Nephrostomy
Nephrostomy
Definition
Purpose
Demographics
Description
Diagnosis/Preparation
Aftercare
Risks
Normal results
Morbidity and mortality rates
Alternatives
Definition
A nephrostomy is a surgical procedure by which a tube, stent, or catheter is inserted through the skin and into the kidney.
Purpose
The ureter is the fibromuscular tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. When this tube is blocked, urine backs up into the kidney. Serious, irreversible kidney damage can occur because of this backflow of urine. Infection is also a common consequence in this stagnant urine.
Nephrostomy is performed in several different circumstances:
- The ureter is blocked by a kidney stone.
- The ureter is blocked by a tumor, abscess, or fluid collection.
- There is a hole in the ureter or bladder and urine is leaking into the body. These may occur after trauma or accidental injury during surgery (iatrogenic injury), or severe hemorrhagic cystitis.
KEY TERMS
Catheter— A tubular, flexible, surgical instrument for withdrawing fluids from a cavity of the body, especially one for introduction into the bladder through the urethra for the withdraw of urine.
Ostomy— General term meaning a surgical procedure in which an artificial opening is formed to either allow waste (stool or urine) to pass from the body, or to allow food into the GI tract. An ostomy can be permanent or temporary, as well as single-barreled, double-barreled, or a loop.
Septicemia— Systemic disease associated with the presence and persistence of pathogenic microorganisms or their toxins in the blood.
Stent— A tube made of metal or plastic that is inserted into a vessel or passage to keep it open and prevent closure.
Ureter— The fibromuscular tube that conveys the urine from the kidney to the bladder.
- The ureter is obstructed during pregnancy.
- Access is needed in order to infuse materials/medications directly into the kidney, such as antibiotics, antifungal agents, chemotherapeutic agents, or chemicals that will dissolve stones.
- As a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney anatomy.
- As a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney function.
Demographics
For unknown reasons, the number of people in the United States with kidney and ureter stones has been increasing over the past 20 years. White Americans are more prone to develop kidney stones than African Americans. Stones occur more frequently in men. The condition strikes most typically between the ages of 20 and 40. Once a person gets more than one stone, others are likely to develop.
Upper tract tumors develop in the renal pelvis (tissue in the kidneys that collects urine) and in the ureters. These cancers account for less than 1% of cancers of the reproductive and urinary systems. Upper tract tumors are often associated with bladder cancer.
Description
First, the patient is given an anesthetic to numb the area where the catheter will be inserted. The doctor then inserts a needle into the kidney. There are several imaging technologies such as ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) that are used to help the doctor guide the needle into the correct place.
Next, a fine guide wire follows the needle. The catheter, which is about the same diameter as intravenous (IV) tubing, follows the guide wire to its proper location. The catheter is then connected to a bag outside the body that collects the urine. The catheter and bag are secured so that the catheter will not pull out. The procedure usually takes one to two hours.
Diagnosis/Preparation
Either the day before or the day of the nephrostomy, blood samples are taken. Other diagnostic tests done before the procedure may vary, depending on why the nephrostomy is being done, but the patient may have a CT scan or ultrasound to help the treating physician locate the blockage.
Patients should not eat for eight hours before a nephrostomy. On the day of the procedure, the patient will have an IV line placed in a vein in the arm. Through this line, the patient will receive antibiotics to prevent infection, medication for pain, and fluids. The IV line will remain in place after the procedure for at least several hours, and often longer.
People preparing for a nephrostomy should review with their doctor all the medications they are taking. People taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as Coumadin) may need to stop their medication. People taking metformin (Glucophage) may need to stop taking the medication for several days before and after nephrostomy. Diabetics should discuss modifying their insulin dose because fasting is required before the procedure.
Aftercare
Outpatients are usually expected to stay in the clinic or hospital for eight to 12 hours after the procedure to make sure the nephrostomy tube is functioning properly. They should plan to have someone drive them home and stay with them for at least the first 24 hours after the procedure. Inpatients may stay in the hospital several days. Generally, people feel sore where the catheter is inserted for about a week to 10 days.
Care of the nephrostomy tube is important. It is located on the patient’s back, so it may be necessary to have someone help with its care. The nephrostomy
WHO PERFORMS THE PROCEDURE AND WHERE IS IT PERFORMED?
