NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

Nonverbal communication has been referred to as "body language" in popular culture ever since the publication of Julius Fast's book of the same name in 1970. However, researchers Mark Knapp and Judith Hall (1997, p. 5) have defined nonverbal communication as follows: "Nonverbal communication refers to communication effected by means other than words." This definition does not exclude many forms of communication, but it implies that nonverbal communication is more than body language. However, determination of the exact boundaries of the field is a point of contention among scholars.

Nonverbal communication is an area of study that straddles many disciplines—sociology, psychology, anthropology, communication, and even art and criminal justice. Each of these fields tends to focus on a slightly different aspect of nonverbal communication. For example, psychology might focus on the nonverbal expression of emotions; anthropology might focus on the use of interpersonal space in different cultures; and communication might focus on the content of the message. However, there is more overlap among these fields than divergence.

The History

It appears that all cultures have written or oral traditions expressing the importance of nonverbal communication to understanding human beings. Over thousands of years, Chinese culture has developed a set of rules about how to judge the character and personality of an individual by observing the size, shape, and relative positions of the nose, eyes, eyebrows, chin, cheeks, and forehead. Someone with wide-set eyes would be a "broadminded" person, while someone with a high forehead would be a "smart" person. Although there does not seem to be much scientific evidence that facial characteristics predict personality, modern people still believe this to be valid.

Ancient Greek culture has also relied on non-verbal communication to understand people. The playwright Theophrastus created a list of "31 types of men" that he made available to other playwrights to assist them in the creation of characters for their plays. Theophrastus relied on insights gleaned from nonverbal communication to describe these personalities; the penurious man does not wear his sandals until noon, and the sanguine man has slumped shoulders. Humans still rely on nonverbal insights like these to judge the personalities and emotions of other people.

In India, the sacred Hindu texts called the Veda, written around 1000 B. C. E., described a liar as someone who, when questioned, rubs his big toe along the ground, looks down, does not make eye contact, and so forth. Late-twentieth-century research based on North Americans shows that people still concur with the Veda on this description of a liar.

Research into African history has shown that one of the characteristics of an effective tribal chief was his ability to move his subjects with the power of his speeches, made particularly potent by the heavy use of nonverbal communication. This legacy is apparent in the traditions of the African-American church in America. These same principles of strong body language and voice tone accompanying speeches has now been adopted in various forms by the rest of American society and politics because of its ability to persuade above and beyond well-crafted words.

The Function of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication serves a number of functions. It can define communication by providing the backdrop for communication—a quiet, dimly lit room suggests to people that the communication that occurs within that environment should also be quiet and hushed (as in a religious venue). Brightly lit rooms, with active colors such as yellow and orange, communicate active, upbeat activities. Nonverbal communication can also be connected to the behavior or dress of others in the room. If others are moving calmly, crying, and wearing formal clothes, that sends a nonverbal message that is quite distinct from a room full of people moving with a bounce in their step, laughing, and wearing Hawaiian-print shirts.

Nonverbal communication can also regulate verbal communication. Much of people's conversations are regulated by nonverbal cues so subtle that the average person does not notice them. People nod and smile at particular moments during a face-to-face conversation. This signals the talker that the listener understands and that the talker should continue talking. When the talker is finished, he or she will drop his or her voice tone and loudness to let the listener know. If the talker wishes to continue talking, he or she will fill the pauses that occur with a louder voice, with many "umms, ahhs," and so on. People have learned these rules so well that they adhere to them almost unconsciously. The use of these subtle clues accounts for why people can have conversations without constantly talking over each other, or having to utter the word "over"—like the astronauts—to let the other person know when one is finished speaking. This rule can be tested by violating it. If a person tries to remain motionless while engaged in a conversation with a friend, that person will find this is not only hard to do, but it will cause the friend great consternation.

Finally, nonverbal communication can be the message itself. A frown indicates unhappiness. A wave of the hand signifies "good-bye." A quiver in the voice signifies distress. Raising the index finger to the lips signifies "shhh," or "be quiet," yet raising the index finger into the air in a thrusting manner may mean "we're number one." No words are needed to send these messages. Note that most of these meanings are culturally determined (which is discussed below in detail).

The Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Paul Ekman proposed that there are six ways in which verbal and nonverbal communication relate. He suggested that nonverbal communication can substitute for verbal communication, as well as repeat, contradict, complement, accent, and regulate verbal communication.

What Ekman meant by substitution is that nonverbal communication can be substituted for verbal communication. If asked whether another helping of mother's wonderful pasta is wanted, a person can shake his or her head up and down to signify "yes," rather than attempting to utter the word "yes" through a mouthful of spaghetti.

Nonverbal communication can also repeat verbal communication. People can simultaneously speak the word "no" and shake their heads side to side. Repeating and substitution seem like the same idea, but substitute means someone does not speak the word or phrase represented by the non-verbal gesture, whereas repeat means he or she does speak the word or phrase.

Sometimes these simultaneous verbal and non-verbal signals will contradict each other. Someone might utter the phrase "this will be fun" and yet display a facial expression of disgust as they speak those words. This is sarcasm; the words seem positive, yet the facial expression is negative.

Nonverbal communication can also complement verbal communication. Someone might say the phrase "I've had a tough day" with their shoulders slumped and their feet dragging. Note that slumped shoulders and dragging feet can express a number of things (e.g., sadness, fatigue, injury, daydreaming), but in conjunction with the verbal message "I've had a tough day," they enrich and focus the message.

Sometimes nonverbal communication will simply accent a particular part of a spoken verbal communication. Someone might say, "It is important to punctuate your speech with nonverbal gestures," while rhythmically moving one hand up and down on each syllable in the word "punctuate." In this situation, the moving hand gestures for the word "punctuate" will accent that word, thereby letting the listener know that this concept is important.

Finally, Ekman proposes that nonverbal communication can regulate verbal communication. As discussed above, there are various unspoken rules that regulate conversations. Listeners provide backchannel communication (e.g., nodding, smiling subtly, saying "uh huh") at particular points during the conversations to let their partners know that they understand and that the partners can continue to speak.

The Structures and Properties of Nonverbal Communication

Judee Burgoon and other scholars have suggested that nonverbal messages conform to many of the same properties as verbal communication— properties such as structured rules, intentionality, awareness, covert and overtness, control, and private/publicness—but in slightly different ways.

In order to communication meaning, nonverbal messages must be rule bound, similar to speech. The sentence "Floats otter the on sea the" does not make much sense because it does not conform to certain rules applying to word order. "The otter floats on the sea" does follow those rules, and thus makes sense. Nonverbal communication has similar properties, and when the rules are violated, they change the meanings. In North America, there are rules that guide how close people stand next to each other when talking—usually between eighteen inches and four feet. When one person stands too close to another when talking, the other feels compelled to move away to reestablish what they feel is a comfortable distance. The violation of this rule causes one person to feel that the other person is too pushy or aggressive, and the other person to feel that the other is too unfriendly or standoffish.

People assume that the vast majority of spoken communication is intentional; they choose the words they speak. Likewise, most nonverbal communication is intentional. People deliberately wave to others or give an insulting finger gesture. However, scholars such as Peter Andersen and Joseph Capella have argued that it appears that a greater proportion of nonverbal communication is unintentional. For example, some people may intend to communicate calmness and maturity about the death of their cat, and yet they often unintentionally communicate sadness through their voice tone and facial expression.

Similarly, people are also less aware of their non-verbal communication compared to their verbal communication. Except for unusual circumstances, people can hear all that they speak. People are usually aware of their nonverbal communication (e.g., the clothes they wear, the gestures they use, and the expressions they show), but not always. For example, when lying, a person may feel afraid and yet feel they were able to hide that fear. As scholar Bella DePaulo has shown, despite their beliefs, liars are often unaware that in fact they are expressing clear signs of fear in their face, posture, or speech.

