintegration of former Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) fighters into various governmental positions, and creates a special political and economic status for the province of Cabinda. Many FLEC military combatants have now been integrated into the Angolan Armed Forces, including into some command positions. In addition, Cabindans will be given designated numbers of vice ministerial and other positions in the Angolan Government. Some FLEC members, who did not sign onto the peace memorandum, continue their independence efforts through public outreach and infrequent low-level attacks against FAA convoys and outposts.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.

Angola is governed by a president who is assisted by a prime minister and 31 cabinet ministers, all appointed by the president. Political power is concentrated in the presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the president (head of state and government), the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. The president, the Council of Ministers, and individual ministers in their areas of competence have the ability to legislate by decree.

Of the 220 deputies in the National Assembly, 130 are elected at large, and 5 are elected to represent each of the 18 provinces. The Electoral Law also calls for the election of three additional deputies to represent citizens living abroad; however, those positions were not filled in the 1992 elections. The ruling MPLA controls 59% of the seats. On December 27, 2007, President dos Santos announced Angola will hold legislative elections on September 5-6, 2008, its first since 1992. The announcement follows a voter registration process that registered over 8 million Angolans. Presidential elections are planned for 2009, with municipal elections to follow. A parliamentary constitutional reform process will likely resume following elections.

The central government administers the country through 18 provinces. Governors of the provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The government has embarked on a program of decentralization, and in August 2007 the Council of Ministers passed a resolution to grant 50 municipalities control of their own budgets.

The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only a fraction of the 164 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Recently, the Supreme Court has acted as a Constitutional Court.

The 27-year-long civil war ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The government estimates that 4.7 million people were internally displaced by the civil war. In March 2007, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and Angola jointly celebrated the end of a 5-year organized voluntary repatriation program that returned home more than 400,000 Angolan refugees. The Angolan Government estimates as many as 100,000 refugees remain outside Angola, and it is working to help those who wish to return. Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the inadequate administrative infrastructure as well as weak social institutions. Government support for social institutions is often inadequate. Many hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

President: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS

Prime Minister: Fernando “Nando” da Piedade Dias DOS SANTOS

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development Gilberto LUTUKUTA

Min. of Commerce: Joaquim Ekuma MUAFUMUA

Min. of Culture: Boaventura CARDOSO

Min. of Defense: Kundi PAIHAMA

Min. of Education: Antonio Burity DA SILVA

Min. of Energy & Water: Jose Botelho DE VASCONCELOS

Min. of Environment & Urban Development: Diakunpuna Sita JOSE

Min. of External Relations: Joao Bernardo DE MIRANDA

Min. of Finance: Jose Pedro DE MORAIS

Min. of Fisheries: Salamao XIRIMBIMBI

Min. of Geology & Mines: Manuel Antonio AFRICANO

Min. of Health: Sebastiao Sapuile VELSOS

Min. of Industry: Joaquim Duarte da Costa DAVID

Min. of Interior: Roberto Leal Monteiro NGONGO

Min. of Justice: Manuel ARAGAO

Min. of Petroleum: Desiderio DA COSTA

Min. of Planning: Ana Dias LOURENCO

Min. of Public Administration & Employment: Antonio Pitra NETO

Min. of Public Works: Francisco Higino CARNEIRO

Min. of Science & Technology: Joao Baptista NGANDAGINA

Min. of Social Communication: Pedro Henrick Vaal NETO

Min. of Social Reintegration: Joao Baptista KUSSUMUA

Min. of Telecommunications: Licinio Tavares RIBEIRO

Min. of Territorial Administration: Virgilio Fontes PEREIRA

Min. of Tourism & Hotels: Eduardo Jonatao CHINGUNJI

Min. of Transport: Andre Luis BRANDAO

Min. of Veterans & Ex-Combatants: Pedro Jose VAN DUNEM

Min. of Women & Family Affairs: Candida Celeste DA SILVA

Min. of Youth & Sports: Jose Marcos BARRICA

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Civil Affairs: Jose da Costa e Silva LEITAO

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, General Secretariat: Jose Mateus de Adelino PEIXOTO

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Military Affairs: Manuel Helder DIAS

Governor, National Bank of Angola: Amadeu MAURICIO

Ambassador to the US: Josefina Perpetua Pitra DIAKITE

Permanent Representative to the UN, NewYork: Ismael Abraao GASPAR MARTINS

Angola maintains an embassy in the United States at 2100-2108 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-785-1156; fax 202-822-9049; web: www.angola.org). Angola also maintains consulates in New York City (attached to its Permanent Mission to the United Nations) at 866 UN Plaza, 48th St., Suite 552, New York, NY 10017 (tel. 212-233-3588, ext. 15; fax 212-980-9606; web: http://www2.un.int/public/Angola/) and in Houston at 3040 Post Oak Blvd., Suite 708, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-212-3840; fax 713-212-3841).

ECONOMY

Angola has a fast-growing economy largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10% of most socioeconomic indicators. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects that Angola's real GDP increased by 23.4% in 2007. Aside from the oil sector and diamonds, Angola is recovering from 27 years of nearly continuous warfare, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Despite abundant natural resources, and rising per capita GDP, it was ranked 161 out of 177 countries on the 2006 UN Development Program's (UNDP) Human Development Index. Subsistence agriculture sustains one-third of the population.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding petroleum industry—now producing approximately 1.7 million barrels per day (bpd), behind only Nigeria in Africa—accounts for 51.7% of GNP, 95% of exports, and 80% of government revenues. Production was expected to exceed 2 million bpd in early 2008; however, Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in December 2006 and in November 2007 was given a quota limit of 1.9 million bpd. Angola also produces 40,000 bpd of locally refined oil. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy, though a local content initiative promulgated by the Angolan Government is pressuring oil companies to source from local businesses.

Block 15, located offshore of the enclave of Cabinda, currently provides 40% of Angola's crude oil production. ExxonMobil, through its subsidiary Esso, is the operator with a 40% share. In 2005, Block 15's second major sub-field, Kizomba B, came online producing at about 250,000 bpd. BP, ENI-Agip, and Statoil are partners in the concession. Chevron operates Block 0, also in offshore Cabinda, which provides one-quarter of Angola's crude oil production. Its partners in Block 0 are Sonangol (the Angolan state oil company), TotalFinaElf, and ENI-Agip. In 2006, Block 0 had a total production of 400,000 bpd, and drilling activity continues at a high level. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000 and produced 105,000 bpd in 2006.

TotalFinaElf brought the first Kwanza Basin deepwater blocks online with production from its Block 17 concession that began in February 2002. Inauguration of the Dalia oilfield in December 2006 combined with the Girassol field already in operation brought Block 17's total production to approximately 500,000 bpd as of July 2007. Total expects to begin drilling in new oilfield Pazflor in 2009, bringing production in Block 17 to a peak 700,000 bpd by 2011. Exploration is ongoing in ultra-deep water concessions and in deepwater and shallow concessions in the Namibe Basin. BP made the first significant ultra-deepwater find in its Block 31 concession in 2002 and had reached nine significant discoveries by the end of 2005. BP expected to ship its first crude from the Plutonio oilfield in Block 18 in September 2007 and expects Plutonio to average 200,000 bpd in full production. Marathon also drilled a successful well in its Block 32 ultra-deep water concession. TotalFinaElf operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with Sonangol; plans for a second refinery in Lobito with projected production of 200,000 bpd are moving forward. There are plans to increase capacity of the Luanda refinery from 40,000 bpd to 100,000 bpd. Chevron, Sonangol, BP, Total, and Eni are developing a $4-5 billion liquefied natural gas plant at Soyo, expected to start production in 2011.

Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, particularly to China. In late 2004, China's state oil company Sinopec bought into Block 18, securing the deal by offering a $2 billion signing bonus to Sonangol, the national oil company. Sinopec has also formed a partnership with Sonangol to operate Block 3/05 (formerly Block 3/80), whose operation was transferred from Total to Sonangol. Sonangol will seek to expand its operation of onshore and shallow water blocks. This includes the northern block of Cabinda's onshore concessions, which since the reduction in hostilities with separatist forces is now open to exploration. Sonangol and Sinopec will also be eyeing future concession rounds, particularly for 23 blocks in the Kwanza Basin onshore area and the relinquished parts of Blocks 15, 17, and 18, currently operated by Exxon, Total, and BP. During 2006, Angola was the leading source country in terms of dollar value for the crude oil China imported, importing U.S. $10.928 billion, up 16.5% year on year.

Diamonds make up most of Angola's remaining exports, with yearly production at 6 million carats. Diamond sales reached approximately $1.1 billion in 2006. Despite increased corporate ownership of diamond fields, much production is currently in the hands of small-scale prospectors, often operating illegally. Only eight formal sector mines are operating out of a total of 145 concessions. In June 2005, De Beers signed a $10 million prospecting contract with the government's diamond parastatal, ending a 4-year investment dispute between De Beers and the government. The government is making an increased effort to register and license prospectors. Legal sales of rough diamonds may occur only through the government's diamond-buying parastatal, although many producers continue to bypass the system to obtain higher prices. The government has established an export certification scheme consistent with the “Kimberley Process” to identify legitimate production and sales. Other mineral resources, including gold, remain largely undeveloped, though granite and marble quarrying have begun

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African agricultural exporter. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive laying of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities were brought to a near standstill, and the country now imports about half of its food. Small-scale agricultural production has increased dramatically over the last 3 years as internally displaced persons (IDPs) are returning to the land. Some efforts at commercial agricultural recovery have gone forward, notably in fisheries and tropical fruits, but most of the country's vast potential remains untapped. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Recently passed land reform laws will attempt to reconcile overlapping traditional land use rights, colonialera land claims, and recent land grants to facilitate significant commercial agricultural development

An economic reform effort launched in 1998 was only marginally successful in addressing persistent fiscal mismanagement and corruption. In April 2000, Angola started an IMF staff-monitored program (SMP). The program lapsed in June 2001 over IMF concerns about lack of adequate Angolan progress. Under the program, the Government of Angola did succeed in unifying exchange rates and moving fuel, electricity, and water prices closer to market rates. In March 2007, the government announced it was not interested in a formally-structured IMF program, but would continue to participate in Article IV consultations and other technical assistance on an ad hoc basis.

In December 2002, President dos Santos named a new economic team to oversee homegrown reform efforts. The new team succeeded in decreasing overall government spending, rationalizing the Kwanza exchange rate, closing regulatory loopholes allowing off-budget expenditures, and capturing all revenues in the state budget. New procedures were implemented to track the flow of funds between the Treasury, Banco Nacional de Angola (the central bank), and the state-owned Banco de Poupanca e Credito, which operates the budget. The Angolan Government adopted a new investment code. Concerns remain about quasi-fiscal operations by the state oil company Sonangol, continued oil-backed commercial borrowing by the Angolan Government, and inadequate transparency and oversight in the management of public accounts. The Angolan commercial code, financial sector law, and telecommunications law all require substantial revision.

Angola is the second-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. U.S. exports to Angola primarily consist of industrial goods and services—such as oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food. On December 30, 2003, President Bush approved the designation of Angola as eligible for tariff preferences under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).

DEFENSE

The Angolan Armed Forces, known by its Portuguese acronym FAA, are headed by a chief of staff who reports to the civilian minister of defense. There are three services—the army, navy, and air force. Total manpower is about 140,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 130,000 personnel. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes, Bell helicopters, and Italian trainers. The “Casa Militar,” or presidential guard, answers directly to the Office of the President and is separate from FAA command and control structures.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. In 1997, Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops fought in support of the Laurent and Joseph Kabila governments. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of President Sassou-Nguesso. Angola has also engaged in a more robust economic relationship with the People's Republic of China. The P.R.C. has extended over U.S. $7 billion in credit to Angola.

Multilaterally, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and a means of expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil. During the peace process, the government fully cooperated with the UN Mission in Angola (UNMA), which concluded its mandate in mid-February 2003. Angola concluded a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in December 2004. In June 2007, it began a 3-year term on the Human Rights Council.

U.S.-ANGOLAN RELATIONS

The United States established formal diplomatic relations with the Government of Angola in 1993. Before 1989, U.S.-Angolan relations were defined by the Cold War. The United States initially supported Holden Roberto's FNLA and later Jonas Savimbi's UNITA against the pro-Soviet and pro-Cuban MPLA government in Luanda. Since 1992, the bilateral relationship has steadily improved. In May 2004, President dos Santos met with President Bush during an official visit to Washington. Dos Santos attended the opening of the United Nations General Assembly in New York in September 2007.

The U.S. Mission in Angola consists of four agencies—the Department of State, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Department of Defense, and the Department of Health and Huma Services’ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHS/CDC). In addition, a variety of federal agencies maintain relationships with the Angolan Government through ongoing projects, including the Federal Aviation Administration, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Commerce, and the Department of Energy. In FY 2005, U.S. Government assistance amounted to roughly $62.8 million.

In FY 2006, USAID's Food for Peace office provided $3.5 million in food inputs that were made available to the World Food Program for nutrition support to populations in the most food insecure and vulnerable provinces, and for returning refugees. This level of support continued a phased reduction, which as recently as FY 2005 amounted to $30.7 million, consistent with Angola's rapidly improving ability to produce its own food through improved access to land and markets as well as the settlement of formerly displaced people. Food for Peace assistance was to be discontinued in FY 2007.

USAID's development program in Angola in FY 2007 was consistent with the country's status as a developing country at a pivotal juncture in its development and reconstruction. In FY 2006, the program budget was $25.5 million and focused on: civil society strengthening, improved governance, and democratization; market-oriented economic analysis and economic reform policy; agricultural sector productivity; maternal and child health; HIV/AIDS prevention, education and voluntary counseling'; and workforce development. Angola also launched a major program to fight malaria through the President's Malaria Initiative (PMI). The Governing Justly and Democratically objective strengthens constituencies and institutions required for democratic governance by strengthening civil society organizations and promoting local government decentralization; fostering an independent media, government transparency, accountability, and capability, and improved dialogue between citizens and government; and laying the groundwork for free and fair elections. The Investing in People objective aims to improve maternal and child health and prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases by helping communities and institutions to provide necessary health services and to conduct HIV/ AIDS prevention programs. The PMI is the largest health program and expands efforts to scale up proven preventive and treatment interventions toward achievement of 85% coverage among vulnerable groups and 50% reduction in morbidity due to malaria. The Economic Growth objective fosters economic policy and financial sector reform; credit access for micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises; and expanded trade and investment.

Emergency support from HHS/CDC was provided to address the 2005 Marburg virus outbreak in northern Angola, with assistance from the USAID Mission. CDC personnel joined with the World Health Organization (WHO) as part of the international response to assist with epidemiologic investigation, infection control, and laboratory diagnosis. CDC personnel in Atlanta provided laboratory and scientific support to Angola's Ministry of Health and to countries bordering Angola, establishing a field laboratory in Luanda, Angola to provide prompt laboratory confirmation of suspect Marburg cases in Angola and neighboring countries. Additional HIV/AIDS funding for the country of just over $2 million from HHS/CDC is also available, and helped expand surveillance, information systems, laboratory, and blood bank quality control.

On February 19, 2006, the Provincial Government of Luanda declared a cholera outbreak, in coordination with the WHO. What began as a localized outbreak of cholera in Luanda rapidly spread around Angola, with cases detected in seven provinces and mortality rates as high as 15% in certain areas. Causes of this rapid expansion included poor sanitation and a lack of potable water (70% of the country was without access), which were compounded by a series of heavy rains in March 2006 and April 2006. Limited stocks of available medical supplies were rapidly depleted, and the UN stressed the need for immediate, widespread assistance. The U.S. Ambassador determined April 19, 2006 that an adequate response was beyond the capacity of the Angolan Government, and through this disaster declaration requested U.S. Government assistance to support the international response and contain the spread of the outbreak. USAID's response was to provide $50,000 for immediate relief needs. As of January 23, 2007, a total number of 70,396 cumulative cases and 2,799 deaths were reported in 16 out of the 18 provinces, since the beginning of the outbreak. Following torrential rains in January 2007, the Chief of Mission, in response to an emergency declared by the Government of Angola, determined that U.S. Government assistance was needed to support the government and efforts of international agencies to mitigate the effects of flooding in the capital, Luanda. As a result, USAID's Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance released $70,000 to provide emergency relief for families displaced by the floods.

To assist with economic reform, in FY 2007 the State Department provided $2.2 million to work on land tenure, economic policy, and the financial sector. An additional $143,000 in grants was provided to community development projects and non-governmental organization (NGO)-sponsored democracy and human rights projects. $152,000 in International Military Education and Training (IMET) funds was provided for English language training to the Angolan Armed Forces. Professional training for law enforcement personnel at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Gaborone, Botswana continued. The Safe Skies for Africa program provided around $800,000 in equipment and training to the Angolan civil aviation authority. As part of its public diplomacy program, the Embassy provided nearly $434,000 in English language training, educational exchanges and fellowships, and information resource services. The State Department provided $6 million for ongoing landmine, small arms, and munitions destruction projects throughout the country. These projects have played a major role in clearing agricultural land and opening critical road networks and increasing access in those areas of the country most impacted by landmines.