A nephrostomy is performed by an interventional radiologist or urologist with special training in the procedure. It can be done either on an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending on why it is required. For most cancer patients, nephrostomy is an inpatient procedure. Specially trained nurses called wound, ostomy continence nurses (WOCN) are commonly available for consultation in most major medical centers to assist patients.
tube should be kept dry and protected from water when taking showers. The skin around it should be kept clean, and the dressing over the area changed frequently. It is the main part of the urine drainage system, and it should be treated very carefully to prevent bacteria and other germs from entering the system. If any germs get into the tubing, they can easily cause a kidney infection. The drainage bag should not be allowed to drag on the floor. If the bag should accidentally be cut or begin to leak, it must be changed immediately. It is not recommended to place the drainage bag in a plastic bag if it leaks.
Risks
A nephrostomy is an established and generally safe procedure. As with all operations, there is always a risk of allergic reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and infection.
Bruising at the catheter insertion site occurs in about half of people who have a nephrostomy. This is a minor complication. Major complications include the following:
- injury to surrounding organs, including bowel perforation, splenic injury, and liver injury
- infection, leading to septicemia
- significant loss of functioning kidney tissue (<1%)
- delayed bleeding, or hemorrhage (<0.5%)
- blocking of a kidney artery (<0.5%)
Normal results
In a successful nephrostomy, the catheter is inserted, and urine drains into the collection bag. How long the catheter stays in place depends on the reason for its insertion. In people with pelvic cancer or bladder cancer where the ureter is blocked by a
QUESTIONS TO ASK THE DOCTOR
- Why am I having a nephrostomy?
- How do I prepare for surgery?
- How long will I have to stay in the hospital?
- How long do you expect the nephrostomy tube to stay in?
- How much help will I need in caring for the nephrostomy tube?
tumor, the catheter will stay in place until the tumor is surgically removed. If the cancer is inoperable, the catheter may have to stay in place for the rest of the patient’s life.
Morbidity and mortality rates
The mortality rate of nephrostomies is of the order of less than 0.05% and the incidence of the specific complications listed above ranges between less than 0.05% (hemorrhage, kidney arterial blocking, and loss of kidney tissue) to <1% (injury to surrounding organs and septicemia).
Alternatives
In the treatment of ureter stones, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) has been most widely performed and has become the preferred treatment for this condition. ESWL is a new technique that offers an alternative to surgery for patients with kidney or ure-ter stones. ESWL works by pulverizing the stones into sand-like particles that can be excreted with little or no pain. This is achieved by the ESWL procedure approximately 90% of the time. The shock waves are a form of high-energy pressure that can travel in air or water. When generated outside the body, they pass through the tissues of the body without damaging them, but can destroy a stone inside a kidney or urethra. The shock waves pass through both without injury. A stone has a greater density and, when the shock wave hits it, the waves scatter and break it up.
Resources
BOOKS
Brenner, BM et al Brenner & Rector’s The Kidney. 7th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004.
Khatri, VP and JA Asensio. Operative Surgery Manual. 1st ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003.
Townsend, CM et al. Sabiston Textbook of Surgery. 17th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004.
Wein, AJ et al. Campbell-Walsh Urology. 9th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2007.
PERIODICALS
Cozens, N. J. “How Should We Deliver an Out of Hours Nephrostomy Service?” Clinical Radiology 58 (May 2003): 410.
Dyer, R. B., J. D. Regan, P. V. Kavanagh, E. G. Khatod, M. Y. Chen, and R. J. Zagoria. “Percutaneous Nephrostomy with Extensions of the Technique: Step by Step.” Radiographics 22 (May–June 2002): 503–524.
Koral, K., M. C. Saker, F. P. Morello, C. K. Rigsby, and J. S. Donaldson. “Conventional versus Modified Technique for Percutaneous Nephrostomy in Newborns and Young Infants.” Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology 14 (January 2003): 113–116.
Little, B., K. J. Ho, S. Gawley, and M. Young. “Use of Nephrostomy Tubes in Ureteric Obstruction from Incurable Malignancy.” International Journal of Clinical Practice 57 (April 2003): 180–0181.
ORGANIZATIONS
American Cancer Society. National Headquarters. 1599 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. (800) ACS-2345. http://www.cancer.org.
American College of Radiology (ACR). 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4397. (800) 227-5463. http://www.acr.org.
American Urological Association (AUA). 1120 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. (410) 727-1100. http://www.auanet.org.
