CHAPTER 2
SPACE ORGANIZATIONS PART 1: NASA

It is the policy of the United States that activities in space should be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind.

—National Aeronautics and Space Agency Act of 1958

Once it became obvious that space exploration was an achievable reality, it became a national priority for rich and powerful countries. Following World War II there were only two superpowers in the world—the United States and the Soviet Union, and they considered each other enemies.

Both superpowers had military, scientific, and political reasons to go into space. Outer space was a potential battlefield and a great place to spy on enemies on the other side of the world. However, scientists valued space travel for another reason. They wanted to gather data from space to help them unravel the mysteries of the universe. From a political standpoint, a successful space program was a source of national pride, a symbol of national superiority. This motivation above all others drove the earliest decades of space exploration.

The Soviet Union's space program was under the control of the military. By contrast, the United States split its space program into two parts. The U.S. military was given control over space projects related to national defense. A new civilian agency called the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was formed in 1958 to oversee peaceful space programs.

Throughout its history NASA has been associated with spectacular feats and horrific disasters in space exploration. It receives great praise for its successes and harsh criticism for its failures. Space travel is an expensive enterprise. As a government agency NASA is bound by federal budget constraints. This budget rises and falls according to the political climate. American presidents set space goals, but the U.S. Congress sets NASA's budget.

In 1961 President Kennedy charged NASA with the monumental task of putting a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Congress allocated billions of dollars to NASA and this goal was accomplished. Later presidents also set grand goals for the agency, but none of these were realized. Every major endeavor went over budget and fell behind schedule. The public seemed to lose interest in space travel. Congress lacked the political motivation to increase NASA's funding. In 1965 NASA's budget comprised nearly 4 percent of the federal budget. By 1974 this percentage was less than 1 percent. It has remained near this level for almost thirty years. (See Figure 2.1.)

In recent decades NASA's reputation has suffered. Between 1986 and 2003 the agency experienced a string of failures. Two spacecraft sent to Mars were lost. A space telescope was launched into space with a faulty mirror. Worst of all, two catastrophic disasters killed fourteen astronauts. Critics complained that NASA had become overconfident and too bureaucratic, and had lost its technological edge.

In January 2004 NASA got a huge boost in prestige with the success of its robotic missions to Mars. This was accompanied by a declaration from President George W. Bush that NASA should set bold new goals to send crewed missions to the Moon and Mars. It remains to be seen whether Congress will fund these enterprises and whether NASA will be able to overcome the many obstacles in its path to space.

A NEW AGENCY IS BORN

NASA was founded on October 1, 1958 following enactment of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 (Public Law 85-568). The stated purpose of the Act was "to provide for research into problems of flight within and outside the earth's atmosphere, and for other purposes."

The Act specifically mandated that NASA would be a civilian agency with control over all nonmilitary aeronautical and space activities within the United States. The research and development of weapons and national defense systems remained under the control of the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). However, the Act called for sharing of information between the two agencies. Cooperation by NASA in space ventures with other countries was allowed if the purpose was "peaceful application of the results."

The Act outlined eight objectives for NASA:

• To expand human knowledge about atmospheric and space phenomena
• To improve all aspects of aeronautical and space vehicles
• To develop and operate vehicles capable of carrying supplies, equipment, scientific instruments, and living organisms into space
• To conduct long-range studies into the potential benefits, opportunities, and problems associated with astronautical and space activities
• To preserve the role of the United States as a leader in aeronautical and space science and technology and its application
• To share discoveries of military value with agencies involved in national defense
• To cooperate with other nations in peaceful ventures
• To cooperate with other U.S. agencies in utilizing national scientific and engineering resources in the most effective and efficient means possible

PEACEFUL VERSUS MILITARY PURPOSES

The new agency consolidated the resources of several government organizations, chiefly the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The NACA was originally named the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics when it was formed in 1915 to "supervise and direct the scientific study of the problems of flight, with a view of their practical solution." At the time World War I was raging in Europe. German zeppelins had dropped bombs on Britain earlier that year, ushering in a new means of waging war.

Although the NACA's formation was driven by war, the agency also conducted aircraft research and set policy and regulations for commercial and civil aviation. In 1926 the Air Commerce Act was passed freeing the NACA of regulatory responsibilities. The agency turned its full attention to aeronautical research and development at its Langley Aeronautical Laboratory in Virginia and later Ames Aeronautical Laboratory at Moffett Field, California and a testing facility at Wallops Island, Virginia. NACA research and development benefited both military and civilian aviation.

On October 14, 1947, Air Force Captain Charles (Chuck) Yeager made the first supersonic flight in a rocket-powered research plane developed by the Air Force and the NACA. The plane was named the X-1. NACA played an integral role in developing and testing an entire X-series of experimental aircraft. In 1952 the NACA began researching the challenges of space flight. Two years later the agency recommended that the U.S. Air Force develop a manned research vehicle to travel beyond earth's atmosphere.