At the same time, the energy-based U.S. trading relationship continues to expand and spark other ties. One offshoot has been the development of a Sister City relationship between Lafayette, Louisiana and Cabinda and between Houston, Texas and Luanda. The Catholic University of Luanda has close links with a number of American institutions and has received support from the Angola Educational Assistance Fund, a U.S. non-profit organization organized by Citizens Energy of Boston. Sonangol has a longstanding program of educating its professionals in U.S. universities, complementing Chevron's policy of U.S. training for its own growing pool of Angolan professionals. Long before oil was discovered, American missionary efforts from the early 19th century established several Protestant churches in the interior, which also provided much of the schooling that was available in rural colonial Angola; those historical links now are being revived with exchanges in both directions.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

LUANDA (E) Rua Houari Boumedienne #32, 011-244-222-641-000, Fax 011-244-222-641-232, INMARSAT Tel 011-871-683-133-246, Workweek: Monday thru Thursday, 8:00 am–6:00 pm; Fridays 8:00 am till 12 Noon, Website: http://Luanda.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

August 23, 2007

Country Description: Angola is a large, developing country in southern Africa. After gaining independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was engulfed in a civil conflict that lasted for more than a quarter century. In April 2002, the Government of Angola and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding, which formalized the cease fire that had prevailed following the death of UNITA Leader Jonas Savimbi. On November 21, 2002, the government and former rebels declared that outstanding issues under the 1994 Lusaka Protocol were fully resolved. On August 1, 2006, the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda Province, largely brought to an end the low level guerilla insurgency conducted by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC). Unconfirmed infrequent low-level attacks against Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) convoys and outposts continue to be reported. FLEC had been pressing for an independent Cabindan state since Angola's independence from Portugal in 1975.

Throughout Angola there are growing signs of economic recovery. Nevertheless, major problems remain with infrastructure and government services, especially in communications and basic social services. Travel by road is often difficult and can be dangerous due to large potholes, particularly during the rainy season (October to December). Land mines exist in many areas. However, the Angolan Government and international Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) continue to conduct extensive landmine clearances. In many provinces, primary roads are considered to be landmine free. Facilities for tourism, particularly outside the capital of Luanda, are often rudimentary. Adequate hotels are found in most provincial capitals, but some provide limited amenities.

Entry Requirements: Passport and visa (must be obtained in advance), along with an International Certificate of Vaccination, are required. Persons arriving without visas are subject to arrest or exclusion. Travelers may also encounter delays if they do not have at least one completely blank visa page in their passports for entry and exit stamps. Travelers whose international immunization cards do not show inoculations against yellow fever within the past ten years may be subject to exclusion, on-the-spot vaccination, and heavy fines. Visitors remaining in Angola beyond their authorized visa duration are subject to fines and arrest. It is illegal to attempt to carry local currency out of Angola and persons found attempting to carry local currency out of Angola are subject to having this currency confiscated by customs officers. Current information on entry requirements may be obtained from the Embassy of Angola at 2100-2108 16th Street NW, Washington, DC, tel. (202) 785-1156, fax (202) 785-1258.

Safety and Security: The security situation in Angola has improved markedly since the end of the civil war; however, Americans should still exercise caution when traveling in Angola. Although the war has ended, ground travel throughout Angola is occasionally problematic due to land mines, which were used extensively during the war. Travelers should not touch anything that resembles a mine or unexploded ordinance. Frequent checkpoints and poor infrastructure contribute to unsafe travel on roads outside of the city of Luanda. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined, but their authority should not be challenged. Travel in many parts of Luanda is relatively safe by day, but car doors should be locked, windows rolled up, and packages stored out of sight. Visitors should avoid travel after dark, and no travel should be undertaken on roads outside of cities after nightfall.

Visitors to Angola are advised not to take photographs of sites and installations of military or security interest, including government buildings, since this can result in fines and possibly to one's arrest.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, including the Worldwide Caution Travel Alert, can be found. Up-to-date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 AM to 8:00 PM Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except on U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime is a serious problem throughout the country. While most violent crime occurs between Angolans, foreigners have occasionally been attacked as well. Street crime is a regular occurrence in Luanda. The most common crimes are pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, vehicle theft, and vehicle break-ins. Armed muggings, robberies, and carjacking involving foreigners are not frequent but do occur. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined, but their authority should not be challenged. In general, movement around Luanda is safer by day than by night. Air travelers arriving in Luanda are strongly advised to arrange reliable and secure ground transportation in advance. Use only regulated taxi services since unregulated taxis are unsafe and can present a crime risk.

Motorists should stop at all police checkpoints if so directed. Police officers may solicit bribes or request immediate payment of “fines” for alleged minor infractions. American citizens asked for bribes by the police should politely ask the traffic police to write them a ticket if the police is alleging a moving violation. If the police officer writes the ticket, then the motorist would pay the fine at the place indicated on the ticket. If no moving violation is alleged and the officer is asking for a bribe, the motorist should, without actually challenging the officer's authority, politely ask the officer for his/her name and badge number. Officers thus engaged will frequently let motorists go with no bribe paid if motorists follow this advice. Motorists are reminded to have all proper documents in the vehicle at all times (i.e. vehicle registration, proof of insurance, and driver's license), as the lack of documents is a violation and can also be a reason an officer would solicit a bribe. Police are not always responsive to reports of crime or requests for assistance. Most police are on foot and are assigned to designated stationary posts. The Rapid Intervention Police (PIR) unit is frequently seen patrolling various areas of the city. This unit, which is well trained and organized, will respond to major criminal incidents.

There have been police operations against illegal aliens and private companies resulting in deportation of illegal resident foreign nationals and loss of personal and company property. Independent entrepreneurs in Angola should carry relevant immigration and business documents at all times.

Travelers should be alert to fraud occasionally perpetrated by Luanda airport personnel. Immigration and customs officials sometimes detain foreigners without cause, demanding gratuities before allowing them to enter or depart Angola. Airport health officials sometimes demand that passengers arriving without proof of current yellow fever vaccination accept and pay for a vaccination at the airport. Travelers are advised to be sure to carry their yellow fever vaccination card and make sure their yellow fever vaccine is up-to-date. If travelers forget to bring their yellow fever vaccination card and do not wish to receive the vaccine offered at the airport, they should be prepared to depart the country on the next available flight. Searches of travelers’ checked baggage is common; travelers are advised to take precautions against this possibility. Travelers should also be aware that criminals sometimes attempt to insert items into baggage at the airport, particularly for flights from Luanda to South Africa. Travelers should maintain control of their carry-on baggage at all times, and if they believe something has been inserted into their baggage, they should report the incident immediately to airport authorities.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while over-seas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of crimes are solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

In addition to reporting crime to local police and the U.S. Embassy in Angola, victims of crime who are residing in Angola are also encouraged to report the crime to the security department of their employer. Short-term visitors are encouraged to report the crime to the management of the hotel where they are staying if the crime occurred in or near the hotel.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities and services in Angola do not generally meet international standards. Adequate care for medical emergencies is limited to Luanda, where there are some good private clinics that usually have a 24-hour service provided by a general practice physician and with specialists on call. The U.S. Embassy in Luanda can provide a list of such facilities. Routine operations such as appendectomies can be performed. Local pharmacies provide a limited supply of prescriptions and over-the-counter medicines/drugs. Travelers are therefore urged to carry with them an adequate supply which is properly labeled of any medications they routinely require for the duration of their projected stay in Angola. Malaria is endemic in most areas of Angola.

An outbreak of Marburg hemorrhagic fever, a severe and often fatal disease, occurred in Uige province in the spring of 2005; however, on November 7, 2005, the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Angola and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the Marburg outbreak in Angola ended. This announcement came after 45 consecutive days without a new case of the illness.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Angola is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Since the end of the civil war in 2002, overland access to the interior has increased. However, fighting in most of the country damaged or destroyed many roads and bridges, and services for motorists outside urban areas cannot be counted on. Road travel can be dangerous, due especially to landmines in some areas. Areas with suspected landmines are generally clearly marked and travelers should heed these warnings. Road conditions vary widely outside the capital, from acceptable paved surfaces to virtually impassable dirt roads, particularly secondary routes. Many secondary roads are impassable during the rainy season. Overloaded, poorly marked, and disabled vehicles, as well as pedestrians and livestock, pose hazards for motorists. Ground travel in rural areas should be undertaken during daylight hours only.

Traffic in Luanda is heavy and often chaotic, and roads are often in poor condition. Few intersections have traffic lights or police to direct vehicles. Drivers often fail to obey traffic signals and signs, and there are frequent vehicle breakdowns. Itinerant vendors and pedestrians often weave in and out of traffic, posing a danger to themselves and to drivers. Most public transportation, including buses and van taxis, should be avoided as the vehicles are generally crowded and may be unreliable.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Angola, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Angola's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's Internet web site at www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Angolan customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Angola of sensitive items including firearms, antiquities, and currency. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Angola in Washington or one of Angola's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Financial Transactions: Angola is generally a cash-only economy; neither travelers’ checks nor credit cards are used outside the capital of Luanda. In Luanda, credit cards can be used in extremely limited circumstances, although in April 2007 a major campaign was launched to expand credit card acceptance. ATM machines are only accessible to those individuals who hold accounts with local banks. Travelers should carry a sufficient supply of U.S. dollars with them. Only the newer series U.S. dollar bills (with large faces) are accepted. U.S. dollars can be converted to local currency at exchange businesses authorized by the Angolan government. Angolan currency (the Kwanza) may not be taken out of the country and travelers, who attempt to carry currency out of Angola, are subject to having the currency confiscated at the airport.

Personal Identification: U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Luanda can prepare copies of American passports at no charge for individuals who register with the Embassy. To avoid the risk of theft of or confiscation of original documentation, the U.S. Embassy recommends that Americans keep their passport in a secure place and carry a copy to avoid the possibility of authorities confiscating identity and travel documents.

Labor Disputes: American performers traveling to Angola to perform in concerts and/or other events should be aware that there have been several serious allegations made against talent agencies making arrangements for foreign performers. Thes allegations include, among other things, several charges of breach of contract and the forcible retention of passports and persons. Some of these incidents are currently under investigation by the Angolan police. Performers should assure themselves of the reputation of any agency they may contract with before traveling. Many find it useful to contact performers who have previously worked in Angola and are familiar with agencies in that country. Persons experiencing any incidents of this nature in Angola should report these to the local Angolan police and the U.S. Embassy.

Long Delays in Renewal of Visas: U.S. citizens who opt to renew their work or other visa while in Angola should expect delays of 2-10 weeks or more, during which time the Angolan immigration authorities will retain one's passport and one will not be able to travel. U.S. citizens are advised to plan accordingly, and if travel during this time cannot be avoided, one should apply for a second U.S. passport PRIOR to turning over the primary passport to Angolan authorities for visa renewal. To apply for a second US passport, you must write a letter explaining the need for the second passport, as well as meet all the requirements for a normal application for passport renewal, including being able to show a current valid passport. Receiving a second passport will take 7-10 business days. Once a second passport is obtained, one may not depart Angola on it without first obtaining an exit visa from the Angolan immigration authorities, a process which can take from 1-8 business days.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Angolan laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Angola are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sex with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Angola are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Angola. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The Consular Section is located at the American Embassy Complex, Rua Houari Boumedienne #32, in the Miramar area of Luanda, P.O. Box 6468, tel. (244)-222-641-000, (244)-222-447-028, (244)-222-445-481, 244-222-446-224; 24-hour duty officer (244)-923-404-209; fax (244)-222-641-259. The Consular Section may be contacted by e-mail at [email protected]. Further information on travel to Angola is also available at the Embassy web site at http://usembassy.state.gov/angola.

International Adoption

March 2007

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: While adopting in Angola is not a complex process, it can take years to identify a child for adoption and to complete all of the required paperwork due to the inefficiencies of the Angolan beaurcracy and the fact that it takes an Act of the National Assembly to approve a foreign adoption. Prospective adoptive parents should note that Angolan adoption laws are being revised and they are very strict. To ensure that the adoption process is completed successfully and in a timely manner, the U.S. Embassy in Angola strongly suggests that adoptive parents consult an Angolan attorney.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authorities:
Ministry of Justice,
Family Court Room.
Sala da Familia,
Tribunal Provincial de Luanda
Rua Amilcar Cabral
No. 17, 5th and 7th Floor
Luanda, Angola
No telephone numbers for the public are available

INAC—National Institute of the Child
Rua N'Gola M'Bambi
Luanda, Angola
Telephone: 244-222 322 611; 222 323 683; 222 322 753

Note: After identifying a child, a document requiring permission to adopt the child should be submitted to the National Assembly (Parliament) for discussion and approval. The identification of the child is done privately. There are orphanages run by the government and others run by NGOs. After the identification of the child the orphanage or NGO contacts INAC (National Institute of the Child) for their opinion. INAC then must issue a document giving permission for the child to be adopted. Once INAC issues permission for the child to be adopted, a request for approval must then be sent to the National Assembly. There is no specific form to be submitted to the National Assembly. This process may take six to twelve months.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Prospective adoptive parents may be married, single or common-law spouses. They must be at least 25 years old and at least 16 years older than the adopted child.

Prospective adoptive parent(s) must be in full possession of his or her civil rights, in good physical and mental health, and financially capable of supporting and providing an education for the adopted child.

Residency Requirements: There are no residency requirements for prospective adoptive parents.

Time Frame: An intercountry adoption in Angola can take anywhere from two to three years to complete from the time the child is identified.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies in Angola. Adoptions are handled exclusively by the Ministry of Justice. A list of adoption attorneys in Angola may be found at the web site of the U.S. Embassy in Luanda, Angola (http://luanda.usembassy.gov/wwwhlawyers.html) or may be picked up in person at the U.S. Embassy's consular section.

Adoption Fees: Prospective adopting parents can expect to pay as much as $3,000.00 USD for government fees to complete the adoption. Attorney's fees are estimated to be an additional $10, 000 USD.

Adoption Procedures: The following sections outline the major provisions of the law that apply to adoptions:

• Adoption by proxy is prohibited.
• Adoption requires the consent of the parents or the legal representative of the prospective adoptive child. Consent will be waived with regard to a child or adolescent whose parents are unknown or who have been stripped of their parental rights.
• A home study is required and will be evaluated by a Judge of the Family Court Room from the Provincial Court after the approval of the Parliament (National Assembly).

Prospective adoptive parent(s) should contact a local orphanage to identify a child. After the identification of the child, the orphanage contacts the INAC (National Institute of the Child) for their opinion. INAC issues a document giving permission for the child to be adopted. The process of identifying the child for adoption and receiving approval from INAC can take 6-12 months. The adoptive parent's) then submit a request to the Parliament (National Assembly) requesting the approval to adopt the child. Along with this request the adoptive parent attaches the following:

• A copy of the INAC document giving permission for the child to be adopted.
• Birth certificates of the adoptive parent(s).
• Marriage certificate (if applicable).
• Police clearance.
• Medical exam attesting good physical and mental health.
• Proof of financial support.

The process of approval from the Parliament might take between twelve and eighteen months.

In the meantime the adoptive parent(s) can submit a separate reques to the Family Court Room requesting guardianship of the child. A hearing will be scheduled at which the adoptive parent(s) must be present. If the child is 10 years old or more, he/she will also be heard by the Trustee at the Family Court Room. This process might take three to six months. Once the National Assembly (Parliament) approves the adoption, the adoptive parent(s) receives the determination. That document must be submitted to the Family Court Room and the Family Court Judge gives final approval of the adoption.

A new birth certificate will be issued after the judge's final approval. The judge orders the issuance of a new birth certificate with the adoptive parent(s) name(s) if they desire. To apply for an Angolan passport the adoptive parents have to contact Serviços de Migração e Estrangeiros (SME) in Luanda.

Required Documents:

• Initial application can be made by a letter and should include the personal data of the prospective adoptive parents and the personal data of the prospective adoptive child. It does not need to be notarized.
• Criminal background check and clearance. The USCIS FBI background check is sufficient.
• Medical Evaluation can be conducted in the U.S. or Angola.
• Proof of income.
• Birth certificate of the prospective adoptive parent(s).
• Birth certificate (if available) for the prospective adoptive child or a statement from the institution where the child has been cared for.
• Marriage certificate and divorce decree(s) of prospective adoptive parent (s), if applicable.
• Consent from any living biological parent(s) of the child to adopt.

All documents must be translated into Portuguese. The translation needs to be done in Angola. A list of translators is available from the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy. The court will ask the translator to swear in court that the translation is correct.