United Ostomy Association (UOA). 19772 MacArthur Blvd., #200, Irvine, CA 92612-2405. (800) 826-0826. http://www.uoa.org.
OTHER
“Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL).” Family Practice Notebook May 28, 2003 [cited July 7, 2003]. http://www.fpnotebook.com/SUR46.htm.
“Nephrostomy.” Mid-South Imaging and Therapeutics [cited July 7, 2003]. http://www.msit.com.
“Percutaneous Nephrostomy.” WFUSM Division of Radiologic Sciences. May 8, 2003 [cited July 7, 2003]. http://www.rad.bgsm.edu/patienteduc/percutaneous_nephrostomy.htm.
Tish Davidson, AM
Monique Laberge, PhD
Nephrostomy
Nephrostomy
Definition
A nephrostomy is a surgical procedure by which a tube, stent, or catheter is inserted through the skin and into the kidney.
Purpose
The ureter is the fibromuscular tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. When this tube is blocked, urine backs up into the kidney. Serious, irreversible kidney damage can occur because of this backflow of urine. Infection is also a common consequence in this stagnant urine.
Nephrostomy is performed in several different circumstances:
- The ureter is blocked by a kidney stone.
- The ureter is blocked by a tumor.
- There is a hole in the ureter or bladder and urine is leaking into the body.
- As a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney anatomy.
- As a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney function.
Demographics
For unknown reasons, the number of people in the United States with kidney and ureter stones has been increasing over the past 20 years. White Americans are more prone to develop kidney stones than African Americans. Stones occur more frequently in men. The condition strikes most typically between the ages of 20 and 40. Once a person gets more than one stone, others are likely to develop.
Upper tract tumors develop in the renal pelvis (tissue in the kidneys that collects urine) and in the ureters. These cancers account for less than 1% of cancers of the reproductive and urinary systems. Upper tract tumors are often associated with bladder cancer.
Description
First, the patient is given an anesthetic to numb the area where the catheter will be inserted. The doctor then inserts a needle into the kidney. There are several imaging technologies such as ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) that are used to help the doctor guide the needle into the correct place.
Next, a fine guide wire follows the needle. The catheter, which is about the same diameter as IV (intravenous) tubing, follows the guide wire to its proper location. The catheter is then connected to a bag outside the body that collects the urine. The catheter and bag are secured so that the catheter will not pull out. The procedure usually takes one to two hours.
Diagnosis/Preparation
Either the day before or the day of the nephrostomy, blood samples are taken. Other diagnostic tests done before the procedure may vary, depending on why the nephrostomy is being done, but the patient may have a CT scan or ultrasound to help the treating physician locate the blockage.
Patients should not eat for eight hours before a nephrostomy. On the day of the procedure, the patient will have an IV line placed in a vein in the arm. Through this line, the patient will receive antibiotics to prevent infection, medication for pain, and fluids. The IV line will remain in place after the procedure for at least several hours, and often longer.
People preparing for a nephrostomy should review with their doctor all the medications they are taking. People taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as Coumadin) may need to stop their medication. People taking metformin (Glucophage) may need to stop taking the medication for several days before and after nephrostomy. Diabetics should discuss modifying their insulin dose because fasting is required before the procedure.
Aftercare
Outpatients are usually expected to stay in the clinic or hospital for eight to 12 hours after the procedure to make sure the nephrostomy tube is functioning properly. They should plan to have someone drive them home and stay with them for at least the first 24 hours after the procedure. Inpatients may stay in the hospital several days. Generally, people feel sore where the catheter is inserted for about a week to 10 days.
Care of the nephrostomy tube is important. It is located on the patient's back, so it may be necessary to have someone help with its care. The nephrostomy tube should be kept dry and protected from water when taking showers. The skin around it should be kept clean, and the dressing over the area changed frequently. It is the main part of the urine drainage system, and it should be treated very carefully to prevent bacteria and other germs from entering the system. If any germs get into the tubing, they can easily cause a kidney infection. The drainage bag should not be allowed to drag on the floor. If the bag should accidentally be cut or begin to leak, it must be changed immediately. It is not recommended to place the drainage bag in a plastic bag if it leaks.
Risks
A nephrostomy is an established and generally safe procedure. As with all operations, there is always a risk of allergic reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and infection.