Verbal communication is more overt, and non-verbal behavior is more covert. People are formally trained in their verbal behavior in the schools. Nonverbal communication is less obvious, as in subtle facial expressions and barely perceptible changes in voice tone, and people are not typically formally trained in their nonverbal communication. Children are not often given lessons on how close to stand to others when talking or how to express anger in a facial expression.

Nonverbal communication is also less controllable than verbal communication. Verbal communication is easy to suppress, or to express, and people choose the words they use. Although much of nonverbal communication follows the same pattern (e.g., people choose to display a hand gesture), nonverbal communication is much more likely to have an unbidden quality to it. This is the smile that creeps onto one's face when one knows he or she should not be laughing.

Finally, verbal communication is more public than nonverbal communication. Speaking typically requires an audible or visible message that is available for others to hear or see, not just the intended target of the communication. Once public, this communication is also fodder for public discussion. In contrast, nonverbal communication tends to be more fodder for private conversation. When political candidates speak, people publicly discuss and debate their policies, and not their shoes or their gestures. This trend is changing, with more focus being placed on how the candidate delivers a message, rather than on the message itself.

The Origins of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication comes from both culture and biology. Most nonverbal communication is learned the same way as language, one word or gesture at a time. Words have different meanings in different languages or cultures, and likewise, gestures can have different meanings in different cultures. In North America, a raised index and middle finger typically means "peace" or "victory," regardless of whether the palm is turned inward or outward. In Australia or the United Kingdom, this same gesture with the palm turned outward means "victory," but with the palm turned inward, it is an insult ("screw you"). People learn how to cross their legs, fold their arms, how much to gesture with their hands when speaking, how much to express with their faces, how close to stand to others, and so on.

However, what distinguishes nonverbal communication from verbal communication is that some nonverbal communication is not learned; it is innate. Charles Darwin argued that the facial expressions people display for certain emotions, such as anger, disgust, distress (sadness), fear, happiness, and surprise (some scholars argue for contempt, embarrassment, and/or interest as well), are part of human evolutionary heritage. These emotions have helped humans (and other animals) to survive, and thus they get passed from one generation to the next. A person who has a fear emotional response to danger will be more likely to escape that danger and thus will survive and reproduce. A person without that response will not survive and thus will not pass his or her genes on to the next generation.

What Darwin and others, including Carrol Izard and Ekman, have argued is that these emotions cause people or animals to act in some way(e.g., to strike when angry, or to flee when afraid). This behavioral intention must be communicated to others in the group. The facial expression thus becomes a visual signal of this intention, which allows others to avoid this person and his or her anger—which prevents a fight. This communication permits all social animals to maintain harmony and cooperation. Even animals without a spoken language will communicate their emotional intentions (e.g., tail wag, raised fur, attentive > ears), but they communicate with their bodies and not so much with their faces. Other animals interpret these signals accurately without receiving any formal training.

Darwin, Ekman, and Izard argue that these facial expressions are as much a part of an emotional response as an increased heart rate or sweating, and they cite five sources of evidence that supports their views. First, scholars such as Irene Eibl-Eibesfeldt have shown that children who are born blind will smile when happy or make a distressed face when sad—similar to children who are born with sight—even though they cannot see how this expression was made. Second, human's biologically closest animal relatives, the chimpanzees, also seem to show facial expressions that are similar to those of humans. Third, when Ekman and his colleagues asked people to pose those facial expressions of emotion described above, and then showed photos of these expressions to people of other cultures, the people in other cultures were not only able to recognize the expressions but agreed strongly which expression was anger, which was disgust, and so on. Likewise, all cultures spontaneously pose these expressions in the same way (i.e., all people show anger with a furrowed eyebrow and tight lips, and happiness with a smile, and so on). Ekman's research included cultures in Papua New Guinea that at the time had no books, no electricity, and almost no contact with Western culture, so they could not have learned the expressions from movies, television, or outsiders. Izard points out that as one travels in Europe, the nonverbal gestures for particular words or concepts change drastically as one goes from village to village—yet the facial expressions for these emotions does not. Fourth, Ekman and his colleagues have shown that by posing and holding these facial expressions of emotion, one will experience the emotion shown in the facial expression. Finally, evidence suggests that there are centers in the human brain that respond specifically to the facial expression of fear, and possibly other facial expressions of emotion, thus arguing for the hard-wired perception of these expressions.