Embassy of the Republic of Angola
2100-2108 16th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20009
Tel: 202-785-1156
Fax: 202-785-1258
http://www.angola.org

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult the USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family

American Embassy
Rua Houari Boumedienne #32,
Miramar
Luanda, Angola
C.P. 6468
Consular Tel: (244)(222) 641-000
Fax: (244)(222)641-259
Email: [email protected]

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Angola may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Luanda. General questions regarding intercountry adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-404-4747.

Angola

Compiled from the October 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name

Republic of Angola (Republica de Angola)

PROFILE

GEOGRAPHY

PEOPLE

HISTORY

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

FOREIGN RELATIONS

U.S.-ANGOLAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 1,246,700 sq. km. (481,400 sq. mi), about twice the size of Texas.

Cities: Capital—Luanda (pop. 4.0 million); Huambo (750,000); Benguela (600,000).

Terrain: A narrow, dry coastal strip extending from the far north (Luanda) to Namibia in the south; well-watered agricultural highlands; savanna in the far east and south; and rain forest in the north and the enclave of Cabinda.

Climate: Tropical and tropical highland.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Angolan(s).

Population: (December 2004 est.) 13,000,000.

Population growth rate: (2004) 2.9%.

Ethnic groups: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mixed racial 2%, European 1%.

Religions: (2001 official est.) Roman Catholic 68%, various Protestant 20%; indigenous beliefs 12%.

Languages: Portuguese (official), Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, Bakongo, and others.

Education: Years compulsory—8. Enrollment (2003 est.)—primary school 55%, secondary 30%, and post-secondary 3%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2002 est.)—42% (male 56%, female 28%).

Health: Life expectancy (2002 est.)—total population 46.7 years. Infant mortality rate (2003 est.)—154/1,000.

Work force: (2003 est. 5.6 million) Agriculture—85%; industry and commerce—15%; services—6%.

Government

Type: Republic.

Independence: November 11, 1975.

Government branches: Executive—elected president (chief of state), appointed prime minister, and 40 appointed civilian ministers and vice ministers. Legislative—elected National Assembly (223 seats). Judicial—Supreme Court (also functions as Constitutional Court).

Political subdivisions: Province, municipality, commune.

Political parties: 123 with legal status; in 1992, 12 won seats in the National Assembly. Pro-government—Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). Opposition—National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), Social Renewal Party (PRS), National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), Party for Democratic Progress—Angola National Alliance (PDP-ANA), Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), Party of the Alliance of Youth, Workers, and Peasants (PAJOCA), Liberal Democratic Party (PLD), Democratic Alliance (AD), Angolan Democratic Forum (FDA), Social Democratic Party (PSD), and the Angolan National Democratic Party (PNDA).

Suffrage: Universal age 18 and over.

Economy

GDP: (2005 est. using purchasing power parity) $45.9 billion.

GDP: (2005 est. using Atlas method) $22.8 billion.

Annual real GDP growth rate: (2005 est.) 19.1%.

Per capita GDP: (2005 est. using purchasing power parity) $3,210.

Per capita GDP: (2005 est. using Atlas method) $1,590.

Inflation rate: (2005) 23.5%.

Natural resources: Petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, bauxite, uranium, gold, granite, copper, feldspar.

Agriculture: Products—bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fisheries products.

Industry: Types—petroleum drilling and refining, mining, cement, basic metal products, fish processing, food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar refining, textiles.

Trade: Exports (2005)—$20 billion. 2004 exports consisted of petroleum and derivatives (91.92%), diamonds (7.45%), fish (0.11%), scrap metal (0.05%), coffee, sisal, timber, cotton. Major markets (2004)—U.S. (37.70%), China (35.6%), France (6.4%), South Korea (2.95%). Imports (2005 est.)—$9 billion: machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts, medicines, food, textiles. Major sources (2004)—Portugal (13.04%), U.S. (9.3%), South Africa (7.4%), Japan (4.8%), South Korea (28.3%), Brazil (5.6%).

GEOGRAPHY

Angola is located on the South Atlantic Coast of West Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The Zambezi River and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Baja California. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October when overnight temperatures can fall to freezing. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.

PEOPLE

Estimates of Angola’s population vary widely, as there has been no census for many years, but it is estimated at no less than 13 million. Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, and Bakongo 13%. Other groups include Chokwe, Lunda, Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). Portuguese is both the official and predominant language.

HISTORY

In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of 50,000 people. South of this kingdom were various important states, of which the Kingdom of Ndongo, ruled by the ngola (king), was most significant. Modern Angola derives its name from the king of Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648, Brazilian-based Portuguese forces re-took Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Congo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal’s primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery. The slaving system began early in the 16th century with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil, but also for the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the 19th century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal, under the Salazar and Caetano dictatorships, rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country and links to the People’s Republic of China and apartheid South Africa.

From the early 1960s, elements of these movements fought against the Portuguese. A 1974 coup d’etat in Portugal established a military government that promptly ceased the war and agreed, in the Alvor Accords, to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the

MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA’s importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon Neto’s death from cancer in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos ascended to the presidency. The FNLA’s military failures led to its increasing marginalization, internal divisions, and abandonment by international supporters. An internationalized conventional civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained in support of the MPLA, often fighting South Africans on the front lines. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. When UNITA’s Jonas Savimbi failed to win the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (he won 40% to dos Santos’s 49%, which meant a runoff), he called the election fraudulent and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA’s conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi’s forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.

On April 4, 2002, the Angolan Government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which formalized the de facto cease-fire that prevailed following Savimbi’s death. In accordance with the MOU, UNITA recommitted to the peace framework in the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, returned all remaining territory to Angolan Government control, quartered all military personnel in predetermined locations, and relinquished all arms. In August 2002, UNITA demobilized all military personnel and in September 2002, together with the government, reconstituted the UN-sponsored Joint Commission to resolve all outstanding political issues under the Lusaka Protocol. On November 21, 2002, UNITA and the government declared all outstanding issues resolved and the Lusaka Protocol fully implemented. UN Security Council sanctions on UNITA were lifted on December 9, 2002. In advance of national elections projected for 2006, UNITA and the MPLA held their first post-war party congresses in June and December 2003, respectively. The UNITA Congress saw the democratic transfer of power from interim leader General Paulo Lukumba “Gato” to former UNITA representative in Paris Isaias Henriqué Samakuva, while the MPLA Congress reaffirmed President dos Santos’ leadership of party structures.

The August 1, 2006 signing of a Memorandum of Understanding for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda Province has largely brought to an end the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda’s (FLEC) low-level guerilla insurgency that was pressing for an independent Cabin-dan state. Periodic, separate negotiations between the leadership of the two armed FLEC factions and the Angolan Government, including those following the major Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) offensive against FLEC in November 2002 that decimated FLEC’s capabilities in Cabinda, failed to produce a settlement. The recently formed Cabindan Forum for Dialogue, a coalition of the various FLEC factions, was finally able to broker an agreement with the government. This agreement rejects the notion of Cabindan independence, calls for the demobilization and reintegration of former-FLEC fighters into various governmental positions, and creates a special political and economic status for the province of Cabinda. While not all factions of FLEC support the peace accord, this Memorandum of Understanding is an important step in bringing a lasting peace to Cabinda.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi’s 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.

Few opportunities exist for opposition parties to challenge MPLA dominance. President dos Santos had proposed that general elections be held in 2006; however, this is becoming increasingly unlikely. A multi-party constitutional reform process will resume following elections.

Angola is governed by a president who is assisted by a prime minister and 30 cabinet ministers, all appointed by the president. Political power is concentrated in the presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the president (head of state and government), the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. The President, the Council of Ministers, and individual ministers in their areas of competence have the ability to legislate by decree.

Of the 220 deputies in the National Assembly, 130 are elected at large, and 5 are elected to represent each of the 18 provinces. The Electoral Law also calls for the election of three additional deputies to represent citizens living abroad; however, those positions were not filled in the 1992 elections. The ruling MPLA controls 59% of the seats.

The central government administers the country through 18 provinces. Governors of the provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only a fraction of the 164 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Recently, the Supreme Court has acted as a Constitutional Court.

The 27-year-long civil war ravaged the country’s political and social institutions. The government estimates that 4.7 million people were internally displaced by the civil war. Since 2002, more than 300,000 of Angola’s original 450,000 refugees have returned home. In 2005, the anticipated final year for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) organized return program, an anticipated 53,000 refugees were to be assisted in returning to Angola. Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the inadequate administrative infrastructure as well as weak social institutions.

Government support for social institutions is often inadequate. Many hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 9/13/2006

President: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS

Prime Minister: Fernando “Nando” da Piedade Dias DOS SANTOS

Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Gilberto LUTUKUTA

Min. of Commerce: Joaquim Ekuma MUAFUMUA

Min. of Culture: Boaventura CARDOSO

Min. of Defense: Kundi PAIHAMA

Min. of Education: Antonio Burity DA SILVA

Min. of Energy & Water: Jose Botelho DE VASCONCELOS

Min. of Environment & Urban Development: Diakunpuna Sita JOSE

Min. of External Relations: Joao Bernardo de MIRANDA

Min. of Finance: Jose Pedro DE MORAIS

Min. of Fisheries: Salamao XIRIMBIMBI

Min. of Geology & Mines: Manuel Antonio AFRICANO

Min. of Health: Sebastiao Sapuile VELSOS

Min. of Industry: Joaquim Duarte da Costa DAVID

Min. of Interior: Roberto Leal Monteiro NGONGO

Min. of Justice: Manuel ARAGAO

Min. of Petroleum: Desiderio DA COSTA

Min. of Planning: Ana Dias LOURENCO

Min. of Public Administration & Employment: Antonio Pitra NETO

Min. of Public Works: Francisco Higino CARNEIRO

Min. of Science & Technology: Joao Baptista NGANDAGINA

Min. of Social Communication: Pedro Henrick Vaal NETO

Min. of Social Reintegration: Joao Baptista KUSSUMUA

Min. of Telecommunications: Licinio Tavares RIBEIRO

Min. of Territorial Administration: Virgilio Fontes PEREIRA

Min. of Tourism & Hotels: Eduardo Jonatao CHINGUNJI

Min. of Transport: Andre Luis BRANDAO

Min. of Veterans & Ex-Combatants: Pedro Jose VAN DUNEM

Min. of Women & Family Affairs: Candida Celeste DA SILVA

Min. of Youth & Sports: Jose Marcos BARRICA

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Civil Affairs: Jose da Costa e Silva LEITAO

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, General Secretariat: Jose Mateus de Adelino PEIXOTO

Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Military Affairs: Manuel Helder DIAS

Governor, National Bank of Angola: Amadeu MAURICIO

Ambassador to the US: Josefina Perpetua Pitra DIAKITE

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ismael Abraao GASPAR MARTINS

Angola maintains an embassy in the United States at 2100-2108 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-785-1156; fax 202-822-9049; web: www.angola.org). Angola also maintains consulates in New York City (attached to its Permanent Mission to the United Nations) at 866 UN Plaza, 48th St., Suite 552, New York, NY 10017 (tel. 212-233-3588, ext. 15; fax 212-980-9606; web: www.un.int/angola) and in Houston at 3040 Post Oak Blvd., Suite 708, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-212-3840; fax 713-212-3841).

ECONOMY

Angola has a fast-growing economy largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10 of most socioeconomic indicators. Aside from the oil sector and diamonds, it is recovering from 27 years of nearly continuous warfare, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Despite abundant natural resources, and rising per capita GDP, Angola was ranked 160 out of 177 countries on the UNDP’s Human Development Index. Subsistence agriculture sustains one-third of the population.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding petroleum industry—now producing approximately 1.4 million barrels per day (bpd), behind only Nigeria in Africa—accounts for 51.7% of GNP, 95% of exports, and 80% of government revenues. Production is expected to reach 2 million barrels per day by 2008. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy, though a local content initiative promulgated by the Angolan Government is pressuring oil companies to source from local businesses.

Block 15, located offshore of the enclave of Cabinda, currently provides 40% of Angola’s crude oil production. ExxonMobil, through its subsidiary Esso, is the operator with a 40% share. In 2005, Block 15’s second major sub-field, Kizomba B, came online producing at about 250,000 bpd. BP, ENI-Agip, and Statoil are partners in the concession. Chevron operates Block 0, also in offshore Cabinda, which provides one-quarter of Angola’s crude oil production. Its partners in Block 0 are Sonangol (the Angolan state oil company), TotalFinaElf, and ENI-Agip. Chevron also operates Angola’s first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000 at the rate of 80,000 bpd.

TotalFinaElf brought the first Kwanza Basin deepwater blocks online with production from its Block 17 concession that began in February 2002 and now produces up to 300,000 bpd. Additional sub-fields will begin production in 2006 at the rate of 200,000 bpd. Both ExxonMobil and TotalFinaElf made new discoveries in these blocks in 2005. Exploration is ongoing in ultra-deep water concessions and in deepwater and shallow concessions in the Namibe Basin. BP made the first significant ultra-deep water find in its Block 31 concession in 2002 and had reached nine significant discoveries by the end of 2005. Marathon also drilled a successful well in its Block 32 ultra-deep water concession. BP, which currently does not produce oil in Angola as an operator, expects to have production of 600,000 bpd by 2007. TotalFinaElf operates Angola’s one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with Sonangol; plans for a second refinery in Lobito with projected production of 200,000 bpd are moving forward. There are plans to increase capacity of the Luanda refinery from 40,000 bpd to 100,000 bpd. Chevron, Sonangol, and other partners are developing a $4-5 billion liquefied natural gas plant at Soyo.

Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, particularly China. In late 2004, China’s state oil company Sinopec bought into Block 18, securing the deal by offering a $2 billion credit line to the Angolan Government. Sinopec has also formed a partnership with Sonangol to operate Block 3/05 (formerly Block 3/80), whose operator-ship was transferred from Total to Sonangol recently. Sonangol will seek to expand its operatorship of onshore and shallow water blocks. This may include the northern block of Cabinda’s onshore concessions, which since the halt in hostilities with separatist forces is now open to exploration. Sonangol and Sinopec will also be eyeing future concession rounds, particularly for 23 blocks in the Kwanza Basin onshore area and the relinquished parts of Blocks 15, 17, and 18, currently operated by Exxon, Total, and BP.

Diamonds make up most of Angola’s remaining exports, with yearly production at 6 million carats. Diamond sales reached approximately $1 billion in 2005. Despite increased corporate ownership of diamond fields, much production is currently in the hands of small-scale prospectors, often operating illegally. Only eight formal sector mines are operating out of a total of 145 concessions. In June 2005, De Beers signed a $10 million prospecting contract with the government’s diamond parastatal, ending a 4-year investment dispute between De Beers and the government. The government is making an increased effort to register and license prospectors. Legal sales of rough diamonds may occur only through the government’s diamond-buying parastatal, although many producers continue to bypass the system to obtain higher prices. The government has established an export certification scheme consistent with the “Kimberley Process” to identify legitimate production and sales. Other mineral resources, including gold, remain largely undeveloped, though granite and marble quarrying have begun.

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African agricultural exporter. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive laying of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities were brought to a near standstill, and the country now imports about half of its food. Small-scale agricultural production has increased dramatically over the last three years as internally displaced persons (IDPs) are returning to the land. Some efforts at commercial agricultural recovery have gone forward, notably in fisheries and tropical fruits, but most of the country’s vast potential remains untapped. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Recently passed land reform laws will attempt to reconcile overlapping traditional land use rights, colonial-era land claims, and recent land grants to facilitate significant commercial agricultural development.

An economic reform effort launched in 1998 was only marginally successful in addressing persistent fiscal mismanagement and corruption. In April 2000, Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) staff-monitored program (SMP). The program lapsed in June 2001 over IMF concerns about lack of adequate Angolan progress. Under the program, the Government of Angola did succeed in unifying exchange rates and moving fuel, electricity, and water prices closer to market rates.

In December 2002 President dos Santos named a new economic team to oversee homegrown reform efforts. The new team has succeeded in decreasing overall government spending, rationalizing the Kwanza exchange rate, closing regulatory loopholes allowing off-budget expenditures, and capturing all revenues in the state budget. New procedures have been implemented to track the flow of funds between the Treasury, Banco Nacional de Angola (the central bank), and the state-owned Banco de Poupanca e Credito, which operates the budget. The Angolan Government has adopted a new investment code. Concerns remain about quasi-fiscal operations by the state oil company Sonangol, continued oil-backed commercial borrowing by the Angolan Government, and inadequate transparency and oversight in the management of public accounts. The Angolan commercial code, financial sector law, and telecommunications law all require substantial revision.

The Angolan Government remains in dialogue with the IMF. In its published July 2003 Article IV report, the IMF endorsed four prerequisites to proceeding with formal negotiations: (1) disclosure of foreign debt data; (2) timely provision of macroeconomic statistics; (3) full implementation of the single government account at the Central Bank, and (4) additional dialogue on oil revenue management. A December 2003 IMF staff mission to Angola found some progress in these areas. In February 2004, the Angolan Government and the IMF reached agreement on the steps necessary to conclude SMP negotiations. As of February 2006, Angola and the IMF remained in discussion on an IMF program.

