Monuments: Mughal

views updated

Monuments: Mughal

Babur (r. a.d. 1526–1530) who founded the Mughal rule in India also made a modest beginning of the architectural style that was developed by his successors, Akbar (r. 1556–1605) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658).

Babur's Bagh-i-Gul Afshan (Flower-Scattering Garden) at Agra

Babur founded several terraced gardens at Agra, of which Bagh-i-Gul Afshan has survived intact. It is a vast garden, laid out in three descending terraces, on the bank of the river Jamuna. Water flowed through stone canals, cascades, and tanks, from one terrace to the other. Tree avenues and flower parterres were symmetrically laid out with these water courses. It was later renovated by Babur's great grandson Jahangir and renamed Bagh-i-Nur Afshan (1615–1619). Thus the concept of landscaping was introduced to the medieval architecture of India.

The Din-Panah, Sher-Mandal, and Qalʾa-i-Kuhna Masjid, Old Fort Delhi (1533–1540; 1555)

The most ambitious architectural project of Humayun (r. 1530–1540; 1555–1556) was the building of Din-Panah (now called the Old Fort) on the river Jamuna at Delhi. Founded in 1533, its inner citadel with the three gateways; the Sher Mandal and Qalʾa-i-Kuhna Masjid were completed by 1540. The gateways, built of red sandstone, have jharokhas (upper floor windows with their own pedestal, pillars, and roof) on the facade and chhatris (free standing pillared pavilions on the superstructure, roofed by a dome or cupola) on the superstructure. The Sher Mandal is an octagonal tower of red sandstone. The ground floor has closed alcoves. The upper floor alcoves are deeper, and four of them, on the cardinal sides, open into the interior, which is a square hall. Dados and spandrels have inlaid motifs. It is surmounted by an octagonal chhatri. Humayun was greatly interested in astronomy, and it was in this building that he died.

The Qalʾa-i-Kuhna Masjid (the Mosque of the Old Fort), also built of red stone, has five bays and, correspondingly, five arches on the facade, which have a fringe of lotus buds. Wings are protected by slanting chhajjas (angled roof eaves) supported on upright brackets. The nave is roofed by a single dome, which is crowned by sheath of lotus petals, amalaka (myrobalan), and kalash finials. Multistoried octagonal towers are attached to its rear corners. Prominent jharokhas project on the side walls. Qurʾanic (Arabic) inscriptions are carved on the mihrab arches. It seems to have been completed by Humayun after his restoration in 1555.

Humayun's Tomb at Delhi (c. 1560–1570)

Commissioned by Haji Begum (Bega Begum), Humayun's chief queen, and built during Akbar's early reign, it is the first monumental tomb of the imperial Mughals. It is planned in the center of the four-quartered garden (chahar-bagh) which had such pleasing water elements as stone canals, lotus tanks, lily ponds, and cascades, surrounded by the garden. The tomb building is square in plan, 156 feet (47.5 m), but its angles have been chamfered to give it an octagonal conformation. There is no minaret or tower at the corners of its plinth, and the absence of any flanking architectural member has left this grand mausoleum incomplete and isolated.

Each facade is composed of a central iwan (a large hall), containing a portal, flanked by wings that also have smaller central portals flanked first by blind ornamental double arches and then by double alcoves at the inclined angles, all in a two-storied arrangement. White and black marble has been used with red sandstone, and this simple color combination, more than its design, gives this tomb an exceedingly pleasing architectural effect. Its interior is composed of a central octagonal hall, octagonalized square rooms on the corners, and oblong portals on the sides, all interconnected through corridors. The tomb is roofed by a bulbous, double dome of white marble, flanked at the corners by red stone octagonal chhatris.

Agra Fort and the Bengali-Mahal (1565–73)

Akbar (r. 1556–1605) founded a fort of brick masonry and red sandstone at Agra in 1565. It was completed along with a large number of palatial mansions, also of red stone, in eight years. Situated on the bank of the river Jamuna, it is semicircular in plan, with its chord lying parallel to the course of the river. The massive enclosing walls are 70 feet (21.3 m) high and 30 feet (9.1 m) wide. Double ramparts have been provided with broad circular bastions at regular intervals. A deep moat (except on the river side) separates it from the mainland, from which it is accessible only by two drawbridges, attached to the Delhi Darwazah and the Akbar Darwazah. Of its four gateways, these two are monumental buildings. The former, completed in 1569, was the principal and ceremonial gate of the royal citadel. Protected by high bastions and ramparts with embrasures and loopholes, it has a crooked entrance with sharp curves and steep rises, rendering it impossible for the enemy to storm it. The inner archway had two life-size stone elephants on its sides, and it was therefore called Hathi-Pol (Elephant Gate). It has a four-storied elevation on the rear (eastern) side, in receding terraces, with living rooms, dalans (verandas), pavilions, and terraces. It has decorations in inlay and mosaic, stucco in arabesques, painting, glazed tiling, and, above all, stone carving in geometrical, animate, and jali (latticed) designs. The Akbar Darwazah (now called Amar Singh Gate) was similarly designed, though on a smaller scale and without the ostentations of the formal gateway.