In October 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. A few months later a private space organization called the American Rocket Society urged President Eisenhower to establish a new agency to assume responsibility for all U.S. nonmilitary space projects. The new agency was to pursue "broad cultural, scientific, and commercial objectives" and be independent of the Department of Defense. The director of the NACA provided a counter-recommendation that the new agency operate under joint control of the NACA, the Department of Defense, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National Science Foundation in support of military and nonmilitary projects.

In January 1958 President Eisenhower wrote Soviet Premier Nikolai Bulganin and proposed that the two countries "agree that outer space should be used only for peaceful purposes." The Soviet Premier refused to agree to the proposal unless the U.S. ceased all nuclear weapons testing and disbanded all its military bases on foreign soil. These conditions were unacceptable to the United States.

In July 1958 President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 turning over all nonmilitary space projects to NASA. The new agency absorbed the personnel and facilities of the NACA, which ceased to exist.

NASA began with approximately 8,000 employees and an annual budget of $100 million. About half of these employees were civilian personnel working on space projects at the Army's Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama. They included the rocketry team of Wernher Von Braun. Von Braun was a German rocket scientist who moved to the United States following World War II to build America's rocket program. He was to play a major role at NASA.

T. Keith Glennan served as the agency's first Administrator. Under his direction NASA took control of the DOD's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California and parts of the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C. NASA also took over several satellite and lunar probe programs being operated by the Air Force and the DOD's Advanced Research Projects Agency. The military retained control over reconnaissance satellites, ballistic missiles, and a handful of other DOD space projects that were then in the research stage.

Historians say that President Eisenhower felt that NASA's space program should be "small in scale and limited in its objectives."

NASA SHOOTS FOR THE MOON

NASA did not stay small for long. The agency had grand plans. In February 1960 NASA presented to Congress a 10-year-plan for the nation's space program. It included an array of scientific satellites; robotic probes to the Moon, Mars, and Venus; development of new and powerful rockets; and manned spaceflights to orbit the Earth and the Moon. NASA estimated the program would cost around $12 billion.

Congress was politically motivated to support the program. The Soviet Union had already landed a probe on the Moon as part of its Luna Project. At the time NASA was continuing the Pioneer Project begun by the NACA to obtain data from probes sent to the Moon. The first three Pioneer rockets had launched during 1958 but failed to escape Earth's gravity. In March 1959 Pioneer 4 was the first U.S. spacecraft to escape Earth's gravity. It passed within 37,300 miles of the Moon. However, the Soviet's Luna 1 probe had already passed much closer to the Moon. The United States was behind in the space race.

After John F. Kennedy was elected president in November 1960, he charged his vice-president Lyndon Johnson with finding a way for the U.S. to beat the Soviets to a major space goal. NASA pushed for a manned lunar landing and Johnson agreed. On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy asked Congress to provide financial support to NASA to put a man on the Moon before the end of the decade.

NASA administrator Hugh Dryden called the Moon effort the Apollo program. It was named after the mythical Greek god Apollo who drove the chariot of the Sun across the sky.

Catching Up

NASA had a lot of work to do just to catch up with the Soviets in space. In April 1961 they had put the first human in Earth orbit. Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin circled the Earth one time. His flight lasted 108 minutes. It would be a while before NASA could even come close to this achievement.

When it was first created in 1958, NASA was occupied with finishing ongoing NACA projects. These included a weather satellite, a military spy satellite, and the Pioneer lunar space probes. These probes were intended to go into lunar orbit or impact the Moon's surface while sending back photographs and important scientific data. Pioneer 4 provided NASA with valuable new radiation data needed for the ongoing Mercury project.

The Mercury Project

The Mercury project actually began in 1958, only a week after NASA was created. The official announcement was made on December 17, 1958—the 55th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' flight. The project was named after the mythical Roman god Mercury, the winged messenger.

The Mercury project had three specific objectives:

• Put a manned spacecraft into Earth orbit
• Investigate the effects of space travel on humans
• Recover the spacecraft and humans safely

On May 5, 1961, NASA astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr. became the first American in space when he took a fifteen minute suborbital flight. Shepard's flight was far shorter than Gagarin's had been and included only five minutes of weightlessness. NASA desperately needed more data on the effects of weightlessness on humans. This was considered a key element to manned flights to the Moon.

Between 1961 and 1963 six Mercury astronauts made six successful space flights and spent a total of 53.9 hours in space. (See Table 2.1.) Over this time period NASA's

budget increased from $964 million in 1961 to $3.7 billion in 1963. By 1964 it had risen to over $5 billion. It would remain at this level for three more years.

Is It Worth It?

The United States paid a high price for NASA's Moon program. It was conducted during one of the most turbulent times in American history. The 1960s was a decade characterized by social unrest, protest, and national tragedies.

On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. Vice President Lyndon Johnson assumed the presidency. Johnson had always supported a space program and had been instrumental in passing the bill that created NASA. He assured NASA that the Apollo program would continue as planned. On November 29, 1963, Johnson announced that portions of the Air Force's missile testing range on Merritt Island, Florida, would be designated the John F. Kennedy Space Center.

Robert Gilruth was then NASA manager in charge of the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston, Texas. He promised the country that Apollo would be successful because it employed "the kind of people who will not permit it to fail."