Angola is the second-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. U.S. exports to Angola primarily consist of industrial goods and services—such as oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food. On December 30, 2003, President Bush approved the designation of Angola as eligible for tariff preferences under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).

DEFENSE

The Angolan Armed Forces, known by its Portuguese acronym FAA, are headed by a chief of staff who reports to the civilian minister of defense. There are three services—the army, navy, and air force. Total manpower is about 140,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 130,000 personnel. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes, Bell helicopters, and Italian trainers. The “Casa Militar,” or presidential guard, answers directly to the Office of the President and is separate from FAA command and control structures.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. In 1997, Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops fought in support of the Laurent and Joseph Kabila governments. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of President Sassou-Nguesso. Angola has also engaged in a more robust economic relationship with the People’s Republic of China. The P.R.C. has extended a U.S. $2 billion credit line to Angola.

Multilaterally, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and a means of expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil. During the peace process, the government fully cooperated with the UN Mission in Angola (UNMA), which concluded its mandate in mid-February 2003. Angola concluded a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in December 2004.

U.S.-ANGOLAN RELATIONS

The United States established formal diplomatic relations with the Government of Angola in 1993. Before 1989, U.S.-Angolan relations were defined by the Cold War. The United States initially supported Holden Roberto’s FNLA and later Jonas Savimbi’s UNITA against the pro-Soviet and pro-Cuban MPLA government in Luanda. Since 1992, the bilateral relationship has steadily improved. In May 2004, President dos Santos met with President Bush during an official visit to Washington.

The U.S. Mission in Angola consists of four agencies—the Department of State, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Department of Defense, and the Department of Health and Human Services’ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHS/CDC). In addition, a variety of federal agencies maintain relationships with the Angolan Government through ongoing projects, including the Federal Aviation Administration, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Commerce, and the Department of Energy. In FY 2003, U.S. Government assistance amounted to roughly $188 million.

USAID’s Food for Peace office provided emergency food inputs valued at $30.7 million in FY 2005 to feed vulnerable populations and help stimulate agricultural recovery, continuing a phasing out period in the past two years of the emergency program as Angola has stabilized and the emergency has ended.

USAID’s development program in Angola in FY 2006 is consistent with the country’s status as a “fragile state”, vulnerable and recovering from an extended civil conflict. The program budget is $15.7 million, focused on improving food security, civil society strengthening and democratization, market-oriented economic analysis and economic reform policy, maternal and child health, HIV/AIDS prevention, education and voluntary counseling and treatment. Angola has also been named one of the three pilot countries under the President’s Malaria Initiative. The food security objective, focused on smallholder agriculture, promotes access to inputs, extension services and training; market linkages; and revitalized agricultural productivity in Angola. The democracy objective strengthens constituencies and institutions required for democratic governance by promoting civil society coalitions, an independent media, government transparency and accountability, and the groundwork for free and fair elections. The health objective aims to improve maternal and child health and prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases by helping communities and institutions to provide necessary health services and to conduct HIV/AIDS prevention programs.

The economic reform objective fosters economic policy and financial sector reform, business development services, and credit access for micro-, small, and medium enterprises. USAID works with a number of international and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and corporate partners in alliances and public-private partnerships.

Emergency support from HHS/CDC was provided to address the 2005 Marburg virus outbreak in northern Angola, with assistance from the USAID Mission. CDC personnel joined with the World Health Organization (WHO) as part of the international response to assist with epidemiologic investigation, infection control, and laboratory diagnosis. CDC personnel in Atlanta provided laboratory and scientific support to Angola’s Ministry of Health and to countries bordering Angola, establishing a field laboratory in Luanda, Angola to provide prompt laboratory confirmation of suspect Marburg cases in Angola and neighboring countries. Additional HIV/AIDS funding for the country of just over $2 million from HHS/CDC is also available, and helped expand surveillance, information systems, laboratory and blood bank quality control.

On February 19, 2006, the Provincial Government of Luanda declared a cholera outbreak, in coordination with the WHO. What began as a localized outbreak of cholera in Luanda rapidly spread around Angola, with cases detected in seven provinces to date and mortality rates as high as 15% in certain areas. Causes of this rapid expansion include poor sanitation and a lack of potable water (70% of the country is without access), which have been compounded by a series of heavy rains in March and April. Limited stocks of available medical supplies were rapidly depleted, and the UN stressed the need for immediate, widespread assistance. The Chief of Mission determined April 19 that an adequate response was beyond the capacity of the Angolan Government, and through this disaster declaration requested U.S. Government assistance to support the international response and contain the spread of the outbreak. USAID’s response was to provide $50,000 for immediate relief needs. The funds were granted May 2, 2006 to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) to support information, education, and communication within its Cholera Intervention Plan. The Ministry of Health, WHO, UNICEF, the European Union, USAID, and other partners continue to support field activities to control the outbreak.

To assist with economic reform, the State Department provided $2.2 million to work on land tenure, economic policy, and the financial sector. An additional $143,000 in grants was provided to community development projects and NGO-sponsored democracy and human rights projects. $152,000 in International Military Education and Training (IMET) funds was provided for English language training to the Angolan Armed Forces. Professional training for law enforcement personnel at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Gaborone, Botswana continued. The Safe Skies for Africa program provided around $800,000 in equipment and training to the Angolan civil aviation authority. As part of its public diplomacy program, the Embassy provided nearly $434,000 in English language training, educational exchanges and fellowships, and information resource services. The State Department provided $6 million for ongoing demining projects throughout the country. These projects have played a major role in opening critical road networks and increasing access in those areas of the country most impacted by landmines.

At the same time, the energy-based U.S. trading relationship continues to expand and spark other ties. One offshoot has been the development of a Sister City relationship between Lafayette, Louisiana and Cabinda and between Houston, Texas and Luanda. The Catholic University of Luanda has close links with a number of American institutions and has received support from the Angola Educational Assistance Fund, a U.S. non-profit organization organized by Citizens Energy of Boston. Sonangol has a longstanding program of educating its professionals in U.S. universities, complementing Chevron’s policy of U.S. training for its own growing pool of Angolan professionals. Long before oil was discovered, American missionary efforts from the early 19th century established several Protestant churches in the interior, which also provided much of the schooling that was available in rural colonial Angola; those historical links now are being revived with exchanges in both directions.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

LUANDA (E) Address: Rua Houari Boumedienne #32; Phone: 011-244-222-641-000; Fax: 011-244-222-641-232; INMARSAT Tel: 011-871-683-133-246; Workweek: Monday thru Thursday, 8:00 am–6:00 pm; Fridays 8:00 am till 12 Noon; Website: http://www.usembassy.state.gov/angola

Last Updated: 12/12/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : February 7, 2007

Country Description: Angola is a large, developing country in southern Africa. After gaining independence from Portugal in 1975, it was engulfed in a civil conflict that lasted for more than a quarter century. A cease-fire was formalized in April 2002, two months after the death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi, with the signing of the Luena Memorandum of Understanding. Additionally, on November 21, 2002, the government and former rebels declared that outstanding issues under the 1994 Lusaka Protocol were fully resolved. The August 1, 2006, signing of a Memorandum of Understanding for Peace and Reconciliation in Cabinda Province has largely brought to an end the low level guerilla insurgency conducted by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) that had been pressing for an independent Cabindan state.

Throughout Angola there are growing signs of economic recovery. Nevertheless, major problems remain with infrastructure and government services, including communications and basic social services. Travel by road is difficult and can be dangerous due to large potholes, especially during the rainy season (October to December). Land mines exist in many areas. However, the Government and international NGOs continue to conduct extensive landmine clearance and in many provinces primary roads are considered to be landmine free. Facilities for tourism, particularly outside the capital of Luanda, are often rudimentary. Adequate hotels are found in most provincial capitals, but some provide limited amenities

Exit/Entry Requirements: A passport and visa, which must be obtained in advance, along with an International Certificate of Vaccination, are required. Persons arriving without visas are subject to arrest or exclusion. Travelers may also encounter delays if they do not have at least one completely blank page in their passports for entry and exit stamps. Travelers whose international immunization cards do not show inoculations against yellow fever within the past ten years may be subject to exclusion, on-the-spot vaccination, and heavy fines. Visitors remaining in Angola beyond their authorized visa duration are subject to fines and arrest. It is illegal to attempt to carry local currency out of Angola and it is subject to confiscation by customs officers. Current information on entry requirements may be obtained from the Embassy of Angola at 2100-2108 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. (202) 785-1156, fax (202) 785-1258.

Safety and Security: The security situation in Angola has improved markedly since the end of the civil war; however, Americans should still exercise caution. Although the war has ended, ground travel throughout Angola is occasionally problematic due to land mines, which were used extensively during the war. Frequent checkpoints and poor infrastructure contribute to unsafe travel on roads outside of the city of Luanda. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined, but their authority should not be challenged. Travel in many parts of Luanda is relatively safe by day, but car doors should be locked, windows rolled up, and packages stored out of sight. Visitors should avoid travel after dark, and no travel should be undertaken on roads outside of cities after nightfall.

The civil war between the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the Government of Angola ended in 2002. The insurgency pursued by FLEC in Cabinda formally ended in August 2006, with the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the Government and one of FLEC’s principal leaders. However, at least two FLEC leaders, living abroad, have yet to accept the memorandum and the possibility of sporadic small-scale violence, although unlikely, still exists.

Throughout Angola, taking photographs of sites and installations of military or security interest, including government buildings, may result in arrest or fines and should be avoided.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 AM to 8:00 PM Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except on U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Crime is a serious problem throughout the country. While most violent crime occurs between Angolans, foreigners have occasionally been attacked as well. Street crime is a regular occurrence in Luanda. The most common crimes are pick pocketing, purse-snatching, vehicle theft, and vehicle break-ins. Armed mugging, robberies, and carjackings involving foreigners are not frequent but do occur. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined, but their authority should not be challenged. In general, movement around Luanda is safer by day than by night. Air travelers arriving in Luanda at night are strongly advised to arrange reliable and secure ground transportation in advance. If this is not possible, use only the regulated taxi service at the airport and in Luanda. Unregulated taxis are unsafe and can present a crime risk.

Motorists should stop at all police checkpoints if so directed. Police officers may solicit bribes or request immediate payment of “fines” for alleged minor infractions. Americans asked for bribes by the police should politely ask the traffic police to write them a ticket if the police are alleging a moving violation. If the police officer writes the ticket, then the motorist would pay the fine at the place indicated on the ticket. If no moving violation is alleged and the officer is asking for a bribe, the motorist should, without actually challenging the officer’s authority, politely ask the officer for his/her name and badge number. Officers thus engaged will frequently let motorists go with no bribe paid if motorists follow this advice. Motorists are reminded to have all proper documents in the vehicle at all times (i.e. vehicle registration, proof of insurance, and driver’s license), as the lack of documents is a violation and can also be a reason an officer would solicit a bribe. Police are not always responsive to reports of crime or requests for assistance. Most police are on foot and are assigned to designated stationary posts. The Rapid Intervention Police (PIR) unit is frequently seen patrolling various areas of the city. This unit, which is well-trained and organized, will respond to major criminal incidents.

There have been police operations against illegal aliens and private companies resulting in deportation of illegally resident foreign nationals and loss of personal and company property. Independent entrepreneurs in Angola should carry relevant immigration and business documents at all times.

Travelers should be alert to fraud occasionally perpetrated by Luanda airport personnel. Immigration and customs officials sometimes detain foreigners without cause, demanding gratuities before allowing them to enter or depart Angola. Airport health officials sometimes demand that passengers arriving without proof of current yellow fever vaccination accept and pay for a vaccination at the airport. Travelers are advised to be sure to carry their yellow fever vaccination card and make sure their yellow fever vaccine is up-to-date. If travelers forget to bring their yellow fever vaccination card and do not wish to receive the vaccine offered at the airport, they should be prepared to depart the country on the next available flight. Searches of travelers’ checked baggage is common; travelers are advised to take precautions against this possibility. Travelers should also be aware that criminals sometimes attempt to insert items into baggage at the airport, particularly for flights from Luanda to South Africa.

Travelers should maintain control of their carry-on baggage at all times, and if they believe something has been inserted into it, they should report it immediately to airport authorities. Travelers should also be advised that the Angolan currency (the Kwanza) may not be taken out of the country, and travelers are subject to confiscation of local currency at the airport.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of crimes are solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

In addition to reporting crime to local police and the U.S. Embassy in Angola, victims of crime who are residing in Angola are also encouraged to report the crime to the security department of their employer. Short-term visitors are encouraged to report the crime to the management of the hotel where they are staying if the crime occurred in or near the hotel.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Adequate medical facilities are rare except in Luanda, where there are some good private clinics that usually have a 24-hour service provided by a general practice physician and with specialists on call. The U.S. Embassy in Luanda can provide a list of such facilities. Routine operations such as appendectomies can be performed. However, many types of medicine are not readily available; travelers are urged to carry with them properly labeled supplies of any medications they routinely require. Malaria is endemic in most areas of Angola.

An outbreak of Marburg hemorrhagic fever, a severe and often fatal disease, occurred in Uige province beginning in the spring of 2005; however, on November 7, 2005, the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Angola and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the Marburg outbreak in Angola ended. This announcement came after 45 consecutive days without a new case of the illness. Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. Please see our information on medical insurance overseas.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Angola is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Since the end of the civil war in 2002, overland access to the interior has increased. However, fighting in most of the country damaged or destroyed many roads and bridges, and services for motorists outside urban areas cannot be counted on. Road travel can be dangerous, due especially to landmines in some areas. Areas with suspected landmines are generally clearly marked and travelers should heed these warnings. Road conditions vary widely outside the capital, from acceptable paved surfaces to virtually impassable dirt roads, particularly secondary routes. Many secondary roads are impassable during the rainy season. Overloaded, poorly marked, and disabled vehicles, as well as pedestrians and livestock, pose hazards for motorists. Ground travel in rural areas should be undertaken during daylight hours only. Traffic in Luanda is heavy and often chaotic, and roads are often in poor condition. Few intersections have traffic lights or police to direct vehicles. Drivers often fail to obey traffic signals and signs, and there are frequent vehicle breakdowns. Itinerant vendors and pedestrians often weave in and out of traffic, posing a danger to themselves and to drivers. Most public transportation, including buses and van taxis, should be avoided, as the vehicles are generally crowded and may be unreliable.

Aviation Safety Oversight: As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Angola, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Angola’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/oversight/iasa/.

Special Circumstances: Angola is generally a cash-only economy; neither travelers’ checks nor credit cards are used outside the capital of Luanda. In Luanda, credit cards can be used only in very limited circumstances. ATM machines are only accessible to those with local bank accounts. Travelers should carry a sufficient supply of U.S. dollars with them. Only the newer series U.S. dollar bills (with large faces) are accepted. U.S. dollars can be converted to local currency at exchange businesses authorized by the Angolan government. Angolan currency (the Kwanza) may not be taken out of the country and travelers are subject to confiscation of local currency at the airport.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passport with them at all times so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. The Embassy recommends that U.S. citizens keep their passport in a secure place and carry a copy to avoid the possibility of authorities confiscating identity and travel documents.

Angolan customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Angola of sensitive items including firearms, antiquities, and currency. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Angola in Washington or one of Angola’s consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Angolan laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Angola are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sex with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime prosecutable in the United States.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration/Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Angola are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Angola. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The Consular Section is located at the American Embassy Complex, Rua Houari Boumedienne #32, in the Miramar area of Luanda, P.O. Box 6468, tel. (244)-222-641-000, (244)-222-447-028, (244)-222-445-481, 244-222-446-224; 24-hour duty officer (244)-923-404-209; fax (244)-222-641-259. The Consular Section may be contacted by e-mail at [email protected] or at [email protected]. Further information on travel to Angola is also available at the Embassy website, http://usembassy.state.gov/angola.

ANGOLA

People's Republic of Angola

Major Cities:
Luanda, Huambo, Lobito, Benguela

Other Cities:
Cabinda, Namibe

EDITOR'S NOTE

This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report 2001 for Angola. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country.

INTRODUCTION

The name "Angola" comes from the Mbundu word for "king"-ngola. Few African countries have seen their natural and human potential as underutilized and thoroughly ravaged by violence as Angola.

In precolonial southern Africa, the area was home to some of the continent's richest kingdoms, which welcomed European merchants and missionaries in the 15th century, only to be corrupted and ultimately destroyed by the transatlantic slave trade in the 16th century. The abolition of the trade-a politically and economically destabilizing event-was followed by the repressive taxation and forced labor regimes of Portuguese colonialism. Although much of the rest of the continent underwent rapid decolonization in the 1960s, the armed struggle for independence in Angola took nearly 15 years and perpetuated internal divisions that turned into a decades-long, ongoing civil war.