Of other buildings of Akbar, in the fort, now only the Bengali Mahal has survived. It was also completed in 1569. At present, it is split into two complexes, Akbari Mahal and Jehangiri Mahal. Built of red sandstone, both are composed of such trabeated elements as pillars, brackets, lintels, beams, chhajjas, jharokhas, and chhatris. Besides a wide variety of flat ceilings, it also has some vaulted ceilings, built ingeniously by stone ribs and panels.

The western facade of these palaces had a uniform plan extending to about 430 feet (131 m), with two entrance portals and three towers, of which only one portal (poli) with two flanking towers, creating the western facade of the Jehangiri Mahal, has survived. It has, on its facade, a series of ornamental red stone arches with a white marble fringe of lotus buds, looking like silk tapestries or carpets hanging on the wall. Designs have also been inlaid on the portal, while its frieze has polychrome glazed tiles. Each palace is a complex arrangement of rooms and halls, corridors and galleries, dalans (verandas), terraces, and open courts—all grouped together in two stories around a large central quadrangle. Openings are protected by chhajjas, which are supported on exquisitely designed, three-tiered stone brackets, which give each facade a distinct personality.

Fatehpur Sikri and Its Monuments (1572–1585; 1601)

Akbar founded a large township at Fatehpur Sikri and he lived there from 1572 to 1585. Unlike Agra, which was an ancient habitat and grew by itself, Fatehpur Sikri was properly planned on three descending levels with three complexes: the mosque complex, the royal complex, and the public complex, respectively, in accordance with the slope of the ridge. All the buildings were so laid out as to have northern or eastern orientation, with perfect arrangement of drainage and water supply.

The Stone-cutters Mosque (c. 1562), situated in the mosque complex, is composed of simple pillars, arches, and a flat ceiling. Arches are built of stone slabs, and have no voussoirs. Qurʾanic verses are carved upon them and also on the mihrab niche. The most distinctive feature of this small mosque, however, is the use of beautiful monolithic struts (serpentine brackets) on its facade to support the broad and slanting chhajja.

The Rang Mahal, situated nearby, is also an earlier building (c. 1565–1570). Originally it was a large, residential palace, of which only a single house with an inner court has survived. The interior is accessible by a crooked entrance to ensure purdah (segregation of women). Dalans (verandas), rooms and kothas (inner closed cells), composed of red stone pillars, brackets, chhajjas, and flat ceilings, are regularly disposed on all the four sides of the court, in two stories. All this gave an impression of open and airy spaces and ensured a comfortable living in this climate.

Founded by Sheikh Salim Chishti in 1564, the Jami Masjid of Fatehpur Sikri was completed by Akbar in 1571. The central court measures about 360 feet (110 m) by 439 feet (134 m). There are spacious dalans (cloisters) of 38 feet (12 m) width on its eastern and northern sides. The liwan (sanctuary) on its western side measures 288 by 65 feet (87.8 x 19.8 m). It is divided into several sections. The central nave (bahu), which is 41 feet (12.5 m) square, is roofed by a single, high dome. Each wing is composed of a large colonnaded hall which has a square domed room in the middle, attached to the western wall. The mihrabs (arches of the western wall) have been gorgeously ornamented by inlaid mosaic of stone and glazed tiles, and carved and painted Qurʾanic inscriptions. The side domes are supported on beautifully designed corbelled pendentives in the phase of transition, instead of vault, squinch, or stalactite.

The facade of the sanctuary has a deep central portal and an arcade on its either side. Arches are similarly ornamental and are protected by identical chhajjas supported on brackets. While there is one chhatri over each pillar of the dalans, arches of this facade each have an additional central chhatri, which gives an impression of profusion of chhatris on the skyline. The Persian inscription in the central portal records its construction in 1571.

The stupendous Buland Darwazah, built in 1601 to commemorate Akbar's conquest of the Deccan, in place of the original southern gate of the Jami Masjid, is a complete momument with large halls, small chambers, passages, and stairways. Raised on a stepped platform 42 feet (12.8 m) high, it rises to a total height of 176 feet (53.6 m) above the road, with which it is connected by only a series of broad stairs, rendering its use as a gateway impossible. It measures 130 feet (39.6 m) across the front. The wings recede (offset) at a 135 degree angle, proportionately, giving the facade an exceedingly beautiful architectural effect. It is here, in fact, that the iwan formula has been most magnificently expressed in medieval art. Chhatris of different denominations have been used on the superstructure.

The Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is situated in the court of the Jami Masjid, facing the Buland Darwazah. It is a small but extremely beautiful white marble building, square in plan, measuring 48 feet (14.6 m) on each side, with an entrance porch attached to its southern side. The tomb chamber, roofed by a single dome has, on all sides, a spacious dalan (veranda), divided into square bays, spanned by corbelled slabs in ksipta (lantern) style and closed by exquisite jalis (latticed screens) of white marble. The broad slanting chhajja, which rotates on all external sides, is supported on gracefully designed monolithic struts, which look like carved ivory rather than chiseled marble. This feature bestows upon the tomb a distinct personality and impression. Qurʾanic verses are carved on the porch entrance and on ornamental panels in the dalan. The tomb was completed in 1581, as is inscribed on the porch entrance. It was originally finished in red sandstone. Jehangir rebuilt its porch (portico), dalan, and dome with white marble between 1605 and 1607. Owing to its exquisite jalis and struts, the tomb is reckoned among the masterpieces of Mughal architecture.

The royal complex, situated at a little lower level, has the Raniwas (harem, seraglio) and some other buildings associated with Akbar's cultural activities. The Raniwas (wrongly called Jodhbai's Palace; 1569–1572) is the largest of Akbar's extant palaces at Fatehpur Sikri. It has double-storied residential suites, with dalans, rooms, kothas, and open terraces on all the four sides of the spacious inner court, which is approached through a crooked gateway and enclosed on all sides for strict purdah and security. Besides the open terraces, there are chhatris, chaukhandis, and khaprel (tiled) roofs on the upper floors, where the residents could spent their evenings pleasantly. Toilets are annexed on the southern side. A temple has also been provided.

The Mahal-i-Ilahi (1582; wrongly called Birbal's Palace), is a double-storied mansion built entirely of red sandstone of the finest quality. It has four square rooms, of equal size, measuring about 17 feet (5.1 m) on each side, open on all sides and interconnected by common doorways, and oblong porches on the north and south sides, on the ground plan. While rooms have flat ceilings, porches have triangular chhappar (hut) ceilings with pyramidal roofs on the first floor. A broad slanting chhajja supported on graceful three-tiered brackets protect it on all the external sides. They have been used dominantly and impart the building a distinctly ornate character. The two rooms on the first floor have domed ceilings made of ribs and panels, with jharokhas opening on the court. The domes were originally tiled. The most important feature of this palace, however, is the surface carving, in incised, low, and medium relief, with which it has been entirely ornamented in the interior as well as on the exterior, in a wide variety of designs, including arabesques, geometrical, and stylized florals. It was a formal building used by Akbar for the initiation ceremony of the Din-i-Ilahi.

The public complex has several palatial mansions arranged judiciously around a large, stone-paved court. The Khwabgah palace (1572) is situated on its southeastern segment, overlooking the magnificent Anup Talao. It is composed of several buildings: arched and colonnaded halls, open pillared dalans, terraces, pavilions, and curtained passages, all built tastefully in red sandstone. The hujrah (room) of Anup Talao was ornately finished and was personally used by Akbar. The upper floor pavilion has khaprel (tiled) roofs on its verandas and figurative paintings in the interior, with Persian inscriptions in praise of this palace.

The Panch Mahal (1572–1575) is a rectangular building of five stories, open on all sides, composed of red sandstone pillars, with jalied (latticed) balustrades on the edges, or chhajjas and brackets, carved friezes, stairways, and flat ceilings. It is crowned by a square chhatri. Obviously, it dominates on elevation. Its stairs are on the western side, and it distinctly offsets toward the east, or the court, on which side is its facade. Akbar used this palace for daily worship of the rising sun and for showing himself, simultaneously, to his people, an indispensable function of the Mughal king.

On its northern side are situated the Record Office (1572–1575) composed of three oblong halls of equal size and the Ekastambha Prasada (1572–1575; the House of Unitary Pillar, wrongly called Diwan-i-Khas). The latter is a square building of red sandstone, measuring 43 feet (13.2 m) on each exterior side. The double-storied four facades are identical. Four chhatris at the corners compose its superstructure. Its internal architecture is unique. The single-storied square hall measures nearly 29 feet (8.7 m) on each side. In its exact center is a huge column of red stone. It is square at base, octagonal on the shaft, and 16-sided and round above it, from which point rise 36 beautiful three-tiered brackets to support a circular platform above it. Four narrow bridges radiate diagonally toward the angles where they meet the inner balconies. The platform, bridges, and balconies are protected by latticed balustrades. The central column with its platform and bridges is certainly the raison d'être of this building. It is not functional but rather a symbolic monument, representing Akbar's belief in the "nitary pillar" concept of the sun.