Bruising at the catheter insertion site occurs in about half of people who have a nephrostomy. This is a minor complication. Major complications include the following:
- injury to surrounding organs, including bowel perforation, splenic injury, and liver injury
- infection, leading to septicemia
- significant loss of functioning kidney tissue (<1%)
- delayed bleeding, or hemorrhage (<0.5%)
- blocking of a kidney artery (<0.5%)
Normal results
In a successful nephrostomy, the catheter is inserted, and urine drains into the collection bag. How long the catheter stays in place depends on the reason for its insertion. In people with pelvic cancer or bladder cancer where the ureter is blocked by a tumor, the catheter will stay in place until the tumor is surgically removed. If the cancer is inoperable, the catheter may have to stay in place for the rest of the patient's life.
Morbidity and mortality rates
The mortality rate of nephrostomies is of the order of less than 0.05% and the incidence of the specific complications listed above ranges between less than 0.05% (hemorrhage, kidney arterial blocking, and loss of kidney tissue) to less than 1% (injury to surrounding organs and septicemia).
Alternatives
In the treatment of ureter stones, extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) has been most widely performed and has become the preferred treatment for this condition. ESWL is a new technique that offers an alternative to surgery for patients with kidney or ureter stones. ESWL works by pulverizing the stones into sand-like particles that can be excreted with little or no pain. This is achieved by the ESWL procedure approximately 90% of the time. The shock waves are a form of high-energy pressure that can travel in air or water. When generated outside the body, they pass through the tissues of the body without damaging them, but can destroy a stone inside a kidney or urethra. The shock waves pass through both without injury. A stone has a greater density and, when the shock wave hits it, the waves scatter and break it up.
Resources
books
Rodman, J. S. and C. Seidman. No More Kidney Stones. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
periodicals
Cozens, N. J. "How Should We Deliver an Out of Hours Nephrostomy Service?" Clinical Radiology 58 (May 2003): 410.
Dyer, R. B., J. D. Regan, P. V. Kavanagh, E. G. Khatod, M. Y. Chen, and R. J. Zagoria. "Percutaneous Nephrostomy with Extensions of the Technique: Step by Step." Radiographics 22 (May–June 2002): 503–524.
Koral, K., M. C. Saker, F. P. Morello, C. K. Rigsby, and J. S. Donaldson. "Conventional versus Modified Technique for Percutaneous Nephrostomy in Newborns and Young Infants." Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology 14 (January 2003): 113–116.
Little, B., K. J. Ho, S. Gawley, and M. Young. "Use of Nephrostomy Tubes in Ureteric Obstruction from Incurable Malignancy." International Journal of Clinical Practice 57 (April 2003): 180–0181.
organizations
American Cancer Society. National Headquarters. 1599 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. (800) ACS-2345. <http://www.cancer.org>.
American College of Radiology (ACR). 1891 Preston White Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4397. (800) 227-5463. <http://www.acr.org>.
American Urological Association (AUA). 1120 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. (410) 727-1100. <http://www.auanet.org>.
United Ostomy Association (UOA). 19772 MacArthur Blvd., #200, Irvine, CA 92612-2405. (800) 826-0826. <http://www.uoa.org>.
other
"Extracorporeal Shock Wave Lithotripsy (ESWL)." Family Practice Notebook May 28, 2003 [cited July 7, 2003]. <http://www.fpnotebook.com/SUR46.htm>.
"Nephrostomy." Mid-South Imaging and Therapeutics [cited July 7, 2003]. <http://www.msit.com>.
"Percutaneous Nephrostomy." WFUSM Division of Radiologic Sciences. May 8, 2003 [cited July 7, 2003]. <http://www.rad.bgsm.edu/patienteduc/percutaneous_nephrostomy.htm>.
Tish Davidson, AM
Monique Laberge, PhD
WHO PERFORMS THE PROCEDURE AND WHERE IS IT PERFORMED?
A nephrostomy is performed by an interventional radiologist or urologist with special training in the procedure. It can be done either on an inpatient or outpatient basis, depending on why it is required. For most cancer patients, nephrostomy is an inpatient procedure. Specially trained nurses called wound, ostomy continence nurses (WOCN) are commonly available for consultation in most major medical centers to assist patients.
QUESTIONS TO ASK THE DOCTOR
- Why am I having a nephrostomy?
- How do I prepare for surgery?
- How long will I have to stay in the hospital?
- How long do you expect the nephrostomy tube to stay in?
- How much help will I need in caring for the nephrostomy tube?