Small groups of hunter-gatherers were the first to inhabit the region of present-day Angola, but late in the first millennium Bantu-speaking people migrated to the area from the north. They brought with them iron-smelting skills, agricultural practices, and cattle, all of which they used to establish some of the largest and most centralized kingdoms in Central Africa. In the mid-13th or 14th century, Congo kings organized agricultural settlements surrounding the mouth of the Congo River into provinces, collected taxes, and established an official currency of shells.

Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão sailed into the mouth of the Congo River in 1482. The Portuguese initially maintained peaceful relations with the Congo, trading goods in exchange for slaves. But the slave-traders became more intrusive and violent. When they began to meet resistance, the Portuguese monarchy sent troops to Angola.

Slavery existed in some form in most of Angola's kingdoms. It is estimated that between the late 16th century and 1836, when Portugal officially abolished slave trafficking, 4 million people from the region were captured for the slave trade. Slave trading agents, or pombeiros-some Portuguese, most African, or Afro Portuguese (mestiços)-bought slaves from local chiefs in exchange for cloth, guns, and other European goods.

Throughout the 19th century and until the military campaigns ended in 1930, many sectors of Angolan society resisted domination by the Portuguese monarchy. Kings, especially the well educated leaders of the Congo, invoked historical treaties to resist Portuguese dictates.

The country has been engulfed in war and civil strife since its independence from Portugal in 1975. A peace accord, signed in 1994, brought a temporary halt to the civil war, but war erupted again in 1998.

However, despite these grave difficulties, Angola is not without its share of intrigues. Numerous beautiful beaches surrounding Luanda-such as the Palmeirinhas, Ilha, and Ramiros-are popular places for water sports enthusiasts. Three museums include a Museum of Anthropology, with an excellent collection of African arts, and several discos and clubs are dotted throughout the city. Angolans are also known for their hospitality; it is not uncommon for visitors to be invited into their homes for a traditional meal.

MAJOR CITIES

Luanda

Luanda, Angola's capital and largest city, lies less that 9 degrees south of the equator. It was established in 1576, and by 1627, the city had become the headquarters for the Portuguese colonial administration and the main outlet for slave traffic to Brazil. Luanda experienced a dramatic population increase after 1940 as thousands of Portuguese immigrants and rural Angolans flocked to the city. This population explosion ceased shortly after Angola's independence from Portugal in 1975, when Portuguese nationals returned en masse to Portugal. By 1976, Luanda's large white population had dwindled from 150,000 to 30,000. The city's population increased again during the Angolan civil war as an influx of Cuban soldiers and civilians settled in Luanda. Luanda has an estimated population of 3 million.

Today, Luanda is a city of contrasts. The lower part of the city serves as Luanda's commercial and industrial center. Skyscrapers and wide avenues give the city a modern appearance. However, vast poverty-ridden shanty-towns are prevalent in other parts of the city. These neighborhoods are filled with sun-dried, mud brick shacks known as "musseques."

Luanda is the site of the University of Luanda, the seat of the Roman Catholic archdiocese, and the location of 4 de Fevereiro, Angola's international airport. Luanda is a busy international port. Coffee, cotton, iron, salt, and diamonds are chief exports. Products are also transported by rail link to Malanje, a city located 200 miles east of Luanda.

Utilities

Running water is available throughout much of the city, though outages do' occur. Electricity is 220 volts, 50-cycle electrical power. Power outlets are the standard European two round prong. Persons planning to bring sensitive electronic equipment should also bring a voltage regulator, UPS, and/or surge protector, as voltage may fluctuate as much as 10%. It is also advisable to bring only battery-operated clocks.

Food

Most basic items (dairy products, eggs, butter, bread, sugar, flour, beans, rice, fresh and frozen meats, and limited amounts of fresh fruits and vegetables) can be purchased locally in open-air markets and supermarkets (Jumbo, Afri-Belg, and Intermarket) or in hard currency stores (ES-KO and Cantina Palança Items in the hard-currency stores are expensive compared to Washington, D.C. prices, but not prohibitive.

Fresh fruits and vegetables are grown locally or imported from South Africa with a moderate amount of variety (tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, onions, lettuce, apples, oranges, mangos, papayas, bananas, etc.). Items purchased in the open-air markets are sold "as is." Care must be taken with these items, especially in the proper cleaning of all fresh produce. Fresh local fish is also abundant and reasonable. Alcoholic beverages are also found in a wide variety, such as wines from South Africa and Europe, beers from Angola, South Africa, Namibia, and hard liquors. Food stuffs, including perishables, can also be ordered on a bimonthly basis from South Africa. Due to the cost of air shipment, prices are high.

Clothing

Locally available clothing is unacceptable by American standards. Size, selection, and availability are extremely limited. It is advisable to bring all clothing items and shoes with you. There are no local taboos regarding clothing, and the majority of people in Luanda dress in the "Western" style. As Luanda has a tropical climate, any type of washable cotton/linen tropical wear would be well suited for day and nighttime use. Replenishment of clothing items is done most often by catalog purchase through the pouch system. Clothes can also be bought in South Africa at reasonable prices and are of good quality.

Luanda's year-round climate is generally sunny, hot, and humid. Washable 100% cotton clothing is recommended, as dry cleaning facilities are unreliable. Comfortable, durable walking shoes are also recommended. Life, in general, and social functions, in particular, tend to be casual in the expatriate community. Angolans, on the other hand, always dress well for functions.

Supplies and Services

Luanda has one drycleaner shop that is considered adequate, plus a few well regarded, reasonably priced barbershops and beauty salons. There are auto repair shops in town that have received mixed reviews and are not inexpensive.

Domestic Help

Domestic help is readily available at reasonable rates, usually payable in U.S. dollars. However, those employed who have not worked before for Americans may need training, and most speak only Portuguese. Currently, there is no requirement for pension, social security, or retirement payments for domestic help. All household help should have a medical exam and routine security background check prior to beginning work.

Religious Activities

There are missionaries of all faiths living in Angola. Although their principal role is humanitarian assistance, many do hold religious services for their individual faiths. There is a large number of Catholic, Baptist, and Methodist churches in Luanda. The Catholic church has a resident cardinal, and the Methodist church has a resident bishop. Church facilities are simple; most services are conducted in Portuguese, and attendance by Angolans is normally high. An English nondenominational church group meets every Sunday morning and is open to everyone.

Education

The International School of Luanda (LIS) instructs in English as a first language and has a preschool and kindergarten, as well as grades 1-8. It is a member of the Association of International Schools in Africa (AISA) and is listed in the worldwide International Education Handbook. The school is working in conjunction with the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) and their Primary Years Program and is also seeking US. accreditation. There are also French and Portuguese schools in Luanda.

Sports

The national sports of Angola are soccer and basketball. Local games are held regularly. Angola also sponsors tennis, European hand-ball, basketball, and field hockey teams. Dance, aerobics, karate, and "capoeira" lessons are available, located at several different fitness gyms and at reasonable prices. Runners can participate in the Hash House Harriers, a weekly "Fun Run" sponsored by the British Embassy, and more informal events.

The city has a tennis club; court rental is $10 per hour for nonmembers. Bring shoes, rackets, and balls sufficient to last a tour. Reasonably priced tennis lessons are available through private arrangement.

Entertainment

Entertainment in Luanda is limited. Alliance Française and the Portuguese Cultural Center will have special cultural programs to which all are invited. There is a small theater with local groups performing. Most people dine out for entertainment. Nightclubs, jazz clubs, and many relatively good restaurants serve Angolan, Portuguese, Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, and Cuban cuisine. Restaurants in Angola are expensive by U. S. standards.

Special Information

The security situation in Luanda requires caution. Civil war, banditry and landmines make travel throughout Angola unsafe. Street crime, sometimes violent, is common in Luanda and in other urban centers. Police, who often carry automatic weapons, patrol city streets. They are unpredictable, and their authority should not be challenged. Travel in many parts of Luanda is relatively safe by day, but doors must be locked, windows rolled up, and packages stored out of sight. Police checkpoints contribute to unsafe travel on roads leading out of the city. Visitors are strongly advised to avoid unnecessary travel after dark. All visitors are required at the earliest opportunity to contact the U.S. Embassy security officer for a briefing.

Huambo

Located in west-central Angola, Huambo (formerly Nova Lisboa) was founded in 1912 and quickly became a major transportation center. The city is built on Angola's main railway, the Benguela Railway. The railway, which extends from Lobito on Angola's Atlantic coast to Zaire, was used extensively to transport coffee, wheat, and corn grown near Huambo. As a result of this activity, Huambo became a very prosperous city. Huambo's fortunes plummeted during the civil war when the Benguela Railway was severely damaged. The city itself has suffered severe damage. Most of Huambo's residents fled and the city was looted. Huambo faces hardship and years of rebuilding. The city's estimated population in 2000 was 400,000.

Lobito

Lobito is Angola's third largest city and was founded in 1843. The completion of the Benguela Railway served as a stimulus for Lobito's growth into a major city. Lobito is Angola's largest and busiest port. Because of its extensive rail links with Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa, Lobito was once a leading transport center for Southern Africa's mineral wealth. However, damage to the Benguela Railway has severely disrupted Lobito's trade with other African countries. Several industries are located in the city, among them food processing, shipbuilding, and metalworking. The French built a new textile complex at Lobito in 1979 and a second textile mill is planned for the future. Grains, fruits, sisal, coconuts, and peanuts are grown near the city. Plans to rehabilitate Lobito and the surrounding area were in progress in mid-1991. Lobito's population is roughly 75,000.

Benguela

The city of Benguela is an historic trading, fishing, and administrative center. Benguela was founded in 1617 by Portuguese traders seeking to open new ports and trade markets in Angola. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Benguela served as a major transport point for Portugal's lucrative slave trade. The city currently serves as a trading center for the coffee, corn, tobacco, sugarcane, and sisal grown near Benguela. Industry in the city consists of fish processing, sugar milling, and soap manufacturing. Manganese deposits have been discovered south of the city, but were not developed extensively because of Angola's civil war. Benguela has an estimated population of over 50,000.

OTHER CITIES

The port city of CABINDA , situated in the Angolan enclave of Cabinda, was once a transportation point for West African slaves. Today, Cabinda province contains rich crude oil deposits and the city is a major port of Angolan oil exports. Timber, cocoa, coffee, phosphates, and potassium are also transported through Cabinda. Manganese and gold deposits have been discovered near the city, but have not been fully exploited. Cabinda has been able to escape damage during the civil war because it is geographically separated from Angola. Cabinda's status as a free port has made it attractive to foreign businesses and investors.

Cabinda is a small city located 200 miles east of Luanda. It developed in the mid-19th century as an important open-air market. Today, the city is the center of an important cotton-and coffee-growing area. The prosperity of the town was hampered by the exodus of skilled Portuguese workers following Angola's independence. In addition, the city was partially destroyed during the civil war. Malanje is linked by rail and road with Luanda. Several interesting attractions are located near the city. These attractions include the Luando Game Reserve, Milando Animal Reserve, and the 350-ft. high Duque de Breganca Falls. The city's population is estimated at 31,600.

The port of NAMIBE (formerly Moçamedes) was founded by Brazilians in the mid-19th century. Namibe is a city of small houses and administrative buildings crowded together along a low inland cliff with commercial buildings nestled along the Atlantic coast. The city was solely dependent on fishing until the discovery of iron ore near Namibe. A lucrative iron ore mine was opened at Cassinga, but operations were disrupted during the civil war. Fishing remains an important activity for Namibe's residents. Namibe has an estimated population of 77,000.

COUNTRY PROFILE

Geography and Climate

Angola is located on the western coast of central/southern Africa. It is bordered by Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) on the north and northeast, Zambia on the east, Namibia on the south and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west. Its coastline extends from the oil-rich enclave of Cabinda (north of the mouth of the Zaire River) to the northern border of Namibia, a distance of nearly 1,000 miles. Angola comprises a total area of approximately 481,354 square miles, larger than Texas and California combined.

The Atlantic coast of Angola is narrow and flat. Most of the country is comprised of a vast plateau elevated 3,000 to 7,000 feet above sea level. Northern and western portions of Angola have mountains, thick vegetation and fertile soil. The majority of Angolans live in the north and west. Many of the country's rivers originate in central Angola. However, only the Cuanza River is navigable. The eastern half of Angola consists of relatively flat, open plateau and sandy soil. Angola's southern areas are dominated by the Namib Desert. Population in southern and eastern regions is very sparse. The Cabinda province is covered by tropical rain forest.

Angola has a tropical climate. The hot season runs from January to April, with high temperatures and high humidity. There are light rains in November and December with rains falling in March & April.

Population

With only about 12 million people, Angola is lightly populated. As a result for three decades of conflict, an estimated 80% of the population is now concentrated in 20% of the national territory closest to the coast, and nearly 30% of the total population now resides in the capital, Luanda. The rest of the population is spread over the central highlands.

Angolans are mostly of Bantu ethnic heritage. About 75% of Angola's people are members of Angola's four largest ethnic groups. The Ovimbundu, normally resident in the central highlands and southeastern parts of Angola, are the largest group, comprising about 37% of the population. The Ovimbundu were traditionally farmers and traders.

The Kimbundu, approximately 25% of Angola's population, live in and around Luanda and to the east. Prolonged contact with Portuguese colonial rulers has given the Kimbundu the highest proportion of Angolans assimilated into European culture.

The Bakongo, usually concentrated in the northwest, and areas adjacent to the Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Cabinda Province, constitute 13% of the population. The Bakongo at one time formed a loose federation known as the Kingdom of the Kongo with whom the Europeans made initial contact in the 15th century when the Portuguese first landed at the mouth of the Congo River.

The Lunda and Chokwe occupy the northeastern sector of Angola, with branches also in Democratic Republic of Congo, and make up 10% of the population. These two ethnic groups once comprised a great kingdom in the Angolan interior and were barely touched by Portuguese influence.

Other relatively minor ethnic groups include the Nganguela in the southeast and the Ovambo and Herero in the southwest (about 7%). The Ovambo and Herero are migratory cattle herders, who maintain close ties to kinsmen in Namibia, and regularly migrate across the Angolan-Namibian border. The rest of the population is made up of mulatto or mestizo (mixed European and African, 2%), Europeans (1%), and others (5%).

Before the 1975 civil war, approximately 750,000 non-Africans, primarily Portuguese citizens, lived in Angola. About 500,000 fled to Portugal because of the war. Today, about 40,000 Portuguese live in Angola, constituting the largest foreign population. The mulatto/mestizo are influential politically and economically beyond their numbers.

The diverse ethnic backgrounds of the population suggest the wide range of languages spoken. No one African language is widely used beyond its ethnic area. Portuguese is Angola's official language and is used by the government, in schools, and by people throughout the country.

The last official Angolan census was taken in 1970. Since then, because the war has made accurate demography impossible, population figures have only been given as estimates. The Angolan Government estimated the 1988 population at almost 9.5 million. Today's best estimate is about 12 million inhabitants, with about 3 million of those residing in Luanda.

History

Modern-day Angola was first discovered in 1483 by the Portuguese explorer Diego Cao. Although the Portuguese government sent a small group of settlers to Angola in 1491, the establishment of large permanent settlements was not their primary objective. Rather, Angola was to serve as an ample source of slave labor for Portugal's profitable coffee plantations in Brazil. By the mid-nineteenth century, the Portuguese had established a lucrative slave trade in Angola. It is estimated that nearly three million Angolans were eventually sent to South America as slaves. More Portuguese flocked to Angola as the slave trade grew. In 1575, the Portuguese established their first permanent settlement at Luanda.

Angola's lucrative slave trade quickly captured the attention of Portugal's colonial rivals. In 1641, the Dutch invaded and occupied Luanda. For seven years, Portugal's Angolan slave trade was controlled by the Dutch. The Portuguese eventually wrested control of Angola from the Dutch in 1648.

Angola's boundaries were formally established by the Berlin West Africa Congress in 1884-1885 in which France, Germany and Portugal won international recognition of the borders of their African colonies. During the early 20th century, Angola was wracked by a series of tribal uprisings against Portuguese rule. All of these uprisings were ruthlessly crushed. By 1922, the Portuguese government claimed that all resistance against colonial rule in Angola had been silenced.

The years following World War II brought an influx of new Portuguese settlers. Beginning in 1950, the Portuguese government initiated a campaign to entice new settlers to Angola with a promise of free farmland. The plan was highly successful. By the end of 1950, there were 80,000 Portuguese living in Angola, compared with fewer than 10,000 in 1900. The Portuguese promises of free land created a series of hardships for native Angolans, however. Most of the free farmland was confiscated from traditional African farming areas. Many African farmers, displaced from their land, were forced to take menial jobs in Angola or work outside the country. The Portuguese settlement practices, coupled with harsh repression of dissent, led to deep bitterness and discontent among the Angolan people. The seeds of violent revolution had been sown.