In 1964 social scientist Amitai Etzioni published a book titled Moon Doggle that was extremely critical of NASA. The title was a play on the word "boondoggle" which means a wasteful and impractical project. Etzioni criticized the agency for spending so much money on manned space flights when unmanned satellites could achieve more for less money. He also questioned the scientific value (and costs) of sending astronauts to the Moon. Etzioni was not alone in feeling this way. American society was increasingly concerned with pressing social and national issues including the escalating war in Vietnam and civil rights.

The Gemini Project

NASA scientists realized during the Mercury missions that they needed an intermediate step before the Apollo flights. They had to be sure that humans could survive and function in space for up to fourteen days. This was the amount of time estimated then for a round-trip to the Moon. New missions were planned under the name the Gemini project. The project was named after the constellation represented by the twin stars Castor and Pollux. The name was chosen because the Gemini space capsule was designed to hold two astronauts, rather than one.

A major goal of the Gemini project was to successfully rendezvous orbiting vehicles into one unit and maneuver that unit with a propulsion system. This was a feat that would be necessary to achieve the Moon landings. The last Gemini goal was to perfect atmospheric reentry of the spacecraft and perform a ground landing, rather than a landing at sea. All of the goals except a land landing were achieved.

During 1965 and 1966 NASA completed ten Gemini missions with twenty astronauts that spent a total of more than forty days in space. (See Table 2.2.) The Gemini IV mission featured the first extravehicular activity (EVA) by an American. Astronaut Edward White spent twenty-two minutes outside of his spacecraft during a "space walk." The longest duration Gemini flight (Gemini VII) took place in December 1965, lasting fourteen days.

Moon Resources

By 1967 NASA scientists and engineers had been studying the details of a Moon landing for more than six years. NASA's budget at the time was $5 billion a year. Historians estimate that 90 percent of this money went to outside contractors and university research programs. In 1967 more than 400,000 people at installations around the country worked in support of the Apollo program. NASA's employees numbered about 36,000.

Rangers and Surveyors

A series of nine Ranger probes had been launched between 1961 and 1965. They were designed to flight test lunar spacecraft, take photographs of the Moon, and collect data on radiation, magnetic fields, and solar plasma.

The first two failed to escape Earth orbit. Ranger 3 was supposed to impact the Moon, but missed it by

23,000 miles. On April 26, 1962, Ranger 4 crashed into the far side of the Moon. It was the first American object to reach another celestial body. Unfortunately its central computer had failed during the flight and no data was transmitted. After two more failed attempts NASA finally achieved success. On July 31, 1964, Ranger 7 crashed into the Moon after transmitting the first close-up photographs of the lunar surface.

During 1965 Ranger 8 and Ranger 9 captured hundreds more vital photographs before their impacts. Nearly 200 photographs taken by Ranger 9 were broadcast live on television as the probe hurtled toward the lunar surface.

On June 2, 1966, NASA achieved another milestone when the Surveyor 1 spacecraft made a controlled "soft landing" on the Moon in the Ocean of Storms. The ability to do a soft landing was considered crucial to putting a human safely on the Moon. Surveyor 1 returned a host of high-quality photographs. However NASA was still running behind the Soviet space program. The Soviet spacecraft Luna 9 had soft-landed in the Ocean of Storms four months before Surveyor 1 got there. Luna 9 also provided the first television transmission from the lunar surface.

In all NASA sent seven Surveyor spacecraft to the Moon between 1966 and 1968. Several lost control and crashed, while others achieved soft landings. The 1967 Surveyor 6 was particularly successful. During its mission NASA controllers were able to lift the spacecraft about ten feet off the ground and set it softly back down again. NASA was ready to put humans aboard a lunar lander.

Flight Techniques

One of the greatest debates of the Apollo program related to flight techniques from the Earth to the Moon. Some engineers advocated a direct flight. In this scenario the Apollo spacecraft would be launched off the Earth and would proceed directly to the Moon, where it would land. This approach had great appeal because it did not require any docking or rendezvous between spacecraft. However, it did require development of new super-sized boosters.

The second approach was called the Earth orbit flight. In this approach the spacecraft would circle the Earth before flying directly to the lunar surface. In this scenario risky docking maneuvers would have to be accomplished in Earth orbit, so the astronauts could return to Earth if something went wrong.

The last approach was called the lunar orbit technique. In this scenario the spacecraft would fly near the Moon and go into orbit around it. Then a small maneuverable landing module would leave the base unit for the trip to the lunar surface and back. This approach was considered the most risky, because it required rendezvous and docking in Moon orbit.

NASA historians estimate that more than 700 people spent just over one million work-hours analyzing the three Apollo flight choices. In the end the lunar orbit technique was chosen.

Apollo Spacecraft

The Apollo spacecraft had three parts:

• Command Module (CM) containing the crew quarters and flight control section
• Service Module (SM) for the propulsion and spacecraft support systems
• Lunar Module (LM) to take two of the crew to and from the lunar surface

Figure 2.2 shows the three modules stacked atop a rocket for launch. The massive Saturn V rocket developed by Wernher Von Braun was the launch vehicle selected for the Apollo spacecraft.