Nephrostomy
Nephrostomy
Definition
Nephrostomy is a procedure in which a catheter (plastic tube) is inserted through the skin and into the kidney to drain it of urine. Urine drains into a bag outside the body.
Purpose
The ureter is the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. When this tube is blocked, urine backs up into the kidney. Serious, irreversible kidney damage can occur because of this backflow of urine. Infection is also a common implication in this stagnant urine.
Nephrostomy is performed in several different circumstances:
- when the ureter is blocked by a kidney stone
- when the ureter is blocked by a tumor
- when there is a hole in the ureter or bladder and urine is leaking into the body
- as a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney anatomy
- as a diagnostic procedure to assess kidney function
Precautions
People preparing for a nephrostomy should review with their doctor all the medications they are taking. People taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as Coumadin) may need to stop their medication. People taking metformin (Glucophage) may need to stop taking the medication for several days before and after nephrostomy. Diabetics should discuss modifying their insulin dose because fasting is required before the procedure.
Description
Nephrostomy is done by an interventional radiologist or urologist with special training in the procedure. It can be done either as an inpatient or an outpatient procedure, depending on why it is needed. For most cancer patients, nephrostomy is an inpatient procedure that is covered by insurance.
First, the patient is given an anesthetic to numb the area where the catheter will be inserted. The doctor then inserts a needle into the kidney. There are several imaging technologies such as ultrasound and computed tomography that are used to help the doctor guide the needle into the correct place.
Next, a fine guide wire follows the needle. The catheter, which is about the same diameter as IV tubing, follows the guide wire to its proper location. The catheter is then connected to a bag outside the body that collects the urine. The catheter and bag are secured so that the catheter will not pull out. The procedure usually takes one to two hours.
Preparation
Either the day before or on the day of the nephrostomy, blood samples will be taken. Other diagnostic tests done before the procedure vary depending on why the nephrostomy is being done, but the patient may have a computed tomography (CT) scan or ultrasound to help the doctor locate the blockage.
Patients should not eat for eight hours before a nephrostomy. On the day of the procedure, the patient will have an intravenous (IV) line placed in a vein in the arm. Through this the patient will receive antibiotics to prevent infection, medication for pain, and fluids. The IV line will remain in place after the procedure for at least several hours, and often longer.
Aftercare
Outpatients will be expected to stay about 8-12 hours after the procedure to make sure the catheter is functioning properly. They should plan to have someone drive them home and stay with them at least the first 24 hours after the procedure. Inpatients may stay in the hospital several days. Generally people feel sore where the catheter is inserted for about a week to ten days.
Care of the catheter is important. The catheter will be located on the patient's back, so it may be necessary to have someone help with catheter care. The catheter should be kept dry and protected from water when taking showers. The skin around it should be kept clean, and the dressing over the area changed frequently. Special care is needed in handling the urine collection bag so that it does not dislodge the catheter.
Risks
Nephrostomy is an established and generally safe procedure. As with all operations, there is always a risk of allergic reaction to anesthesia, bleeding, and infection.
Normal results
In a successful nephrostomy, the catheter is inserted, and urine drains into the collection bag. How long the catheter stays in place depends on the reason for its insertion. In people with pelvic cancer or bladder cancer where the ureter is blocked by a tumor, the catheter will stay in place until the tumor is surgically removed. If the cancer is inoperable, the catheter may have to stay in place for the rest of the patient's life.
Abnormal results
Bruising at the catheter insertion site occurs in about half of people who have a nephrostomy. This is a minor complication. Major complications are infrequent, but include the tube becoming blocked or dislodged requiring tube replacement, bleeding and blood in the urine, and perforation of other organs.
Resources
OTHER
American Cancer Society. National Headquarters, 1599 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. 800-ACS-2345. <http://www.cancer.org>.
Cancer Information Service. National Cancer Institute, Build ing 31, Room 10A19, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20892. -800-4-CANCER. <http://www.nci.nih.gov/cancerinfo/index.html>.
"Nephrostomy, " Mid-South Imaging and Therapeutics. 30April 2001. 27 June 2001. <www.msit.com/patients.htm>.
Tish Davidson, A.M.
QUESTIONS TO ASK THE DOCTOR
- Why am I having a nephrostomy?
- How long do you think I will have to stay in the hospital?
- How long do you expect the catheter to stay in?
- How much help will I need in caring for the catheter?