In 1961, Angola was shaken by two separate uprisings. The first revolt was conducted by a political group known as the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). Shortly thereafter, the FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola) launched their own military campaign. Initially, both uprisings made impressive gains against Portuguese troops. However, the Portuguese eventually gained the upper hand and crushed the revolts. Members of the MPLA and FNLA were forced to flee to remote parts of the country. In 1966, after a series of disagreements, several members of the FNLA left the party and formed the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). UNITA began its own revolt against the Portuguese in late 1966. It was quickly defeated. Eventually, tribal rivalries, personality conflicts and ideological differences erupted between members of the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA. Relations between the three groups became so hostile at one point that they began murdering and imprisoning each others officials. Although the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA were equally committed to driving the Portuguese from Angolan soil, the bitter rivalries and hostilities between them and within their own parties severely hampered these efforts.

In 1974, the Portuguese government at home was overthrown. Weary of Portugal's prolonged involvement in Angola, the new government decided to grant independence. Representatives of the Portuguese government and the three opposition parties met in January 1975 to plan an orderly transition from colonial rule. At this meeting, the MPLA, UNITA and FNLA agreed to form a transitional government and to hold free elections. All Portuguese troops were to be removed from Angola. Complete independence was scheduled for 1975. Unfortunately, Angola's journey to independence would be marred by warfare and hardship.

Within a matter of months, the shaky coalition government collapsed. By mid-1975, the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA were engaged in open civil warfare.

On November 11, 1975, Portugal declared Angola independent. Because Luanda was in MPLA hands at the time of independence, the Portuguese handed control of the government to the MPLA.

Although the MPLA controlled Angola, they were faced with a host of internal and external problems. Years of civil warfare had decimated Angola's economy. Many Portuguese settlers fled the country after 1975, taking with them the expertise needed to rebuild the economy. Although substantially weakened, UNITA and the FNLA still posed a major threat to the MPLA. Foreign powers, such as South Africa, wanted to destroy the MPLA. Finally, the MPLA suffered from dissent within its own ranks.

In 1991, the MPLA and UNITA signed a formal peace agreement, effectively ending 16 years of civil war. However, the peace lasted only until October 1992, when the civil war resumed. The Lusaka Protocol of 1994, supported by armed UN peacekeepers, promised peace by guaranteeing UNITA a voice in the government. In spite of recurrent episodes of violence, some 100,000 troops had been demobilized by 1996.

Public Institutions

Angola changed from a one-party Marxist/Leninist system ruled by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) to a multiparty democracy following the September 1992 elections. Since then, political power is increasingly concentrated in the Presidency. The political power of the MPLA Central Committee Political Bureau has diminished. Currently, the MPLA and eight other political parties are represented in the National Assembly, including the largest opposition party, UNITA, made up of former fighters who have abandoned the armed struggle.

In late 1999, a major Government offensive succeeded in destroying Jonas Savimbi's conventional military capacity and driving him to guerrilla tactics. Currently, the Government controls 90%-95% of the national territory, and a similar share of the population, with Savimbi's forces reduced to scattered, but sometimes effective, raids against civilian as often as military targets. As the UNITA military threat abated, the Government has slowly allowed for greater public dissent, a freer press, considerable leverage for opposition parties, and a proposal to hold national elections in 2002. Some of this public debate has increased and strengthened civil society, in the process helping to make the country a more dynamic and interesting place to work in international affairs.

The executive branch of the government is composed of the Chief of State, President Jose Eduardo Dos Santos, Prime Minister (a position which, since the early 1999 government reorganization, is also held by the President), and the Council of Ministers.

The Constitution establishes the broad outlines of the government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on the Portuguese civil and customary law system. It was recently modified to accommodate a multi-party political system and increased use of free-market concepts and is again under revision in the National Assembly. The legal voting age for Angolans is 18.

Military and civilian courts exist, but the judicial system is precarious. There have been reports of prolonged detention without trial, unfair trials, and arbitrary executions.

The country is divided into 18 provinces, each with its own provincial government, but the governors are appointed by and under direct authority of the central government.

Angola has been ravaged by warfare since initiation of the struggle for independence from the Portuguese in 1961. An estimated 450,000 people have been killed; 100,000 maimed; and 3.7 million people were orphaned or forced from their homes since the wars began. The war has severely damaged the country's social institutions and infrastructure. The millions of dislocated people, orphaned children, and the lack of communications and transport between cities and the interior have all taken their toll. Daily conditions within the country, and in the capital city, Luanda, are difficult for most Angolans. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment; schools are without books; and public servants often lack the basic supplies for their day-today work.

An ally of the Socialist Block during the Cold War, Angola has increasingly drawn closer to Western nations, including the U.S. Angola's vast petroleum resources and its role as a regional power give it high importance.

The flag of Angola consists of two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and black with a centered yellow emblem consisting of a five-pointed star within half a cogwheel crossed by a machete

Arts, Science, Education

The arts and crafts market may not be as prolific in Angola as in some African countries, but there are beautiful artifacts. There is a trade in antique masks and fabrics. Ivory engraving is said to be the most intricate and detailed work found in Angola. Some craftsmen in Luanda market in woodcarvings for the expatriate community, and there are a few good painters as well, painting from traditional landscape and portrait to abstract art.

Angola is predominantly Roman Catholic (60%). Protestants (15%) and various indigenous beliefs that may also be nominally Christian (25%) fill out the pattern of religious affiliation. Catholic churches are found in most towns, and' their religious workers have played an important role in keeping education and food distribution programs going in the war-torn country.

The Portuguese brought the Catholic religion with them, and toward the end of the 19th century Protestant missionaries arrived from the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. Catholic and Protestant missionaries have played a significant role in Angola education. At the time of independence the leaders of Angola's three major liberation movements had been educated a Protestant missions. Literacy, less than 10% at independence, has increased, despite the onset of the civil war, and is estimated at 45% of the total population. Currently, only 40% of Angolan children attend school for the first three grades, after which attendance declines severely. Also, the quality of education is poor, and most of the children of parents with money are sent overseas to Portugal or other countries.

Commerce and Industry

The continuing civil war has devastated Angola's postindependence economy and has created wide-ranging humanitarian and social problems and diverted resources that otherwise might have been used for the maintenance and improvement of infrastructure. The war has caused serious disruptions in the transportation of people and goods, and in agricultural production.

Angola is resources-rich, with abundant offshore oil reserves, high-quality diamond deposits, numerous other minerals, rich agricultural lands, and many rivers, which serve as a source of water and power supply. Prior to independence Angola was a net food exporter, and one of the largest coffee and cotton producer in the world. Other main crops included bananas, sugarcane, sisal, corn, manioc, tobacco, forest products, fish, and livestock. Now Angola buys almost all of its food, as well as most consumer products. Coca-Cola invested $35 million in a bottling plant located 60 kilometers outside of Luanda. The plant opened in early 2000 and added a second production line in November 2000. Coca-Cola's investment is the largest single non-mineral investment in Angola's history.

The oil sector dominates the economy. Petroleum exports account for about 90% of total exports annually, and oil revenue makes up almost half of the country's Gross Domestic Product, which reached $5.6 billion in 1999. This strong reliance on a single commodity makes Angola very vulnerable to fluctuations in oil prices. Weak oil prices in 1998 and part of 1999, combined with increased arms purchases in response to an escalation of hostilities, led to a heavy external debt burden. Angola's external debt amounted to almost $10 billion at the end of 1999, and $4.4 billion of this amount was in arrears. Higher oil prices in late 1999 and 2000 and the intake of signing bonuses for new oil concessions helped to keep the debt from growing further.

Angola is the third largest trading partner of the U.S. in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly because of significant petroleum exports. Between 1997-99, Angolan crude oil accounted for about 5% of U.S. total imports of crude. The U.S. imported $2.4 billion of crude oil from Angola in 1999 and exported $252 million of goods to Angola, primarily machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, and food products.

After 1975, Angola's Soviet-influenced economy was highly centralized and state-dominated. The Government has very slowly introduced reforms and liberalizations since the early 1990s. The government enacted its most significant reforms to date in 1999, when it unified official and parallel market exchange rates and liberalized interest rates. In April 2000, the Government reached an agreement with the International Monetary Fund on a Staff-Monitored Program (a precursor to receiving loans from the IMF and other concessionary lenders). Progress on economic reforms, such as privatization and improved accountability and transparency, continues-but at a slow pace.

Transportation

Automobiles

A 2000 law requiring that all cars brought into the country be no more than 3 years of age has been informally relaxed for non-commercial users. The only safe means of traveling in the city is by automobile. As with all other types of infrastructure in Angola, roads have been poorly or infrequently maintained in the past 20 years. Potholes are typically deep and numerous. High-clearance, heavy duty suspension vehicles are recommended. Cars brought into Angola by nonresidents are considered in transit, and no taxes are levied. Only leaded fuel is available, and although the lines are long at peak hours, there is no widespread shortage of fuel. Fuel prices have risen considerably over the last year. Rental vehicles are available, but are very costly.

There are no vehicle inspections required for registration or licensing purposes. Vehicle traffic moves on the right as in the U.S. A valid U.S. driver's license is needed to apply for an Angolan driver's license, but recently the Angolan Government has been slow in issuing licenses despite charging a fee. Local third party insurance is available and required by law. Full coverage purchased locally is expensive and not reliable when paying for damages. Vehicle owners may wish to obtain hard-currency insurance from outside Angola.

There are repair facilities in the city for GM, Dodge, Jeep, Ford, Toyota, and Nissan vehicles. However, it is helpful to bring basic items such as air and oil filters, fan belts, spark plugs, etc., with you. A heavy-duty battery is required, and air conditioning is a must year round. The poor road conditions also cause suspension systems and tires to wear rapidly. Any vehicle shipped to Angola should have heavy-duty suspension, radial tires, and undercoating. Carburetors should be adjusted to low-octane leaded gas and catalytic converters removed, since locally available gasoline is of poor quality. Because of the extremely high rate of pilferage from the Luanda port, do not ship car radios, stereos, or other removable items with the vehicle. Shipping time for vehicles averages about 4 months with some time in port. It will take about a month to receive plates before the vehicle can be driven.

Local

Local public transportation is limited and deemed unsafe. The public buses and collective taxis (mini-buses or "candongueiros") are not safe; no individual taxi service exists. Reliable railroad transportation is not available. Roads to the interior are not deemed safe for general travel. The best method of reaching other areas is by air. Air transport to major interior cities is available on the Angolan national airline TAAG; however, security conditions and equipment problems regularly interrupt service.

Regional

The following airlines provide service to/from Europe on a weekly or more frequent basis: Sabena (Belgium), Air France, TAP (Portugal), and TAAG (Angola). Air Namibia, Air Zimbabwe, Air Ethiopia, Air Gabon, and South African Airlines offer regional service.

Communications

Telephone and Telegraph

Angola's telephone system is poor. Local and international telephone connections can be difficult to make and can be extremely frustrating and expensive. Luanda's cellular telephone system is estimated to be 400% oversubscribed, and connections, particularly during business hours, are difficult to make. The telephone system is slowly being changed to digital but problems are still rampant.

Radio and TV

Luanda's local radio stations broadcast on AM, FM, and SW Programs concentrate on popular music and local news, with programs from 6 am until midnight daily. Shortwave broadcasts from Europe, North America, and Africa are the best source for international news and can be received without much difficulty.

Angolan television (TPA) transmits daily in color, with programming consisting of news, sports, cartoons, soap operas, cultural programs, and movies from the U.S., Europe, and Brazil. International programs are usually telecast in original languages with Portuguese subtitles. A multi-system 120/220v television, video, or stereo system is required; local television transmissions are in PAL-1.

Newspapers, Magazines, and Technical Journals

Almost all publications in Angola are in Portuguese; a few French books are also available. The main local newspaper, the state-run Jornal de Angola, is published daily. Several independent newspapers (also in Portuguese) are published weekly or biweekly. English-language publications are difficult to obtain in Angola. It is advisable to receive magazines, newspapers, and books by pouch mail or subscribe to an internet service.

Health and Medicine

Medical Facilities

The government-run hospitals are substandard by Western criteria and lack such basics as medicines, supplies, or trained staff, and are often without water, electricity, and sanitary facilities. There is one dental office.

Community Health

Because of the poor living and health conditions within the capital city's neighborhoods, disease, illness, and malnutrition are commonplace among the majority of Luanda's population. Warm weather and standing water from rains create a rampant breeding area for mosquitoes, and malaria is a common and dangerous threat to the population throughout Angola. Dust is also a continuous problem, and many people suffer from allergies and sinus trouble.

Recently a beautification project called Urbana 2000 was begun to try to beautify and clean up the city's image. Though Luanda's garbage collection system operates regularly, garbage and trash∼ still ends up in the streets. Air pollution from dust, automobile exhaust, and burning garbage is heavy. City water is badly contaminated by raw sewage, human waste, and other toxic substances. Because of the poor living conditions, the average life expectancy for local citizens is only 45 years.

Preventive Measures

Luanda is afflicted with virtually every disease known to mankind. There are incidents of the following illnesses: hepatitis types A, B, C, measles, typhoid fever, polio, leprosy, amoebic infestations (whip-worm, roundworm, amebiasis, and giardia lambia), cholera, yellow fever; filaria, tetanus, meningitis, trypanosomisis, rabies, tuberculosis, syphilis, and varieties of AIDS. HIV and hepatitis ontaminate the local blood supply. HIV/AIDS precautions are strongly recommended. Malaria is a serious continuing health risk because of the warm climate and a lack of community programs to combat it. Luanda is normally dry and dusty for 9 months of the year; as a result. some individuals are troubled with sinus, allergy, and respiratory problems.

It is recommended that vaccinations. including yellow fever, typhoid, rabies; hepatitis A, B, C, and meningitis, be updated prior to coming.

Antimalarial precautions are a must, with Mefloquine Doxycycline being the prophylaxis of choice. It is recommended that malaria prophylaxis begin a week prior to arrival.

Drinking local tap water is very hazardous. Care must be taken when dining out, as food poisoning is common, although not necessarily in restaurants frequented by expatriates. All locally grown produce should be soaked in iodine or bleach solution before consuming, and care should be taken with the purchase and cooking of local meats and fish.

In sum, Angola, and Luanda in particular, is a place for the relatively healthy who are free of any major or continuing health problems.

NOTES FOR TRAVELERS

Passage, Customs and Duties

A passport and visa, which must be obtained in advance, and an International Certificate of Vaccination, are required. Persons arriving without visas are subject to possible arrest and/or deportation. Travelers whose international immunization cards do not show inoculations against yellow fever and cholera may be subject to involuntary vacci-nations and/or heavy fines. Visitors remaining in Angola beyond their authorized visa duration are subject to fines and possible arrest. Current information on entry requirements may be obtained from the Embassy of Angola at 1615 M Street, N.W., Suite 900, Washington, D.C. 20036, tel. (202) 785-1156, fax (202) 785-1258.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to register with and obtain updated information on travel and security from the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Luanda located at the Casa Inglesa Complex, Rua Major Kanhangula No. 132/135, tel. 244-2-396-727; fax 244-2-390-515. The Embassy is located on Rua Houari Boumedienne in the Miramar area of Luanda, P.O. Box 6468, tel. 244-2-447-028/(445-481)/(446-224); (24-hour duty officer tel. 244-9-501-343); fax 244-2-446-924. The Consulate may be contacted by e-mail at [email protected].

Pets

Quarantine is not required for pets brought to Angola. Dogs and cats must have rabies shots within 6 months, but not less than 30 days prior to arrival. Heartworm medication is also advised. Limited pet food is available locally, and what is available is very expensive. The mange parasite is prevalent in Angola; infection may occur if a pet comes in contact with infected animals. There are several private practice veterinarians in Luanda. No kennel facilities are available.

Firearms and Ammunition

The Government of Angola prohibits the importation of any type of personal firearms or ammunition.

Currency, Banking, and Weights and Measures

Angola's currency is the kwanza. The exchange rate is market-deter-mined. US. paper currency (no coins) is widely accepted in Angola. Angolan kwanzas are not convertible outside of Angola. U.S. dollars can be converted to local currency at exchange houses authorized by the Angolan government. Rapid fluctuations in the value of the Angolan Kwanza and shortages of U.S. dollars are widespread. Currency conversions on the parallel market are illegal, and participants are subject to arrest. In general, only the newer series 100 (US) dollar bills are accepted due to widespread counterfeiting of the older style.

Banking practices are unreliable. It is advisable to use your stateside bank, with direct deposit for all payroll or voucher transactions. Traveler checks are not generally accepted outside the Mission. Credit cards are accepted at major hotels and by a few businesses that cater to the expatriate communities. Otherwise, credit cards are not accepted.

Angola uses the metric system of weights and measures.