However, Ekman and Izard have argued that these facial expressions are not simple reflexes. People can learn to control these expressions, depending on the rules of a person's particular culture or subculture. Boys in North America learn not to cry when distressed, whereas girls typically do not learn that rule. In Japan, people learn not to show anger or disgust to high-status people or in public situations, whereas North Americans do not learn such a rule. Research has shown that both Japanese and Americans, when alone, will show facial expressions of disgust when viewing a gory film. However, when in the presence of a high-status person, the Japanese will smile during the gory film, whereas Americans still show an expression of disgust. Ekman found with closer inspection that the Japanese were still showing expressions of disgust, but they were trying to mask them with the smile. Ekman has called these cultural rules that dictate how and when people should show these facial expressions of emotion "display rules."

Sources of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is part of the behaviors of people, as well as the results of their behavior. One source of messages is the environment. Different houses send different messages about their occupants. This is accomplished through the use of color, lighting, heat, fabric textures, photos, and so on. Restaurants will capitalize on the messages sent by these environmental factors to influence the behaviors and impressions of diners. Fast-food restaurants use active, bright colors such as orange, yellow, and red in a well-lit environment with hard plastic seating. These messages subtly urge diners to eat more food more quickly and not to lounge around afterward. In this way, the fast-food restaurants get a quick turnover in order to maximize profits. In contrast, elegant restaurants use dimmer lighting, softer and darker colors, and more comfortable chairs to communicate a more intimate impression, subtly urging diners to feel comfortable and stay around for dessert and coffee, and so on. This will cause diners to spend more money per visit, as well as ensure increase business through positive word of mouth. Thus, the nonverbal messages sent by the environment can help guide the behaviors that occur within that environment.

Another source of nonverbal messages is one's physical characteristics and appearance. Physical characteristics are the static physical appearance or smell of a person. This includes one's height and weight, skin color, hair, eyebrows, cheeks, chin, proportion of eye, nose, and chin size, as well as odors. William Sheldon believed that different body types were predictive of personality: endomorphs (heavier, obese, rounder, softer looking) were sociable and pleasant, mesomorphs (angular, muscular, harder looking) were leaders and strong-willed, and ectomorphs (thin, frail, brittle looking) were withdrawn, smart, and nervous. The media capitalizes on this association by casting actors and actresses accordingly; notice how the leading man is almost always a dynamic mesomorph, the comedy relief is almost always the sociable endomorph, and the smart person is almost always the nerdy ectomorph. Although these beliefs persist, there is no strong evidence that body types predict personality.

Moreover, people have historically made the same judgments of personality based on facial appearance. The ancient Chinese were not the only ones to do this; in the late 1800s, Europeans led by Caesar Lombroso felt they could characterize criminal personalities based on the heaviness of one's eyebrows and jaw. As with the body research, there has been no evidence that one can accurately identify criminals by their facial appearance. Research by Diane Berry and Leslie MacArthur in the 1980s found that adult humans with more babyish looking faces—defined by a higher forehead, proportionally larger eyes, and smaller nose—are seen as more naíve, honest, and less likely to be picked as a leader. Research by Paul Secord in the 1950s showed that although people have reliably assigned personalities to particular faces, their assignments were not accurate. This perhaps best sums up the findings in this area.

Odors also send messages, both at a conscious and unconscious level. At a conscious level, perfumes and aftershaves and lack of body odor send messages about hygiene in North America, but such messages are not so clear in other cultures. Humans subconsciously send pheromones, substances that, when placed under the nose of a woman, make her judge a man as more attractive. Infants can also recognize the smell of their mothers and will show strong preferences for items that carry that smell. Many adults will also note how they are comforted by the smell of loved ones.