The Diwan-i-ʿAm (Hall of Public Audience, 1572–1575) is spread on the eastern side of this court, at a lower level. It is a spacious oblong complex with a large court and raised pillared dalans around it. In the middle of the western side is the Throne Pavilion. It has five openings made of pillars and brackets, with jali (latticed) screens separating the apartments. The most important feature of this pavilion is the khaprel (stone-tiled) roof over the veranda. It slopes gently from the frieze down to the capitals of the pillars and combines the effect of the chhajja and the superstructure. It is in this element that facade and superstructure are combined marvelously. The throne chamber faces east, the direction of the rising sun, in accordance with Akbar's faith. It may be noted that dalans were not meant for actual use, but to provide an architectural accessory so that plain walls did not look monotonous. This feature was a constituent of the style used invariably with public buildings.

The Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience, 1572–1585, wrongly called Daftar Khanah) is situated to the south of the Khwabgah. Planned with a court and pillared dalans around it, it is composed of an oblong hall and a wide, spacious dalan (veranda) on east, north, and west sides, all connected by doorways. On the southern side, overlooking the ridge, are three openings and a central jharokha. This is thus an extremely open and airy building. It has a high ladaodar (wagon-vaulted) ceiling of stone ribs and panels. These features confirm that it was used as an assembly hall. The interior was originally painted with figurative subjects depicting contemporary life.

Tomb of Akbar, Sikandara Agra (1605–1612)

The tomb of Akbar at Sikandara Agra was built by his son Jahangir. It stands in the center of a vast enclosed garden divided into four quarters, on the Char-bagh plan, by causeways, of stone masonry, of 75 feet (22.9 m) width, with narrow water channels, tanks, and cascades. In the middle of each side is a monumental gate, the main one on the south side, the other three being ornamental only. The two-storied main gate on the south side is much larger and more ornately finished. It measures 137 feet (41.9 m) east to west, 100 feet (30.5 m) north to south, and 75 feet (22.9 m) in height. Its north and south facades are identical, each having a colossal iwan (portal) 61 feet (18.6 m) in height and 44 feet (13.5 m) in width in the center, and double alcoves on the sides. The whole red stone exterior is finished in mosaic and inlay of multicolored stones, chiefly in geometrical designs. The spandrels of arches bear exquisite arabesque scrolls. Soffits of arches are painted in red and white. The most important feature of this gate is the use of four circular tapering minarets of white marble on the corners of the terrace which, along with the chhatris, make up a wonderful superstructure.

The main tomb is square and has five receding stories. Each facade has a central iwan (portal) superimposed by an oblong eight-pillared chhaparkhat of white marble. Octagonal towers surmounted by chhatris are attached to the corners. The ground floor has spacious dalans (veranda) of 22-foot (6.71-m) width. Four upper stories are composed of arched and pillared dalans and superimposing chhatris. There is no dome. The uppermost story is entirely built of white marble. The tomb has a large number of Persian inscriptions. Those on the main gate praise Jahangir and the tomb, and also give the date of its construction. The uppermost story has thirty-six Persian couplets, in praise of Akbar and on philosophical subjects.

Tomb of Iʾtimad-ud-Daulah Agra (1622–1628)

Situated on the left bank of the Jamuna, it was built by Nur Jahan for her parents Mirza Ghiyath Beg, titled Iʾtimad-ud Daulah, and Asmat Begum. It is also planned in the center of the char-bagh, as usual, with a beautiful garden setting and water elements. The white marble tomb is square in plan, with towers attached to the corners. These towers are octagonal but assume a circular form above the terrace and are surmounted by circular chhatris. Each facade has three arches, the two on the sides closed by jalis, and protected by a chhajja and a balustrade. The interior is composed of a central square hall for cenotaphs, four oblong rooms on the sides and four square rooms on the corners, all interconnected by common doorways. It is essentially the typical navagrha (nine-house) plan of the Mughals. The building is not roofed by a dome, but by a square pavilion, having three arched openings on each side, and a pyramidal (chaukhandi) roof. The chhatris of the towers combine impressively with this barahdari and make up an extremely beautiful superstructure.

Its exterior ornamentation by mosaic and inlay of multicolored natural stones in a wide variety of designs and motifs is the most important feature of its architecture. It is spread on almost every inch of the white marble surface with unprecedented lavishness, and the decorative aspect has superseded the structure in this tomb. It marks the transition from red stone to white marble, and also from carving to inlay and mosaic.

Shah Jahan's Palatial Mansions (1628–1640); Agra Fort

Soon after his accession to the throne, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) commissioned the Diwan-i-Am of Agra Fort. Before it, the durbār (court) of public audience was held in a large tent. His Diwan-i-Am (1628–1635) is situated in a spacious quadrangle having arcaded dalans (verandas) on all sides. It is a rectangular colonnaded open hall, three aisles deep, with nine bold, nine-cusped arches on the facade. Double columns have been used to support these massive arches, which are well proportioned. Though the construction is in red sandstone, the whole of it has been covered by white shell-plaster, giving the effect of white marble. Bays have flat ceilings. Chhajja, as usual, is supported on brackets, but there are no chhatris on the superstructure. The throne chamber, in the middle of the eastern wall, is built of white marble and is exquisitely ornamented with inlaid stylized floral designs. It presides over the building functionally, as well as architecturally.