LOCAL HOLIDAYS

Jan. 1 … New Year's Day

Feb. 4 … Commencement of the Armed Struggle

Feb/Mar. … Carnival^*

Mar. 8 … Women's Day

Mar. 27 … Victory Day

Mar/Apr. … Good Friday^*

Mar/Apr. … Easter^*

Apr. 14 … Youth Day

May 1 … Labor Day

June 1… Children's Day

Aug. 1 … Armed Forces Day

Sept. 17… Heroes' Day

Nov. 2… Remembrance Day

Nov. 11 … Independence Day

Dec. 1 … Pioneer's Day

Dec. 10 … Worker's Party Foundation Day

Dec. 25 … Christmas

Dec. 25 … Family Day

^*variable

RECOMMENDED READING

The following titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country:

Web Sites

Angolan Embassy in Washington, D.C. http://209.183.193.172

Angola's Official Web Site http://www.angola.org

Angola Business and Economics http://www.angola.org/business Angola Press

http://www.angolapress-angop.ao UNITA's Homepage http://www.kwacha.org

Radio Ecclksia-Catholic Emissary in Angola

http://ecclesia.snet.co.ao Lusofone Web Site-gossip (chat room), information, and other links. http://www.portugalnet.pt

Books

Abbot, Peter. et al. Modern African Wars: Angola and Mozambique 1961-1974. Men-At-Arms Series, 1994.

Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. Mass market paperback, 1999.

Antsee, Margaret. Orphan of the Cold War.

Ayo, Yvonne. Eyewitness Africa. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995.

Bender, Gerald 1. Angola Under the Portuguese. University of California Press: Berkley, 1980.

Birmingham, David. Frontline Nationalism in Angola and Mozambique. 1993.

Birmingham, David. Portugal and Africa. 1999.

Bredin, Miles, and Harriet Logan (photographer). Blood on the Tracks: A Rail Journey from Angola to Mozambique. 1995.

Britten, Victoria. The Death of Dignity: Angola's Civil War 1998.

Bowdich. Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese in the Interior of Angola and Mozambique. 1974.

Ciment, James. Angola and Mozambique: Post Colonial Wars in Southern Africa (Conflict and Crisis in the Post-Cold War World). 1997.

Collelo, Thomas, ed. Angola: A Country Study. Third edition. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1990.

Crocker, Chester. High Noon in Southern Africa.

Hare, Paul J. Angola's Last Best Chance for Peace: An Insider's Account of the Peace Process, U.S. Institute of Peace Press: Washington, D.C., 1998.

Henderson, Lawrence. Angola: Five Centuries of Conflict.

Hothschild, Adam. King Leopold's Ghost.

Jolicoeur, Suzanne. The Arc of Socialist Revolutions: Angola to Afghanistan. 1982.

Kapuscinski, Ryszaro. Another Day of Life.

Kelly, Robert C., et al. Angola Country Review 1999/2000. 1999.

Laure, Jason. Angola (Enchantment of the World). Library series, 1990.

Maier, Karl, and Serif Lies. Angola Promises (paperback): London, 1996.

Marcum, John. The Angolan Revolution.

Matloff, Judith. Fragments of a Forgotten War. 1997.

Minter, William. Apartheid's Contras: An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique. 1994. Okuma, Thomas. Angola in Ferment. 1974.

Sean Sheehan, Angola: Cultures of the World. 18 Marshall Cavendish Corporation. 1999.

Somerville, Keith. Angola: Politics, Economics, and Society (Marxist Regimes Series). 1986.

Spikes, Daniel. Angola and the Politics of Intervention.

Tvedten, Inge, et al. Angola: Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction (Nations of the Modern World. Africa). 1997.

Van der Winden, Bob, ed. A Family of the Musseque. Oxford, England: World View Publishing, 1996.

Warner, Rachel. Refugees. Hove, England: Wayland Ltd., 1996.

Watson, James. No Surrender: A Story of Angola. London: Lions Tracks, 1992.

Wilson, T. Ernest. Angola Beloved. 1998.

Wright, George. The Destruction of a Nation: United States Policy Toward Angola Since 1945. 1997.

ANGOLA

Compiled from the January 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name
Republic of Angola (Republica de Angola)

PROFILE

Geography

Area:

1,246,700 sq. km. (481,400 sq. mi), about twice the size of Texas.

Cities:

Capital—Luanda (pop. 4.0 million); Huambo (750,000); Benguela (600,000).

Terrain:

A narrow, dry coastal strip extending from the far north (Luanda) to Namibia in the south; well-watered agricultural highlands; savanna in the far east and south; and rain forest in the north and the enclave of Cabinda.

Climate:

Tropical and tropical highland.

People

Nationality:

Noun and adjective—Angolan(s).

Population (December 2004 est.):

14,600,000.

Annual population growth rate (2003):

2.8%.

Ethnic groups:

Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mixed racial 2%, European 1%.

Religions (2001 official est.):

Roman Catholic 68%, various Protestant 20%; indigenous beliefs 12%.

Language:

Portuguese (official), Ovimbundu, Kimbundu, Bakongo, and others.

Education:

Years compulsory—8. Enrollment (2003 est.)—primary school 55%, secondary 30%, and post-secondary 3%. Literacy (total population over 15 that can read and write, 2002 est.)—42% (male 56%, female 28%).

Health:

Life expectancy (2002 est.)—total population 46.7 years. Infant mortality rate (2003 est.)—154/1,000.

Work force (2003 est. 5.6 million):

Agriculture—85%; industry and commerce—15%; services—6%.

Government

Type:

Republic.

Independence:

November 11, 1975.

Branches:

Executive—elected president (chief of state), appointed prime minister, and 40 appointed civilian ministers. Legislative—elected National Assembly (233 seats). Judicial—Supreme Court (also functions as Constitutional Court).

Administrative subdivisions:

Province, municipality, commune.

Political parties:

123 with legal status; in 1992, 12 won seats in the National Assembly. Pro-government—Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). Opposition—National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), Social Renewal Party (PRS), National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), Party for Democratic Progress - Angola National Alliance (PDP-ANA), Democratic Renewal Party (PRD), Party of the Alliance of Youth, Workers, and Peasants (PAJOCA), Liberal Democratic Party (PLD), Democratic Alliance (AD), Angolan Democratic Forum (FDA), Social Democratic Party (PSD), and the Angolan National Democratic Party (PNDA).

Suffrage:

Universal age 18 and over.

Economy

GDP (2005 est. using purchasing power parity):

$45.6 billion.

GDP (2005 est. using Atlas method):

$21.6 billion.

Annual real GDP growth rate (2005 est.):

13.8%.

Per capita GDP (2004 est. using purchasing power parity):

$2,525.

Per capita GDP (2004 est. using Atlas method):

$951.

Avg. inflation rate (2004):

40.4%.

Natural resources:

Petroleum, diamonds, iron ore, phosphates, bauxite, uranium, gold, granite, copper, feldspar.

Agriculture:

Products—bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, corn, cotton, manioc, tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fisheries products.

Industry:

Types—petroleum drilling and refining, mining, cement, basic metal products, fish processing, food processing, brewing, tobacco products, sugar refining, textiles.

Trade:

Exports (2004)—$9.8 billion: petroleum and derivatives (91.92%), diamonds (7.45%), fish (0.11%), scrap metal (0.05%), coffee, sisal, timber, cotton. Major markets (2003)—U.S. (47.74%), China (23.37%), France (7.35%), South Korea (2.84%). Imports (2003 est.)—$4.1 billion, machinery, electrical equipment, vehicles and spare parts, medicines, food, textiles. Major sources (2003)—Portugal (18.2%), U.S. (12.1%), South Africa (11.0%), Japan (1.3%), South Korea, Brazil.

GEOGRAPHY

Angola is located on the South Atlantic Coast of West Africa between Namibia and the Republic of the Congo. It also is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The Zambezi River and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool Benguela current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal Baja California. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October when overnight temperatures can fall to freezing. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet. The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year.

PEOPLE

Estimates of Angola's population vary widely, as there has been no census for many years. Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, and Bakongo 13%. Other groups include Chokwe, Lunda, Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and African) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). Portuguese is both the official and predominant language.

HISTORY

In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Mbanza Congo, the capital, had a population of 50,000 people. South of this kingdom were various important states, of which the Kingdom of Ndongo, ruled by the ngola (king), was most significant. Modern Angola derives its name from the king of Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. In 1648, Brazilian-based Portuguese forces re-took Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Congo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the 20th century.

Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery. The slaving system began early in the 16th century with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the 19th century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil, but also for the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the 19th century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. It was this forced labor that provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and, by the mid-20th century, a major mining sector. Forced labor combined with British financing to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal, under the Salazar and Caetano dictatorships, rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Malheiro Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country and links to the People's Republic of China and apartheid South Africa.

From the early 1960s, elements of these movements fought against the Portuguese. A 1974 coup d'etat in Portugal established a military government that promptly ceased the war and agreed, in the Alvor Accords, to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October

1975 and the MPLA's importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon Neto's death from cancer in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos ascended to the presidency.

The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, internal divisions, and abandonment by international supporters. An internationalized conventional civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained in support of the MPLA, often fighting South Africans on the front lines. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. When UNITA's Jonas Savimbi failed to win the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (he won 40% to dos Santos's 49%, which meant a runoff), he called the election fraudulent and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The UN Security Council voted on August 28, 1997 to impose sanctions on UNITA. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.

On April 4, 2002, the Angolan Government and UNITA signed the Luena Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), which formalized the de facto cease-fire that prevailed following Savimbi's death. In accordance with the MOU, UNITA recommitted to the peace framework in the 1994 Lusaka Protocol, returned all remaining territory to Angolan Government control, quartered all military personnel in predetermined locations, and relinquished all arms. In August 2002, UNITA demobilized all military personnel and in September 2002, together with the government, reconstituted the UN-sponsored Joint Commission to resolve all outstanding political issues under the Lusaka Protocol. On November 21, 2002, UNITA and the government declared all outstanding issues resolved and the Lusaka Protocol fully implemented. UN Security Council sanctions on UNITA were lifted on December 9, 2002. In advance of national elections projected for 2006, UNITA and the MPLA held their first post-war party congresses in June and December 2003, respectively. The UNITA Congress saw the democratic transfer of power from interim leader General Paulo Lukumba "Gato" to former UNITA representative in Paris Isaias Henriqué Samakuva, while the MPLA Congress reaffirmed President dos Santos' leadership of party structures.

The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), formed in 1974, rejects the Alvor Accords that included Cabinda as part of Angolan territory at independence. Since 1975, FLEC has engaged in low-level guerilla attacks against government targets and has periodically kidnapped foreigners in an effort to press for an independent Cabindan state. Leadership struggles within FLEC have led to its breakup into various splinter factions, two of which continue the movement's armed insurgency. The international community has rejected the notion of Cabindan independence. The Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) launched a major offensive against FLEC in November 2002. While the offensive was moderately successful, at least one of the FLEC factions retains a guerilla capability. Periodic, separate negotiations between the leadership of the two armed FLEC factions and the Angolan Government have failed to produce a settlement to the conflict.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.

Few opportunities exist for opposition parties to challenge MPLA dominance. President dos Santos has proposed that general elections be held in 2006. A multi-party constitutional reform process will resume following elections.

Angola is governed by a president who is assisted by a prime minister and 30 cabinet ministers, all appointed by the president. Political power is concentrated in the presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the president (head of state and government), the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. The President, the Council of Ministers, and individual ministers in their areas of competence have the ability to legislate by decree.

The National Assembly has 220 members elected in 1992 (three seats for Angolans living abroad have never been filled). They represent parties whose weight is determined by a formula that takes into account national tickets and provincial voting. The ruling MPLA controls 59% of the seats.

The central government administers the country through 18 provinces. Governors of the provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president.

The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only a fraction of the 164 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Recently, the Supreme Court has acted as a Constitutional Court.

The 27-year-long civil war ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The government estimates that 4.7 million people were internally displaced by the civil war. Since 2002, more than 300,000 of Angola's original 450,000 refugees have returned home. In 2005, the anticipated final year for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) organized return program, an anticipated 53,000 refugees will be assisted in returning to Angola. Daily conditions of life throughout the country mirror the inadequate administrative infrastructure as well as weak social institutions. Government support for social institutions is often inadequate. Many hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/17/2004

President: Jose Eduardo DOS SANTOS
Prime Minister: Fernando "Nando" da Piedade Dias DOS SANTOS
Min. of Agriculture & Rural Development: Gilberto LUTUKUTA
Min. of Commerce: Joaquim Ekuma MUAFUMUA
Min. of Culture: Boaventura CARDOSO
Min. of Defense: Kundi PAIHAMA
Min. of Education: Antonio Burity DA SILVA
Min. of Energy & Water: Jose Botelho DE VASCONCELOS
Min. of Environment & Urban Development: Diakunpuna Sita JOSE
Min. of External Relations: Joao Bernardo DE MIRANDA
Min. of Finance: Jose Pedro DE MORAIS
Min. of Fisheries: Salamao XIRIMBIMBI
Min. of Geology & Mines: Manuel Antonio AFRICANO
Min. of Health: Sebastiao Sapuile VELSOS
Min. of Industry: Joaquim Duarte da Costa DAVID
Min. of Interior: Oswaldo de Jesus Serra VAN DUNEM
Min. of Justice: Manuel ARAGAO
Min. of Petroleum: Desiderio DA COSTA
Min. of Planning: Ana Dias LOURENCO
Min. of Public Administration & Employment: Antonio Pitra NETO
Min. of Public Works: Francisco Higino CARNEIRO
Min. of Science & Technology: Joao Baptista NGANDAGINA
Min. of Social Communication: Pedro Henrick Vaal NETO
Min. of Social Reintegration: Joao Baptista KUSSUMUA
Min. of Telecommunications: Licinio Tavares RIBEIRO
Min. of Territorial Administration: Virgilio Fontes PEREIRA
Min. of Tourism & Hotels: Eduardo Jonatao CHINGUNJI
Min. of Transport: Andre Luis BRANDAO
Min. of Veterans & Ex-Combatants: Pedro Jose VAN DUNEM
Min. of Women & Family Affairs: Candida Celeste DA SILVA
Min. of Youth & Sports: Jose Marcos BARRICA
Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Civil Affairs: Jose da Costa e Silva LEITAO
Min. in the Office of the Presidency, General Secretariat: Jose Mateus de Adelino PEIXOTO
Min. in the Office of the Presidency, Military Affairs: Manuel Helder DIAS
Governor, National Bank of Angola: Amadeu MAURICIO
Ambassador to the US: Josefina Perpetua Pitra DIAKITE
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Ismael Abraao GASPAR MARTINS

Angola maintains an embassy in the United States at 2100-2108 16th St., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-785-1156; fax 202-822-9049; web: www.angola.org). Angola also maintains consulates in New York City (attached to its Permanent Mission to the United Nations) at 866 UN Plaza, 48th St., Suite 552, New York, NY 10017 (tel. 212-233-3588, ext. 15; fax 212-980-9606; web: www.un.int/angola) and in Houston at 3040 Post Oak Blvd., Suite 708, Houston, TX 77056 (tel. 713-212-3840; fax 713-212-3841).

ECONOMY

Angola has a fast-growing economy largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10 of almost every socioeconomic indicator. Aside from the oil sector and diamonds, it is recovering from 27 years of nearly continuous warfare, corruption, and economic mismanagement. Despite abundant natural resources, and rising per capita GDP, Angola was ranked 166 out of 177 countries on the UNDP's Human Development Index Subsistence agriculture sustains two-thirds of the population.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding petroleum industry—now producing approximately 1.6 million barrels per day (bpd), behind only Nigeria in Africa—accounts for 51.7% of GNP, 92% of exports, and 90% of government revenues. Production is expected to reach 2 million barrels per day by 2008. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy, though a local content initiative promulgated by the Angolan Government is pressuring oil companies to source from local businesses.

Block Zero, located in the enclave of Cabinda, currently provides one-third of Angola's crude oil production. Chevron, through its subsidiary Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, is the operator with a 39.2% share. Sonangol (the Angolan state oil company), TotalFinaElf, and ENI-Agip are partners in the concession. Chevron also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000 at the rate of 80,000 bpd and is scheduled to add 180,000 bpd in production by 2006. Production from these Cabinda fields will be eclipsed by deepwater production further south in the Kwanza Basin scheduled to come on-line between 2002 and 2010.