The astronauts rode in the command module during launch and reentry. Food, water, and fuel were carried in the service module. While together the command module and service module were called the CSM. When the three modules reached lunar orbit, the lunar module was detached for the journey to and from the Moon's surface.

After the lunar module ascended from the lunar surface it docked with the CSM. Once the two astronauts had moved safely into the CSM, the lunar module was jettisoned away from the spacecraft. Only the CSM made the journey back toward Earth. The service module was jettisoned away just prior to reentry into Earth's atmosphere. The command module with all three astronauts aboard was designed to splash down into the sea.

A Tragic Setback

NASA lost its first astronauts during the Apollo program. In 1966 three unmanned Apollo spacecraft were launched to test the structural integrity of the spacecraft and the flight systems. These were called the Apollo-Saturn missions and were numbered AS-201 through AS-203.

On January 27, 1967, NASA was preparing a spacecraft for mission AS-204, the first manned test flight. During a launch pad test of the spacecraft a flash fire broke out and killed all three astronauts in the command module. NASA renamed the mission Apollo 1 in their honor.

The tragedy temporarily devastated morale at NASA. The agency was not treated kindly by the media. Many newspapers questioned whether a manned lunar mission was worth the risk. Rumors even circulated that the astronauts had been murdered by NASA for criticizing the agency or for other sinister reasons.

The exact cause of the spark that started the fire was never discovered. An extensive investigation conducted by NASA found that a variety of factors contributed to the astronauts' deaths. Some were operational problems—a hatch that was difficult to open, the presence of 100 percent oxygen in the module, and the use of flammable materials inside the module. The investigation also revealed a number of management and contractor problems. NASA set about redesigning the Apollo modules and reorganized top management staff. The Moon landing that was scheduled for late 1968 was delayed until 1969 due to the Apollo 1 tragedy.

One Giant Leap

By late 1968 the Apollo program was making tremendous strides. The first manned flight (Apollo 7) launched on October 11, 1968. Apollo 7 included the first live television broadcast from a manned spacecraft. Watching the astronauts on television helped rekindle a feeling of excitement about the space program. The American public grew more excited as one Apollo mission after another was successful. In May 1969 the Apollo 10 mission featured the first live color television pictures broadcast from outer space.

Two months later Apollo 11 was launched into space with three astronauts aboard. Their names were Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin. Armstrong and Aldrin were the two men chosen to stand on the Moon. At 4:18 p.m. Eastern Daylight Savings Time (EDT) on July 20, 1969, the lunar module softly landed near the Sea of Tranquility. Astronaut Neil Armstrong reported "Houston, Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed."

At 10:56 p.m. EDT Armstrong opened the door of the lunar module and climbed down a short ladder. As he put his left foot onto the surface of the Moon he said these words: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." It was the first time in history that a human being had set foot on another celestial body.

The event was televised live to a worldwide audience estimated at 528 million people. They watched as Armstrong and Aldrin explored the lunar surface for two hours and thirty-one minutes. The astronauts planted an American flag in the dusty soil and collected forty-eight pounds of Moon rocks. They unveiled a plaque attached to the descent stage (the lower part) of the lunar module. The plaque said, "Here men from planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon. July 1969 a.d. We came in peace for all mankind." The plaque bore the signatures of all three astronauts and President Richard Nixon.

The two astronauts climbed back into the lunar module. On July 21, 1969, the ascent portion of the module lifted off the lunar surface, leaving the descent stage behind. Armstrong and Aldrin had spent twenty-one hours and thirty-six minutes on the surface of the Moon. They then docked with the command/service module piloted by Collins. Once reunited, the three astronauts headed for Earth, leaving the lunar module ascent stage in orbit around the Moon. On July 24, 1969, their command module safely splash-landed in the Pacific Ocean.

The Can-Do Culture

NASA had achieved something that many people thought could not be done. The agency found itself heaped with praise and congratulations. Putting a man on the Moon was considered an enormous milestone in technological progress. Plus, it had been done before the end of the decade, just as President Kennedy had requested. The achievement fostered a tremendous sense of pride and confidence among NASA personnel. The agency was left with an optimistic conviction that it could do anything. Historians later called this NASA's "can-do culture."

NASA's critics believe that the agency's can-do culture caused it to make many overly optimistic promises during the following decades. NASA continued to set bold goals for the nation's space program and promise Congress that it could achieve them, just like it had accomplished the Moon landing. The problem was that these goals did not receive nearly as much financial support as the Apollo program received. The Moon landing was possible because NASA was given the necessary resources. Putting a man on the Moon within a decade had taken the talents of hundreds of thousands of people and nearly $24 billion of taxpayers' money. Neither Congress nor the American people were ever inclined again to devote so many resources to a space venture.

Apollo Fizzles Out

NASA launched six more Apollo missions following Apollo 11. In November 1969 the Apollo 12 crew landed near the Ocean of Storms and found the Surveyor 3 lunar probe sent several years before.