Physical appearance clues also include what are called artifactual clues, such as jewelry, clothes, glasses, and so on. People wearing glasses are seen as being smarter. Jewelry sends messages about one's socioeconomic or marital status. North Americans signal their married status by wearing a solid gold band on their left-hand "ring" finger, whereas Europeans often wear this signal on the right-hand ring finger. Clothing also sends messages about income, group membership, and even respect for others. People who wear jeans to a formal occasion send a message about what they feel about that occasion, although, as in the previous instances, this message can be inaccurate.

An important source of nonverbal messages involves proxemics, or the study of the use of space during interactions. Edward Hall noted that human beings seem to have a series of four concentric zones that surround them, like a portable territory, in which they allow others to enter depending on the occasion and the degree of familiarity between the people involved. Hall called the zone that ranges from touching the body to 18 inches (45 cm) away the "intimate zone," an area that typically only lovers, children, and other intimates can enter. The next zone outward, ranging from 18 inches (45 cm) to 4 feet(1.22 m), was called the "casual-personal zone," the distance at which most casual conversations take place. The next zone, ranging from 4 feet(1.22 m) to 12 feet (3.67 m), was called the "social-consultative zone," the distance at which most formal conversations, as in business meetings with strangers, take place. The final zone, 12 feet (3.67 m) and beyond, was called the "public zone," where public speeches and other events take place. Note that these distances are typical for North Americans; other cultures may have the same series of concentric territories, but the distances may be different. In some Mediterranean countries, strangers will routinely talk to each other while standing less than 1 foot (30 cm) apart. To a North American, this will violate his or her intimate zone, and the North American will feel extremely uncomfortable and will take steps to reestablish a more comfortable distance by backing away. Of course, the Mediterranean person will feel uncomfortable talking to someone so far away and will move closer. This is another example of how cultural differences in nonverbal communication can cause misunderstanding and discomfort by both individuals. Note that neither distance is "right"; they are just different. Of course, other variables besides culture can affect the distance at which people communicate. These variables include how personal or negative the topic is, the age of the individuals (people stand closer to children and the elderly), and so on.

Humans also use nonverbal signals to mark their territories or possessions. Putting down one's books on a desk in a classroom, or placing one's jacket over a chair, will typically mark that desk or chair as temporarily belonging to that person— that is, part of his or her territory.

People send many types of nonverbal messages with their bodies. Ray Birdwhistell referred to the field of inquiry dedicated to the study of body messages as "kinesics." Kinesics includes body postures, such as angle of lean or tightness, and it also includes gestures, touching behavior, facial expressions, eye behavior, and even paralanguage(e.g., voice tones).

Body postures can certainly communicate many things. A person in a job interview who sits slumped in his or her chair will not look attentive and will be judged as uninterested in the job. Another way posture communicates is through the appearance of immediacy; a person who leans toward another, makes eye contact, and modulates his or her voice (i.e., does not speak in a monotone) is seen as very immediate. Research evidence suggests that people who behave in a more immediate fashion are seen as more credible, and teachers who are more immediate are better liked and children seem to learn more from them.

There are many nonverbal gestures that people exhibit to communicate. In the 1940s, David Efron suggested that one type of gesture—called an emblem—takes the place of a word. The "thumbs up" sign means "okay" or "good" in North America. People can say the word or show the gesture. Holding one's nose means something stinks. There are about one hundred emblems in North America. Efron showed that these emblems are learned. He observed that the emblems used by Jewish and Sicilian immigrants were different, and yet the emblems used by their American-born children were identical.