TotalFinaElf brought the first Kwanza Basin deepwater blocks online with production from its Block 17 concession that began in February 2002 and now produces up to 300,000 bpd. Additional sub-fields will begin production in 2006 at the rate of 200,000 bpd. ExxonMobil brought the first of its Block 15 sub-fields on-line in 2003 at the rate of 70,000 bpd. Two additional discoveries of 3 billion barrels in reserves are producing at a rate of 250,000 bpd each. Both ExxonMobil and TotalFinaElf made new discoveries in these blocks in 2003. Exploration is ongoing in recently awarded ultra-deep water concessions and in deep water and shallow concessions in the Namibe Basin. BP made the first significant ultra-deep water find in its Block 31 concession in 2002 and followed up with two more in 2003. Marathon also drilled a successful well in its Block 32 ultra-deep water concession. In August 2005, BP made its 8th discovery in Block 31. BP, which currently does not produce oil in Angola as an operator, expects to have production of 600,000 bpd by 2007. TotalFinaElf operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with Sonangol; plans for a second refinery in Lobito with projected production of 200,000 bpd are moving forward. There are plans to increase capacity of the Luanda refinery from 40,000 bpd to 100,000 bpd. Chevron, Sonangol, and other partners are developing a liquefied natural gas plant at Soyo.

Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, particularly China. In late 2004, China's state oil company Sinopec bought into Block 18, securing the deal by offering a $2 billion credit line to the Angolan Government. Sinopec has also formed a partnership with Sonangol to operate Block 3/05 (formerly Block 3/80), whose operation was transferred from Total to Sonangol recently. Sonangol will seek to expand its operation of onshore and shallow water blocks. This may include the northern block of Cabinda's onshore concessions, which since the halt in hostilities with separatist forces is now open to exploration. Sonangol and Sinopec will also be eyeing future concession rounds, particularly for 23 blocks in the Kwanza Basin onshore area and the relinquished parts of Blocks 15, 17, and 18, currently operated by Exxon, Total, and BP.

Diamonds make up most of Angola's remaining exports. Diamond sales may reach $900 million in 2005. Despite increased corporate ownership of diamond fields, much production is currently in the hands of small-scale prospectors, often operating illegally. Only eight formal sector mines are operating out of a total of 145 concessions. In June 2005, De Beers signed a $10 million prospecting contract with the government's diamond parastatal, ending a 4-year investment dispute between De Beers and the government. The government is making an increased effort to register and license prospectors. Legal sales of rough diamonds may occur only through the government's diamond-buying parastatal, although many producers continue to bypass the system to obtain higher prices. The government has established an export certification scheme consistent with the "Kimberley Process" to identify legitimate production and sales. Other mineral resources, including gold, remain largely undeveloped, though granite and marble mining has begun.

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African agricultural exporter. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive laying of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities were brought to a near standstill, and the country now imports about half of its food. Small-scale agricultural production has increased dramatically over the last three years as internally displaced persons (IDPs) are returning to the land. Some efforts at commercial agricultural recovery have gone forward, notably in fisheries and tropical fruits, but most of the country's vast potential remains untapped. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Recently passed land reform laws will attempt to reconcile overlapping traditional land use rights, colonialera land claims, and recent land grants to facilitate significant commercial agricultural development.

An economic reform effort launched in 1998 was only marginally successful in addressing persistent fiscal mismanagement and corruption. In April 2000, Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) staff-monitored program (SMP). The program lapsed in June 2001 over IMF concerns about lack of adequate Angolan progress. Under the program, the Government of Angola did succeed in unifying exchange rates and moving fuel, electricity, and water prices closer to market rates.

In December 2002 President dos Santos named a new economic team to oversee homegrown reform efforts. The new team has succeeded in decreasing overall government spending, rationalizing the Kwanza exchange rate, closing regulatory loopholes allowing off-budget expenditures, and capturing all revenues in the state budget. New procedures have been implemented to track the flow of funds between the Treasury, Banco Nacional de Angola (the central bank), and the state-owned Banco de Poupanca e Credito, which operates the budget. The Angolan Government has adopted a new investment code. Concerns remain about quasi-fiscal operations by the state oil company Sonangol, continued oil-backed commercial borrowing by the Angolan Government, and inadequate transparency and over-sight in the management of public accounts. The Angolan commercial code, financial sector law, and telecommunications law all require substantial revision.

The Angolan Government remains in dialogue with the IMF. In its published July 2003 Article IV report, the IMF endorsed four prerequisites to proceeding with formal negotiations: (1) disclosure of foreign debt data; (2) timely provision of macroeconomic statistics; (3) full implementation of the single government account at the Central Bank, and (4) additional dialogue on oil revenue management. A December 2003 IMF staff mission to Angola found some progress in these areas. In February 2004, the Angolan Government and the IMF reached agreement on the steps necessary to conclude SMP negotiations. As of September 2005, Angola and the IMF remained in discussion on an IMF program.

Angola is the second-largest trading partner of the United States in sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. U.S. exports to Angola primarily consist of industrial goods and services—such as oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food. On December 30, 2003, President Bush approved the designation of Angola as eligible for tariff preferences under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) for 2004.

DEFENSE

The Angolan Armed Forces, known by its Portuguese acronym FAA, are headed by a chief of staff who reports to the civilian minister of defense. There are three services—the army, navy, and air force. Total manpower is about 140,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 130,000 personnel. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes. The "Casa Militar," or presidential guard, answers directly to the Office of the President and is separate from FAA command and control structures.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Soviet Union and Cuba. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with Western countries, cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in Central Africa through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States. It has entered the Southern African Development Community as a vehicle for improving ties with it's largely Anglophone neighbors to the south. In 1997, Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola in its military intervention in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where Angolan troops fought in support of the Laurent and Joseph Kabila governments. It also has intervened in the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville) in support of President Sassou-Nguesso.

Multilaterally, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and a means of expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil. During the peace process, the government fully cooperated with the UN Mission in Angola (UNMA), which concluded its mandate in mid-February 2003. Angola concluded a 2-year term on the Security Council in December 2004.

U.S.-ANGOLAN RELATIONS

The United States established formal diplomatic relations with the Government of Angola in 1993. Before 1989, U.S.-Angolan relations were defined by the Cold War. The United States initially supported Holden Roberto's FNLA and later Jonas Savimbi's UNITA against the pro-Soviet and pro-Cuban MPLA government in Luanda. Since 1992, the bilateral relationship has steadily improved. In May 2004, President dos Santos met with President Bush during an official visit to Washington.

The U.S. Mission in Angola consists of four agencies—the Department of State, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Department of Defense, and the Department of Health and Human Services' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHS/CDC). In addition, a variety of federal agencies maintain relationships with the Angolan Government through ongoing projects, including the Federal Aviation Administration, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Commerce, and the Department of Energy. In FY 2003, U.S. Government assistance amounted to roughly $188 million.

USAID's Food for Peace office provided emergency food inputs valued at $30.7 million in FY 2005 to feed vulnerable populations and help stimulate agricultural recovery, continuing a phasing out period in the past two years of the emergency program as Angola has stabilized and the emergency has ended.

USAID's development program in Angola in FY 2005 is consistent with the country's status as a "fragile state", vulnerable and recovering from an extended civil conflict. The program budget was $15.3 million, focused on improving food security, civil society strengthening and democratization, market-oriented economic analysis and economic reform policy, maternal and child health, HIV/AIDS prevention, education and voluntary counseling and treatment. The food security objective, focused on smallholder agriculture, promotes access to inputs, extension services and training; market linkages; and revitalized agricultural productivity in Angola. The democracy objective strengthens constituencies and institutions required for democratic governance by promoting civil society coalitions, an independent media, government transparency and accountability, and the groundwork for free and fair elections. The health objective aims to improve maternal and child health and prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases by helping communities and institutions to provide necessary health services and to conduct HIV/AIDS prevention programs. The economic reform objective fosters economic policy and financial sector reform, business development services, and credit access for micro-, small, and medium enterprises. USAID works with a number of international and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and corporate partners in alliances and public-private partnerships. Additional funding for USAID to strengthen interventions against malaria is expected in FY 2006, given Angola's inclusion in President Bush's Africa Malaria Initiative.

Emergency support from HHS/CDC was provided to address the Marburg virus outbreak in northern Angola, with assistance from the USAID Mission. CDC personnel joined with the World Health Organization (WHO) as part of the international response to assist with epidemiologic investigation, infection control, and laboratory diagnosis. CDC personnel in Atlanta provided laboratory and scientific support to Angola's Ministry of Health and to countries bordering Angola, establishing a field laboratory in Luanda, Angola to provide prompt laboratory confirmation of suspect Marburg cases in Angola and neighboring countries. Additional HIV/AIDS funding for the country of just over $2 million from HHS/CDC is also available, and helped expand surveillance, information systems, laboratory and blood bank quality control.

To assist with economic reform, the State Department provided $2.2 million to work on land tenure, economic policy, and the financial sector. An additional $60,000 in grants was provided to community development projects. $152,000 in International Military Education and Training (IMET) funds was provided for English language training to the Angolan Armed Forces. Professional training for law enforcement personnel at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) in Gaborone, Botswana continued. The Safe Skies for Africa program provided around $800,000 in equipment and training to the Angolan civil aviation authority. As part of its public diplomacy program, the Embassy provided nearly $434,000 in English language training, educational exchanges and fellowships, and information resource services.

At the same time, the energy-based U.S. trading relationship continues to expand and spark other ties. One offshoot has been the development of a Sister City relationship between Lafayette, Louisiana and Cabinda and between Houston, Texas and Luanda. The Catholic University of Luanda has close links with a number of American institutions and has received support from the Angola Educational Assistance Fund, a U.S. non-profit organization organized by Citizens Energy of Boston. Sonangol has a longstanding program of educating its professionals in U.S. universities, complementing Chevron's policy of U.S. training for its own growing pool of Angolan professionals. Long before oil was discovered, American missionary efforts from the early 19th century established several Protestant churches in the interior, which also provided much of the schooling that was available in rural colonial Angola; those historical links now are being revived with exchanges in both directions.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

April 15, 2005

Country Description:

Angola is a large, developing country in southern Africa. After gaining independence from Portugal in 1975, it was engulfed in a civil conflict that lasted for more than a quarter century. A cease-fire was called in April 2002, two months after the death of UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi, and, on November 21, 2002, the government and former rebels signed a peace agreement that definitively ended the conflict. Fighting has ended in all areas of the country except for the Cabinda enclave, where there have been very few recent reports of violence. There are growing signs of economic recovery. Nevertheless, major problems remain with virtually every element of infrastructure and government service throughout the country, including communications and basic social services. Travel by road is difficult and can be dangerous due to land mines in many areas. Facilities for tourism, particularly outside the capital of Luanda, are inadequate. Hotels can now be found in Lubango, Lobito, Huambo, Luena and Ondjiva, but they are expensive and limited in amenities.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

Passport and visa, which must be obtained in advance, and an International Certificate of Vaccination, are required. Persons arriving without visas are subject to arrest and/or exclusion. Travelers may also encounter delays if they do not have at least one completely blank page available in their passports for entry and exit stamps. Travelers whose international immunization cards do not show inoculations against yellow fever within the past ten years may be subject to involuntary vaccinations and heavy fines. Visitors remaining in Angola beyond their authorized visa duration are subject to fines and arrest. Current information on entry requirements may be obtained from the Embassy of Angola at 2100-2108 16th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. (202) 785-1156, fax (202) 785-1258.

Safety and Security:

The security situation in Angola has improved markedly since the end of the civil war; however, Americans should still exercise caution. Although the war has ended, ground travel throughout Angola is problematic due to banditry and land mines, which were used extensively during the war. Frequent checkpoints and poor infrastructure contribute to unsafe travel on roads outside of the city of Luanda. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined, and their authority should not be challenged. Travel in many parts of Luanda is relatively safe by day, but car doors should be locked, windows rolled up, and packages stored out of sight. Visitors should avoid discretionary travel after dark, and no travel should be undertaken on roads outside of cities after nightfall.

The civil war between the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the Government of Angola has ended. The insurgency pursued by the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) has virtually ended although the Government of Angola continues to pursue the remnants of FLEC forces. In the past, FLEC has threatened foreign nationals with kidnapping. Throughout Angola, taking photographs of sites and installations perceived as being of military or security interest, including government buildings, may result in arrest or fines and should be avoided.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up-to-date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 AM to 8:00 PM Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except on U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Crime is a serious problem throughout the country. While most violent crime occurs between Angolans, foreigners have occasionally been attacked as well. Street crime is a regular occurrence in Luanda. The most common crimes are pick-pocketing, purse-snatching, vehicle theft, and vehicle break-ins. Armed muggings, robberies, and carjackings involving foreigners are not frequent but do occur. Police and military officials are sometimes undisciplined and their authority should not be challenged. In general, movement around Luanda is safer by day than by night. Air travelers arriving in Luanda at night are strongly advised to arrange reliable and secure ground transportation in advance. If this is not possible, use only the regulated taxi service at the airport and in Luanda; unregulated taxis are unsafe and can present a crime risk.

Motorists should stop at all police checkpoints if so directed. Police officers have been known to participate in shakedowns, muggings, and carjackings.

There have been police operations against illegal aliens and private companies resulting in deportation of foreign nationals and loss of personal and company property. Independent entrepreneurs in Angola should carry all relevant immigration and business documents at all times.

Travelers should be alert to scams occasionally perpetrated by Luanda airport personnel. Immigration and customs officials sometimes detain foreigners without cause, demanding gratuities before allowing them to enter or depart Angola. Airport health officials sometimes threaten arriving passengers with "vaccinations" with unsterilized instruments if gratuities are not paid. Searches of travelers' checked baggage is common; travelers are advised to take precautions against this possibility. Travelers should also be sure to have checked luggage receipts ready to display upon exiting the airport.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, to contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of crimes are solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information:

Adequate medical facilities are rare except in Luanda, where there are some good private clinics that usually have a 24-hour service provided by a general practiced physician and with specialists on call. The U.S. Embassy in Luanda can provide a list of such facilities. Routine operations such as appendectomies can be performed. However, many types of medicine are not readily available; travelers are urged to carry with them properly labeled supplies of any medications they routinely require.

There is currently an outbreak of Marburg hemorrhagic fever, a severe and often fatal disease, in Uige province, Angola. The Department of State, therefore, advises against travel to Uige province. The Angolan Ministry of Health, the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Centers for Disease Control-Atlanta (CDC) continue to work to identify and publicize recommended health measures and treatments, and to develop strategies, which will ensure that this outbreak remains contained. Americans visiting or resident in Angola are advised to monitor public health announcements from the Ministry of Health and the WHO, and to follow their public health guidelines and recommendations. More information on the Marburg virus may be obtained at http://www.who.int/csr/disease/marburg/en/ and at the CDC site noted below.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Angola is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

Until early 2002, destinations in the interior were accessible safely only by aircraft. Since the end of the civil war, overland access to the interior has increased. However, fighting in most of the country damaged or destroyed many roads and bridges, and services for motorists outside urban areas cannot be counted on. Road travel can be dangerous due to occasional banditry and especially landmines in many areas. Road conditions vary widely outside the capital, from acceptable paved surfaces to virtually impassable dirt roads, particularly on secondary routes. Many secondary roads are impassable during the rainy season. Overloaded, poorly marked, and disabled vehicles, as well as pedestrians and livestock, pose hazards for motorists. Ground travel in rural areas should be under-taken during daylight hours only.

Traffic in Luanda is heavy and often chaotic; roads are often in poor condition. Few intersections have traffic lights or police to direct vehicles. Drivers often fail to obey traffic lights, lane markings, and stop signs, and there are frequent vehicle breakdowns. Itinerant vendors and pedestrians often weave in and out of traffic, posing a danger to themselves and to drivers. Most public transportation, including buses and van taxis, should be avoided as the vehicles are generally crowded, unsafe, and unreliable.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Angola, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Angola's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards.

Special Circumstances:

Angola is generally a cash-only economy; both travelers' checks and credit cards are of minimal utility. In addition, ATM machines are not generally useful for travelers. Travelers should carry a sufficient supply of U.S. dollars with them. Only the newer series U.S. dollar bills (with large faces) are accepted. U.S. dollars can be converted to local currency at exchange houses authorized by the Angolan government. Angolan currency (the Kwanza) may not be taken out of the country and travelers are subject to search (often accompanied by confiscation) at the airport.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship are readily available. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Luanda will prepare certified copies of American passports at no charge for individuals who register with the Embassy. The Embassy recommends that Americans keep their passport in a secure place and carry certified copies to avoid the possibility of authorities confiscating identity and travel documents.

Angolan customs authorities enforce strict regulations concerning temporary importation into or export from Angola of sensitive items including firearms, antiquities, and currency. It is advisable to contact the Embassy of Angola in Washington or one of Angola's consulates in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Angolan laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Angola are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

Americans living or traveling in Angola are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Angola. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Luanda is located at the Casa Inglesa Complex, Rua Major Kanhangula No. 132/135, tel. 244-2-371-645 or 396-727; fax 244-2-390-515. The Embassy is located on Rua Houari Boumedienne in the Miramar area of Luanda, P.O. Box 6468, tel. 244-2-447-028/445-481/446-224; 24-hour duty officer 244-92-404-209; fax 244-2-446-924. The Consular section may be contacted by e-mail at [email protected] or at [email protected]. Further information on travel to Angola is also located on the Embassy website at http://usembassy.state.gov/angola.