Five months later Apollo 13 was launched. Two days into the flight an oxygen tank suddenly ruptured aboard the service module. The pressure in the cabin dropped quickly. Fearing the crew would otherwise be lost, NASA devised a way for the astronauts to rely on the limited resources in the lunar module to limp back to Earth. The spacecraft splashed down safely on April 17, 1970.

Once again NASA had achieved a near-miracle. Although on the surface Apollo 13 appeared like a failure, NASA classified it as a success, because the Agency learned so much about handling emergencies during space flight. The experience was later captured in the 1995 movie Apollo 13. The movie made famous a phrase uttered by Apollo 13 commander James Lovell following the oxygen tank rupture. Lovell said calmly, "Houston, we have a problem."

The next Apollo launch was postponed, while NASA worked on problems brought to light by the incident with Apollo 13. In January 1971 Apollo 14 successfully reached the Moon for a lunar exploration mission at Fra Mauro. The astronauts took along a new cart, specially designed to hold Moon rocks. Later that year the Apollo 15 crew took a lunar rover—one of three that NASA had built at a cost of $40 million—that resembled a dune buggy. The astronauts zoomed around the Hadley-Apennine region at a top speed of 8 miles per hour. They collected nearly 170 pounds of Moon rocks. The lunar rover was so effective it was used on all the remaining Apollo missions.

In April 1972 Apollo 16 set down in the Descartes Highlands of the Moon. It was the first mission to explore the highlands and was at the southern-most landing site of any Apollo spacecraft. In December 1972 the Apollo 17 crew explored highlands and a valley in the Taurus-Littrow area of the Moon. For the first time the mission crew included a scientist. The astronauts collected 243 pounds of Moon rocks, the most of any Apollo mission. On December 19, 1972, Apollo 17 splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean. With the successful completion of the Apollo 17 mission, the Apollo program was over.

Table 2.3 summarizes information about all of the Apollo missions. In all NASA put twelve astronauts on the Moon: Neil Armstrong, Edwin (Buzz) Aldrin, Charles Conrad, Alan Bean, Alan Shepard, Edgar Mitchell, David Scott, James Irwin, John Young, Charles Duke, Eugene Cernan, and Harrison Schmitt (the first scientist astronaut). They collected 840 pounds of rocks, soil, and other geological samples from the Moon.

The missions that followed Apollo 11 never captured the public's imagination the same way that the first Moon landing did. The feeling was that America had already achieved its goal of beating the Soviets to the Moon. Continued lunar exploration held little appeal for many people.

Furthermore, the country was engaged in a very costly and demoralizing war in Vietnam. In 1970 NASA's budget was cut to $3.7 billion a year, down from the $5 billion a year regularly handed out in the mid-1960s. NASA had to cancel its planned remaining Apollo missions. Apollo 18, Apollo 19, and Apollo 20 never took place.

SPACE SCIENCE SUFFERS

Putting a man on the Moon was conducted mostly for political purposes. It bolstered national pride and prestige. It was largely a symbolic endeavor. Many scientists thought the Apollo program achieved far less in scientific terms than unmanned probes could have accomplished. One reason the program was so expensive was that so many resources had to be devoted to keeping fragile humans alive and well in the harsh environment of space. Critics said this money could have been invested in robotics research and development to produce a fleet of unmanned probes and sample collectors to explore the Moon and far beyond.

The debate over human exploration versus robotic exploration began in the 1950s and still goes on in the 2000s. NASA's Ranger and Surveyor probes of the early 1960s were originally designed to collect data to support numerous research goals within astronomy and space science. Once the Apollo program began, these probes were retooled to gather data important to the manned program. This was called human factors research and was a small part of the discipline called space biology. NASA's focus on human factors at the expense of broader research in space biology, space science, and astronomy brought harsh criticism from scientists.

In 1967 a committee appointed by President Lyndon Johnson recommended that the nation establish a well-rounded space program following Apollo with more emphasis on science and less emphasis on human exploration. NASA did conduct unmanned space flights geared toward general space biology. In 1962 the Biosatellite program began with a series of three flights designed to test the rigors of space travel on subhuman beings. In 1969 Biosatellite III flew with a male pig-tailed monkey named Bonnie aboard. The mission had to be ended early when Bonnie got sick. He died soon after returning to Earth.

During the early 1970s NASA wanted to build on its Apollo success with another ambitious manned space program. The agency lobbied Congress to allow it to transfer funds designated for the Biosatellite program to the manned program. This angered many scientists. As one historian has noted NASA pursued a plan of action that terminated "a relatively inexpensive science-oriented project in favor of a relatively expensive, exploration-oriented manned program." This type of criticism was to plague NASA for decades to come.

NASA'S FIRST SPACE STATION

As early as the 1960s NASA made plans to put a manned space station in orbit around Earth. These plans took center stage at the agency when the Apollo program ended. For its next great project NASA envisioned an orbiting space station devoted to scientific research and a fleet of reusable space planes to carry humans to and from the station. In 1969 neither newly-elected President Richard Nixon nor the U.S. Congress were interested in extending the Apollo program, let alone pursuing a new and costly endeavor. NASA found its budget cut year after year. Nevertheless, the agency devoted many of its resources to developing a new manned space program.