Shah Jahan did not like some of his grandfather Akbar's red sandstone palaces in Agra Fort and he ordered them to be rebuilt with white marble. The Muthamman Burj (Octagonal Tower) is the earliest of them. The spacious white marble pavilion surmounts the circular bastion, on the riverside, facing east, with five of its octagonal sides projecting forward. It is composed of pillars, brackets, lintels, chhajjas, and a beautiful jharokha—all of white marble. On its western side is a spacious dalan (veranda), which has a sunken water basin in the middle of its floor. Walls have graceful dados with stylized floral borders, and carved natural plant compositions in the center. Ceilings are flat. Exquisitely inlaid pillars, brackets, and lintels make up the three openings on the court side. Inlay art in stylized designs dominates the ornamentation of this building. An eight-pillared marble chhatri crowns it. It was here that Shah Jahan spent the years of his captivity (1658–1666) and died, in full view of the Taj Mahal.

Situated with the Jamuna on one side, and the Anguri Bagh garden, with its enchanting water devices, including a waterfall, on the other, the Khas Mahal (Arambagh; 1631–1640) is the most beautiful palace of Shah Jahan in Agra Fort. It is also built entirely of white marble. The interior is a spacious hall, on the river side, which has a three-aisle-deep dalan, with five nine-cusped arches on the facade, on its front. The hall was originally painted with stylized designs. A chhajja projects on the exterior, as usual. In its front is a large scalloped tank with fountains. Its water flowed, through a waterfall, to the four-quartered Anguri Bagh, which is situated at a much lower level and provides the palace with a beautiful setting. On both sides of the palace, on the terrace, are oblong bangladar pavilions (with curved roof and chhajja) and open courts, secured by thin marble screens to ensure purdah. Though a regal building, it has been designed with abundant open spaces to facilitate cool breezes from the river, a pleasant garden front and landscapes, to ensure comfortable living in the hot climate of Agra.

The Diwan-i-Khas (1635) of Agra Fort was built of white marble. It consists of two halls, an outer pillared hall and an inner closed hall, both connected by arch-ways. The outer hall, which is essentially a spacious dalan (veranda) has double pillars, supporting five nine-cusped arches on the facade, on the northern side, and three seven-cusped arches on eastern and western sides. These have been tastefully ornamented by inlaid and carved designs in low relief. A broad chhajja, supported on brackets, rotates on these three external sides. The palace has no superstructure. Durbār (court) was held in the outer hall. The inner hall, which was reserved for conducting important and confidential business, has alcoves in the southern wall, and raised seats with semisoffits on the eastern and western sides. Jalis (lattices) have also been used. The most important aspect of this palace, however, is its dados. Plant motifs are carved, in double rows, in the center, while a stylized vine design is inlaid in polychrome on the border. A Persian inscription distributed on twenty-eight oblong cartouches on the northern wall of the outer hall, dated in 1635, praise the king and the palace.

Red Fort Delhi and Its Palaces (1639–1648)

Shah Jahan transferred the formal capital from Agra to Delhi in 1638 and founded there a city, Shahjahanabad, and a citadel, the Red Fort, which were completed in nearly ten years (1639–1648). Palaces were built in the fort, where there was virgin space to lay out these buildings on a uniform plan. It has an octagonalized rectangular plan and measures 3,100 feet (944.9 m) north to south, 1,650 feet (493 m) east to west, and 75 feet (22.9 m) in height. Built of brick masonry, it is entirely finished in red sandstone. Its battlemented walls have the usual embrasures, machicolations, bastions, and a moat. The Lahori Gate on the west and Delhi Gate on the south are its main gates. The former has a covered market. The palaces are symmetrically laid out, with the Naubat Khanah (House of Ceremonial Music), Diwan-i-Am (Hall of Public Audience), and Rang Mahal (the Painted Palace) on the east-west axis, and the Rang Mahal, Shah Burj (the King's Tower), and Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience) on the north-south axis, along the course of the Nahar-i-Bahisht (The Heavenly Canal), on a raised terraced. The gardens that originally connected the palaces have not survived.

The Diwan-i-Am was situated, originally, in a court of its own, with dalans and gateways on all sides. They no longer exist. It is a three-aisle-deep, colonnaded hall with nine nine-cusped arches on the facade, built of red sandstone that was originally white plastered and polished to look like white marble. Overlooking the central bay is a white marble throne balcony in the eastern wall. It has a latticed balustrade in front and seats with pedestals on the sides. On its front, attached to it, is a beautiful white marble bungla (four-pillared pavilion with curved roof and chhajja), 12 by 9 feet (3.6 x 2.7 m) in size. Both the throne balcony and the bungla are gorgeously inlaid in a wide variety of floral and stylized designs. The back wall has, in addition, floral compositions with birds. On the top of it is the famous plaque depicting Orpheus playing to the animals. Essentially a Florentine work, this plaque was imported and placed here after Aurangzeb, sometime during the eighteenth or early nineteenth century.