Desmond Morris proposed that these emblems come about through a variety of ways, and he identified mimic, schematic, symbolic, technical, coded, hybrid, relic, and interactive emblems. For example, Morris suggested some emblems mimic in a schematic fashion the object for which the emblem stands; holding both hands to one's head and extending index fingers to resemble the horns of a cow is the emblem for a cow. Others are symbolic, as in crossing the fingers for good luck; the crossed fingers represent a crucifix or "sign of the cross," which early Christians believed would ward off evil or bad luck. Relic emblems derive from ancient practices, such as the Greek "moutza" emblem. This emblem involves throwing a hand up toward another to signify contempt or disdain; it evolved from the ancient practice of citizens throwing garbage onto criminals as they were marched through the streets. The emblem thus mimics the action of throwing garbage onto someone. Morris believes that some emblems represent universal human social experience, such as the emblem for the word "no," being a side-to-side headshake. He suggests that this derived from the side-to-side head action that an infant exhibits to reject his or her mother's breast when not hungry. All people throughout the world experience this, and that is why virtually all cultures use the horizontal headshake to indicate "no."

A second type of gesture is an illustrator. Illustrators do not take the place of words, but they help facilitate speech by being intimately tied to the content and flow of speech. Thus, when people move their hands as they speak, they are illustrating. Sometimes these illustrators are used to help find a word; sometimes they are used to keep the rhythm of the speech; sometimes they paint pictures of what the speaker is referring to; and sometimes they show motion. Illustrators are not confined to the hands; people can illustrate with their eyebrows by raising them as they emphasize an important point.

A third type of gesture is a manipulator, or adaptor (the words are used interchangeably). Manipulators occur when a person manipulates an object or other part of his or her body. Thus, touching one's nose, rubbing one's chin or ear, twirling one's hair, playing with one's glasses, chewing on a pencil, and biting one's lips are all examples of manipulators. There is some evidence that manipulators increase when people are nervous.

Touching behavior is another form of rule-bound nonverbal message. In North America, heterosexual males tend not to touch other males. If they do touch, it is typically on the upper arm, in a strong fashion. Heterosexual females touch each other more and in other body spots besides the upper arm. However, in the context of a sporting event, male teammates will pat each other on the rear end—a touch that would not be socially sanctioned in any other time or place. Of course, a pinch or a punch is a form of touch that sends a very different message than a gentle caress.

Facial expressions provide some of the more obvious forms of nonverbal communication. In addition to the six to nine universal facial expressions discussed above, humans have learned expressions as well. A wink may mean different things in different cultures. One raised eyebrow may be an illustrator. People can even pose expressions to communicate that they are thinking (eyebrows pulled down, lower lip pushed up), or are exasperated (raising the eyebrows slightly, and puffing cheeks and then blowing out the air), and so on.

People send nonverbal messages though eye behaviors. Eye behaviors typically involve staring or gazing, but they also include pupil dilation (where the pupil increases in size). When heterosexual couples are attracted to each other, they gaze into each other's eyes longer, and their pupils dilate. Researchers note that women with dilated pupils are seen as more attractive. When people are going to fight, they glare at each other. There are also great cultural differences in eye contact— members of some cultures gaze longer at strangers than do members of other cultures. When speaking, members of some cultures show their respect for other people by looking them in the eye; members of other cultures show their respect by not looking other people in the eye.

Finally, nonverbal messages are sent in the paralanguage of others. Paralanguage includes voice tone, pitch, pauses, and so on. This is has led to the adage "it is not what you say, but how you say it." People can say a positive statement and, using their voice tone, make it sound sarcastic, thereby producing two very different meanings from the very same sentence.

Conclusion

Everyday decisions are made based on people's readings of nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication affects interpersonal encounters ranging from police interviews to first dates, doctor visits, job interviews, and advertising. For the most part, people are good at interpreting these nonverbal communications, although some people are better at it than others, despite the fact that the nonverbal message that is sent often does not equal the message that is received, and vice versa. In addition to relying on nonverbal communication to clarify communication and make day-today interactions flow more smoothly, people also use it as an indicator of the true essence of a person. As Chinese philosopher Confucius stressed thousands of years ago, one can better understand others by looking into their eyes, rather than listening to their words.

See also:Animal Communication; Intercultural Communication, Adaptation and; Interpersonal Communication; Interpersonal Communication, Conversation and; Interpersonal Communication, Listening and; Language Acquisition; Language and Communication; Language Structure; Models of Communication; Symbols.

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Mark G. Frank