The first step was the temporary Skylab space station. This was a small scientific laboratory and solar observatory that could hold three crewmembers at a time. Three separate crews visited and lived on Skylab between May 1973 and February 1974. The first mission lasted twenty-eight days, the second fifty-nine days, and the last mission was eighty-four days in length. The Skylab program saved money by using rockets and spacecraft components left over from the Apollo program. Skylab was considered key to gathering data on the effects on humans of prolonged weightlessness and space flight. The United States lagged behind the Soviet Union in this area. The first Soviet space station (Salyut 1) was put into orbit two years before Skylab.

THE SHUTTLE PROGRAM

In 1972 development got under way at NASA on a reusable space plane called a shuttle. This program was supposed to produce a finished product within five years. It would take twice that long. The first shuttle did not launch until 1981. By this time the Soviet's new space station Mir had been in orbit for several years. The Soviet space program had pursued, but failed, to develop a reusable space plane. Transportation to and from Mir was accomplished using expendable rocket boosters.

NASA relied on a series of space shuttles to conduct most Earth orbit operations. Throughout the early 1980s shuttles carried satellites for government, military, and commercial clients.

On January 28, 1986, the space shuttle Challenger exploded seventy-three seconds after liftoff. Seven astronauts were killed. The shuttle fleet was grounded for more than two years as a result. An investigation revealed that a faulty joint in a rocket booster had allowed hot gases to escape that ignited and destroyed the vehicle.

Government investigators also found fault with the entire shuttle program. They complained that NASA managers emphasized schedule over safety. Before the Challenger disaster, shuttles carried commercial and military satellites (called payloads) into space. To reduce the scheduling pressure NASA decided to immediately cease carrying commercial payloads. Military payloads were quickly phased out as well, leaving only scientific pay-loads. The shuttle's commercial and military clients were forced to turn back to expendable rockets to launch their satellites into orbit.

The loss of the Challenger shuttle forced NASA to scale back shuttle operations. The tragedy brought harsh criticism of NASA from scientists and politicians alike. NASA's can-do culture, left over from the Apollo years, was blamed for making the agency over-confident and overly optimistic about its abilities to safely operate a major space program on a limited budget.

Between 1994 and 1998 NASA shuttles played a major role in a cooperative space venture between the U.S. and the Soviets. U.S. shuttles docked with the Soviet space station Mir for joint scientific missions of astronauts and cosmonauts. A decade before, NASA had worked with its Soviet counterpart to develop mutual docking mechanisms on U.S. and Soviet spacecraft.

In October 1998 NASA achieved a public relations boost when Senator John Glenn flew into space aboard the shuttle Discovery. The 77-year-old Glenn was already a hero for his participation in the Mercury program of the early 1960s. In 1962 Glenn had been the third American in space and the first to complete an Earth orbit during a five-hour trip aboard Friendship 7. In 1998 his space flight lasted nine days. He became the oldest person ever to travel into space. NASA scientists conducted extensive medical tests before, during, and after his flight to monitor his well-being. They were particularly eager to learn about the effects of weightlessness on an older person. Prolonged weightlessness in space is known to weaken human bones, a condition also seen on Earth in older people suffering from osteoporosis.

NASA's shuttle program continued until 2003. On February 1, 2003, space shuttle Columbia broke apart during reentry over the western United States. Seven crewmembers were killed. This second shuttle tragedy shook NASA to the core. The agency had made many promises to Congress and the American public about better shuttle safety and reliability following the 1986 disaster. NASA's capability to operate a manned space program again came under fire. A government investigation blamed NASA for continuing to perpetuate the can-do culture in the face of serious operational and budget problems within the shuttle program. As of July 2004, the entire shuttle fleet remained grounded.

THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

In 1988 the U.S. and fifteen other nations embarked on a new space venture called the International Space Station (ISS). When the Soviet Union dissolved into numerous individual republics in 1991, the largest and most powerful, Russia, carried on the old Soviet space program under the new name of Rosaviakosmos. NASA and Rosaviakosmos collaborated throughout the 1990s to lead construction of an orbiting space station designed for prolonged inhabitation by scientists engaged in space research. They invited other countries to participate by contributing parts, components, and scientific facilities or sending researchers to the station.

Rosaviakosmos was anxious to play a major role in the ISS, but had even less funding than NASA. Both agencies struggled to put U.S. and Russian modules into place and keep them operational. The station was scaled back in size and capability numerous times due to budget crunches in both countries. The bulk of the heavy lifting required to put ISS modules into space was performed by space shuttles. The 2003 grounding of the fleet halted ISS construction. NASA continued to send astronauts to the ISS but they had to travel aboard Russian spacecraft to get there.

NASA'S ROBOTIC SPACE PROGRAMS

Although NASA's crewed missions have historically received the most public attention, the agency has sent a number of unmanned (robotic) spacecraft into outer space. These machines have taken a number of forms and achieved some incredible milestones in space exploration. Satellites have been put into Earth orbit since the earliest days of NASA's space program to collect weather data or serve military purposes. During the 1960s and 1970s lunar probes were sent to the Moon to support the Apollo program. At the same time, NASA began launching robotic explorers that traveled to other planets. These were followed by sophisticated observatories and other robotic spacecraft placed in orbit around the Earth or Sun or sent to intercept asteroids. These projects are considered crucial to enhancing human understanding of the workings of the Earth, the surrounding solar system, and the universe at large.