The Rang Mahal, measuring 153 by 69 feet (46.79 x 21.11 m) is three aisles deep with five nine-cusped arches on the facade, thus having fifteen bays, each 20 feet (6.1 m) square, with a flat ceiling. But instead of pillars, piers have been used to support them. The whole interior was originally painted and gilded. On the river side are five window openings closed by jalis. The Nahar-i-Bahisht flowed through it in the middle, across its length, dividing it into two equal sections, as if the palace was pleasantly laid out on its two banks. In it, in the center of the building, exactly on the same axis as the throne chamber of the Diwan-i-Am, is a beautiful shallow marble basin sunk in the pavement. Designed as a lotus flower of 24 petals, it occupies the entire 20-foot (6.1 m) square side. It has a triple border with flowing curves. Floral and arabesques designs are inlaid in rare multicolored stones. When water rippled softly from the edges of the petals, it produced an optical illusion, and the petals appeared to rise and fall.

The Shah Burj, also known as Baithak, Khwabgah, Muthamman Burj and Khas Mahal, is a large palace complex, consisting of several dalans and rooms, to serve as a full-fledged residential palace. The Nahar-i-Bahisht flows through it. Built entirely of white marble, it was profusely painted and gilded in stylized compositions. On the walls, overlooking the canal, are two Persian inscriptions, eulogizing the king and the palace, specifically the ethereal water devices. On its eastern side, overlooking the Jamuna, is attached the Muthamman Burj (Octagonal Tower), which was used by the king for appearing to the public.

The Diwan-i-Khas is situated on the same 4.5-foot (1.4 m) high terrace, overlooking the river, with the same Nahar-i-Bahisht flowing through it. Originally, it also had its own court and arcaded dalans, which have not survived. It is a rectangular colonnaded hall, built entirely of white marble. It measures 102 feet (31.1 m) north to south and 78 feet (23.8 m) east to west. Made up of 24 square and 8 oblong piers, it is 5 aisles deep, with 5 nine-cusped arches on the facade. Square piers have dados, with stylized vines on the border, and a natural plant composition in the center, both inlaid in multicolored stones. The remaining mural surface in the interior, including the ceiling, was originally painted and gilded. Riverside arches are closed by jalis. A broad, slanting chhajja protects it on the exterior. Four chhatris on the corners of the roof make up a simple yet graceful superstructure.

Mosques of the Age of Shah Jahan (1628–1658)

Akbar (r. 1556–1605) and his son Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) built no public mosque at Agra, Lahore, or Delhi, the three metropolitan towns of the Mughal empire, and no private mosque in the forts of Agra and Lahore where they lived. It was left to Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), Jahangir's son, to commission mosques in these forts and the Red Fort Delhi, and also a large public Friday (Jami) mosque each in the cities of Agra and Delhi.

The small white-marble mosques—Mina Masjid (c. 1630) and Nagina Masjid (c. 1635) in Agra Fort; Moti Masjid in Lahore Fort (1630–1635); and Moti Masjid in Red Fort Delhi (c. 1658)—built by him were of a private nature and were attached to the royal harem. The last one is the most beautiful mosque of this class. Built entirely of pure white marble, it measures 40 by 30 feet (12.2 x 9.14 m) and is two aisles deep with a three-arched facade. Arches are engrailed. They are supported on square piers and are protected by a chhajja, which has no brackets. It is curved in the middle, above the central arch, and, correspondingly, the frieze is also curved. This bangladar (curved) feature gives prominence to the central part of the facade, as did the iwan portal. Like the Nagina Masjid, it also has triangular and vaulted ceilings, and three domes, which are fluted and are harmoniously set against the skyline. Combined with the mini-chhatris, which crown the pinnacles on all sides, they make up a marvelous superstructure. Called the Pearl Mosque, it ranks among the masterpieces of the Mughals.

The Jami Masjid of Agra (1644–1648) is a simple mosque of brick masonry finished in red sandstone with ornamental use of white marble. It stands on a high plinth, with the liwan (sanctuary) on the western side of the central court and dalans (verandas) on three sides. The dalans have seven-cusped arches supported on pillars, and are superimposed by square chhatris. The main eastern gate no longer exists. The side gates are also surmounted by chhatris. The sanctuary is two aisles deep and is composed of extremely high, broad and massive arches supported on equally massive piers, all built of brick masonry that was plastered. Its facade has a broad iwan (portal) in the center and two smaller archways on either side. All these arches are plain. Square chhatris have been used on the parapet of the facade. The sanctuary is roofed by three domes, which are somewhat flat and disproportionate. Octagonal towers, surmounted by chhatris, are attached to the corners of the sanctuary and also to the eastern corners of the mosque. This profusion of chhatris on the skyline make up, altogether, a gorgeous superstructure. The Persian inscription inlaid on its facade, along the iwan portal, records its completion in 1648, in five years, at the cost of 500,000 rupees.