Interplanetary Explorers

NASA has conducted a number of interplanetary robotic missions to further space science. The Mariner program began in 1962 and included ten spacecraft sent to gather data as they flew by Mercury, Venus, or Mars. In December 1962 Mariner 2 became the first spacecraft to fly by another planet when it flew within 22,000 miles of Venus. In 1971 Mariner 9 became Mars's first artificial satellite. It sent back more than 7,000 photos of the Red Planet.

The Mariner program provided valuable information that was used during the 1970s to conduct the Viking program. In 1976 twin Viking spacecraft were placed in Martian orbit and sent landers down to the planet's surface. On July 20, 1976, the Viking 1 lander set down on Mars. It was the first safe landing of a spacecraft on another planet. The next year Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched toward the far planets in the solar system. They journeyed past Jupiter and Saturn and continued outward. Voyager 2 flew by Uranus and Neptune. By 1998 Voyager 1 had traveled farther than any human-made object in history. As of February 2004 both Voyagers were still moving toward the outer boundaries of the solar system. NASA hopes it can maintain contact with them as they enter the new frontier of interstellar space.

In 1989 NASA launched two interplanetary missions: Magellan to Venus and Galileo to Jupiter. In August 1990 the Magellan lander set down on the Venutian surface. Five years later Galileo began orbiting Jupiter. It continued to send NASA data until September 2003. Both missions provided new maps of planetary surfaces and important atmospheric data.

The 1990s were a tough decade for NASA's interplanetary craft. Three spacecraft sent to Mars were lost: the Mars Observer in 1992, the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1998, and the Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 of 1999. However, in 1997 the Mars Global Surveyor was put into Martian orbit. The same year Mars Pathfinder successfully put a lander, including the Sojourner rover, on the Martian surface. It explored an area called Ares Vallis in the planet's northern hemisphere.

During the early 2000s NASA had great success with interplanetary missions. In late 2001 Mars Odysseyarrived in Martian orbit and began mapping the planet. Two years later the Mars Exploration mission was launched including twin landing craft with rovers named Spirit and Opportunity. In January 2004 the rovers landed safely on Mars and began exploring its terrain.

In late June 2004 the Cassini spacecraft reached Saturn. It was launched in 1997 as a joint mission between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian space agency. This robotic spacecraft will orbit the planet for four years and release a scientific probe called Huygens into the atmosphere of Saturn's largest moon, Titan.

Earth and Sun Orbiters

NASA's space science program has been launching robotic spacecraft into orbit since the 1960s. These spacecraft have included numerous satellites put into Earth orbit to collect data about the planet's weather, oceans, and atmosphere. Other NASA satellites were designed to look outward into space.

During the 1980s the agency began a program called NASA's Great Observatories. There are four robotic spacecraft in this program: the Hubble Space Telescope (launched in April 1990), the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (launched in April 1991), the Chandra X-Ray Observatory (launched in July 1999), and the Spitzer Space Telescope (launched in August 2003). These Earth-orbiting spacecraft contain highly advanced and sensitive instruments that allow scientists to study radiation emitted from nearby celestial bodies and distant galaxies. The space observatories provide a clear picture of the universe because they are located outside the interference of Earth's atmosphere.

Throughout its history NASA has operated a number of small observatories and satellites that incorporate sophisticated instruments such as scatterometers (a specialized form of radar for Earth study) and interferometers (for precise determinations of distance or wavelengths in space).

Numerous NASA science programs are geared toward studying the flow of energy from the Sun to the Earth. This energy includes a continuous flow of plasma called the solar wind. The solar wind and other emissions from the sun affect the magnetic properties of the space surrounding the Earth (or geospace). This magnetic phenomenon is known as "space weather."

During the 1990s NASA began the Discovery program. The goal of this program is to carry out numerous, relatively small and inexpensive space missions with specific objectives. Each mission must cost less than $299 million and proceed from initial development to launch within thirty-six months. NASA calls Discovery the "faster, better, cheaper" approach to space science. Discovery missions ongoing as of February 2004 have a number of goals, including investigation of comets, asteroids, and space weather.

The Explorers program is another NASA science program dedicated to operating small-to-medium sized space missions for a modest cost (less than $180 million per mission). This program includes satellites and observatories that gather data about the Earth, the Sun, and the surrounding universe.

NASA also works with international partners to perform space science missions. The International Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) Science Initiative is a collaborative effort between NASA, ESA, and Japan's space agency. Begun in the 1990s the ISTP program uses satellites to gather information about space weather and its affects on geospace (the space around the Earth). Ulysses is a joint NASA-ESA mission to study the Sun. The International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (INTEGRAL) is an observatory operated by the ESA in conjunction with NASA and the Russian space agency.