The Moti Masjid (1647–1654) of Agra Fort is also built on a high plinth. Internally, it is built of pure white marble around the central court, which measures 154 feet (47 m) east-west by 158 feet (48.2 m) north-south. The dalans are nearly 11 feet (3.3 m) wide and are composed of nine-cusped engrailed arches supported on typical Shahjahanian pillars having square bases, twelve-sided fluted shafts, and stalactite capitals, all of white marble. These are protected by chhajjas that do not have brackets. Chhatris are also absent, and these dalans are crowned by a cresting. The main gate is on the river (eastern) side. Side gates are approached by double staircases. These gates are surmounted by chhatris. The sanctuary situated west of the court measures 159 by 56 feet (48.46 x 17.07 m) and is three aisles deep with an arcade of seven arches of equal dimensions on the facade. These arches are nine-cusped and are supported on massive square piers, all of white marble. Ornamentation by carved designs is minimal and the composition is plain and simple, yet graceful. Out of twenty-one bays of the sanctuary, only three have vaulted soffits (roofed by domes exteriorly), others have flat ceilings. The facade is protected by a chhajja, which also does not have brackets. Square chhatris have been placed on the parapet, one over each arch. Larger octagonal chhatris have been used on all four corners of the sanctuary, and also on the two octagonal towers attached to the eastern corners of the mosque. Three bulbous domes, with the usual sheath of lotus petals and kalash finial, crown the sanctuary. The combination of these graceful forms of the chhatris and the domes on the skyline, in pure white marble, is incredibly beautiful. The Persian inscription inlaid on the facade, below the chhajja, records its construction in seven years (1647–1654) at the cost of 300,000 rupees.

The Jami Masjid of Shahjahanabad Delhi (1650–1656) is one of the largest and the finest mosques. It is built of red sandstone with liberal use of white marble. It stands on a plinth of 30 feet (9.1 m) height. This grand elevation enabled its three gateways, approached by a flight of stairs, to tower over its surroundings majestically. It is composed of an open court 328 feet (100 m) on each side, with a central tank, dalans on its three sides with a gateway in the middle of each one of them, and a sanctuary, which measures 200 by 90 feet (61 x 27.4 m) on the west. Its facade is composed of a central iwan portal with an arcade of five arches in each wing, and two lofty minarets 130 feet (39.6 m) high, crowned by chhatris, on the sides. Arches are cusped and are supported on white marble piers. There is only one chhatri on each wing, but there is no chhajja. The sanctuary has been ingeniously planned in the interior. The nave, roofed by the main dome, has a large iwan portal on its front. Each wing of the nave (along the western wall) is divided, by massive piers, into three sections: a square bay in the middle and two oblong bays on the sides. The square bay is roofed by a dome, while oblong bays have chaukhandi (pyramidal, wagon-vaulted) ceilings. Thus, there are three domed and four wagon-vaulted ceilings on the western section of the sanctuary. But this arrangement is not repeated on its front side, which has, on either side of the iwan portal, a dalan of five arches. Each dalan is a hall with a continuous ceiling. Thus, though externally it appears to be a two-aisled mosque with eleven bays, owing to eleven arches on the facade, in fact, it is only a single-aisled building with seven bays, alternatively oblong and square, having an iwan portal and two side dalans on its face. This is a unique design, representative of the genius of the Mughal architects, who could consistently organize space in a novel way. Ten oblong panels on the facade above the ten arches of the wings bear a long Persian panegyric in praise of the King Shah Jahan and the mosque. The mihrab arch bears Qurʾanic verses. There is practically no ornamentation and its beautiful effect is essentially architectonic.

The Taj Mahal Agra (1631–1648)

Shah Jahan built this wonderful monument of love in the memory of his most beloved Queen Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1631. Its site on the river Jamuna is ideal, environmentally as well as architecturally. The Taj was laid out in several descending terraces on a south-north axis, in accordance with the slope of the river bank. Beginning from the south side, a city, now called Tajganj, was founded with squares, markets, inns, and houses, obviously to support its institution. On the second terrace, at a lower level, is the main court, which has the main gate of the tomb, dalans, annexes, and subsidiary buildings, providing a beautiful approach to the monument. The garden and the tomb are situated on the third terrace at a still lower level. As usual, it is an enclosed garden, divided into four quarters (char-bagh) by broad, stone canals which have fountains; double, stone-paved causeways, with the intervening cypress avenues in the middle; and flower parterres and tree avenues on the sides. Ornamental red stone buildings called Jal Mahal (Water Palace) are placed in the middle of east and west sides, to complete the architectural coherence. But the tomb building is not sited in the center of the garden, as was done in all earlier Mughal tombs. Instead, there is a raised lotus pond of white marble. The tomb is placed, on its north, just on the riverbank, in the middle of a rectangular red stone platform which measures nearly 971 feet (295.8 m) east to west and 365 feet (111.2 m) north to south, and is 4 feet (1.2 m) high from the garden and 42 feet (12.8 m) high from the river. It is flanked by a mosque on the west and Jamʾat Khanah (Assembly Hall) on the east, with the garden lying at its feet. This was an innovation in the traditional char-bagh plan. The tomb stands in the background of a blank blue sky against which its white image silhouettes, almost magically. The sky changes its color every moment, and the Taj is always seen in this ever-changing setting, in a variety of tints and tones, and in innumerous moods and moments. The secret of its aesthetics lies in its novel layout, with the river on its one side and the garden on the other. The mosque and the Jamʾat Khanah (also called Mehman Khanah) are identical, three-arched, three-domed, red stone buildings, with liberal use of white marble. It is noteworthy that each one of these annexes—the mosque, the Jamʾat Khanah, the two Jal-Mahals, and the main gate—is a complete monument that can stand independently anywhere else, though here, each one stands beneath the architectural suzerainty of the Taj Mahal.

The mausoleum, built of brick masonry skeleton and finished entirely in white marble, stands in the middle of a square white marble plinth which measures 328 feet (100 m) on each side and 19 feet (5.8 m) in height from the red stone platform. It has four tapering circular minarets at the corners flanking the tomb building symmetrically. They are 132 feet (40.2 m) high, in three stories separated by balconies supported on brackets, and surmounted by octagonal chhatris. The tomb is, essentially, a square of 187 feet (57 m) on each side, but its angles have been chamfered to give it an octagonalized square plan. All facades are identical. Each one has a grand iwan (portal) in its center, practically occupying its whole height up to the parapet. It is flanked on both sides by double alcoves, one over the other, on a rectangular plan. Double alcoves given on the corners with a semioctagonal plan are distinctly visible from the gate. The iwan and alcove spandrels bear stylized arabesques, inlaid with multicolored natural stones on white marble. Portal dados have inlaid vines on the borders and carved natural plant compositions in the centers. Other mural surfaces are plain, giving a marked emphasis to this rare inlay ornament.

Each section of the facade is demarcated by attached pilasters or miniature turrets which, beginning from the plinth level, rise above the parapet and are crowned by beautiful pinnacles with lotus buds and finials. A bulbous double dome with a broad, overspreading sheath of lotus petals and kalash finial (which originally measured 30.5 ft., or 9.3 m) majestically crowns the Taj. It rests on a high drum and rises to the total height of nearly 146 feet (44.4 m) from the base of the drum to the apex of the finial, and 285 feet (87 m) from the river level. Emphasis of its design is, obviously, on its elevation, in which its dome plays the decisive role. It is flanked on all four angles by four octagonal chhatris placed at an extremely symmetrical distance from it. As a whole, it makes up an unbelievably gorgeous superstructure.

The interior plan has a central octagonal hall 58 feet (17.7 m) in diameter and 80 feet (24.4 m) in height, with four oblong rooms on the sides and four octagonal rooms on the corners, all interconnected by passages. This plan is repeated on the first floor, which overlooks the central cenotaph hall. Except for the entrance in the south portal, all arches are closed by marble screens, set with translucent glass to allow only a subdued light into the interior. The main cenotaph hall has been magnificently, though sparingly, ornamented. Spandrels of arches have inlaid stylized arabesque designs. The panels on the dados have beautiful floral compositions in high relief, with borders in inlaid stylized vine patterns. In each case, it is a beautiful ghata-pallava (vase and foliage) motif. An exquisitely finished marble jali screen (jhajjhari) with similar inlaid borders encloses the cenotaphs. Floral compositions have also been inlaid on the cenotaphs, which also bear Qurʾanic verses. Chapters from the Qurʾan have also been inscribed around the interior arches, on the iwan portals on all facades, on both sides of the main gate, and inside the mosque. There are short Persian inscriptions on the cenotaphs, recording the dates of the death of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

Completed in seventeen years in 1648, at the cost of 40 million rupees in an age when gold was sold at 15 rupees per tola (11.66 g), the Taj Mahal marks the zenith of Mughal architectural style; it is here that its idioms are perfected. Its site on the riverbank; its terraced layout with the garden setting; and above all, its wonderful design—with extremely harmonious and symmetrical placement of its components, ideal geometrical precision and proportions—have made it the most beautiful architectural work of the world, justifying the poetic definition "a resplendent immortal teardrop on the cheek of time" (Nath, The Taj Mahal and Its Incarnation, pp. 13–15).

R. Nath