NASA'S ORGANIZATION AND FACILITIES

NASA's organizational structure is quite complex because the agency does not use a traditional top-down management style. NASA uses a matrix-style structure that relies on two management levels: agency level and enterprise level. In addition, NASA facilities, called centers, exercise control over certain major decisions. There are nine NASA centers scattered around the country.

Agency-level management takes place at NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C. People at this level interact with national leaders and NASA customers regarding overall agency concerns, such as budget, strategy, policies, and long-term investments. Headquarters is considered the centralized point of accountability and communication between NASA and people outside the agency.

Enterprise-level managers are responsible for developing budgets and strategies, allocating resources, and setting and implementing policies and standards for their particular enterprise (aerospace technology, biological and physical research, earth science, human exploration and development of space, or space science). Each enterprise is led by managers at NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C., but the individual centers are responsible for executing specific enterprise programs.

As explained in NASA literature: "Headquarters determines what the mission is and explains why it is necessary; the centers determine how we will implement it." The centers provide the facilities, buildings, and support services for the missions.

NASA Centers

Figure 2.3 shows the locations of NASA headquarters and the nine field centers.

Each center supports multiple enterprises. Each center is also assigned a particular area of expertise for which it is supposed to build and maintain human resources, facilities, and other capabilities. NASA calls these "centers of excellence."

AMES RESEARCH CENTER.

The Ames Research Center (ARC) is located in Mountain View, California. It was founded as an aeronautics research laboratory in 1939 adjacent to a military base later named Moffett Field. The base was closed in 1994 and its facilities and runways turned over to ARC. The center conducts research in astrobiology (the origin, evolution, distribution, and destiny of life in the universe), air traffic management, supercomputing, artificial intelligence, nanotechnology, and other areas of importance to space exploration. It also conducts wind tunnel testing and flight simulations. ARC is a center of excellence for information technology. As of 2004 Ames employed more than 2,800 personnel.

DRYDEN FLIGHT RESEARCH CENTER.

The Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC) is located at Edwards Air Force Base in Edwards, California. The base was the site of joint NACA military testing of high-speed experimental aircraft during the late 1940s. In 1959 the high-speed flight station at the base was designated a NASA flight research center. DFRC is NASA's primary installation for flight research. It also serves as a back-up landing site for the space shuttle. DFRC is a center of excellence for atmospheric flight operations.

GLENN RESEARCH CENTER.

The Glenn Research Center (GRC) is located in Cleveland, Ohio, at Lewis Field adjacent to Cleveland Hopkins International Airport. It began in 1941 as NACA's Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory. GRC researches and develops technologies in aeropropulsion, aerospace power, microgravity science, electric propulsion, and communications technologies for aeronautics and space applications. Its facilities include the nearby Plum Brook field station at which large-scale testing is conducted. GRC is a center of excellence for turbomachinery (turbine-based machines).

GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER.

The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is located in Greenbelt, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1959 as NASA's first space flight center. GSFC is a major laboratory for developing robotic (unmanned) scientific spacecraft. The center also operates the Wallops Flight Facility near Chincoteague, Virginia, and the Independent Verification and Validation (IV&V) Facility in Fairmont, West Virginia. Wallops is NASA's principal installation for managing and implementing suborbital research programs. The IV&V facility was formed following the space shuttle Challenger accident to ensure that mission-critical software is safe and cost-effective.

In 1966 NASA established the National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) at GSFC. The NSSDC became the archive center for data from NASA's space science missions and continues to serve that purpose. Space science data from NASA missions are made available to researchers and, in some cases, to the general public.

GSFC is a center of excellence for earth science and physics and astronomy.

JOHNSON SPACE CENTER.

The Johnson Space Center (JSC) is located in Houston, Texas. It was established in 1961 to be the focus of the manned space flight program. At that time, it was known simply as The Manned Spacecraft Center. In 1973 the Center was renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in honor of the late President's support of NASA space programs during the 1950s and 1960s.

The JSC houses the program offices and mission control centers for the space shuttle and the International Space Station. JSC facilities are used for astronaut training and spaceflight simulations for both these programs. Aircraft used to train astronauts and to support the space shuttle program are stationed at nearby Ellington Field, a joint civilian/military airport operated by the City of Houston. JSC is a center of excellence for human operations in space.

KENNEDY SPACE CENTER.

The Kennedy Space Center (KSC) is located on Merritt Island, Florida, adjacent to the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The air force station was the site of the Mercury and Gemini launches of the early 1960s. KSC was created specifically for the Apollo missions to the Moon. The center provides launch and landing facilities for the space shuttle program and performs maintenance, assembly, and inspection services on the spacecraft. It is also responsible for packaging components of the laboratory experiments that are used on the space shuttle. KSC is a center of excellence for launch and payload processing systems.

LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER.

The Langley Research Center (LRC) is located in Hampton, Virginia. In 1917 it was established as the country's first civilian aeronautics laboratory. LRC designs and develops military and civilian aircraft, conducts atmospheric flight research, and tests structures and materials in wind tunnels and other testing facilities. It is a center of excellence for structures and materials.

MARSHALL SPACE FLIGHT CENTER.

The Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is located near Huntsville, Alabama, on the Redstone Arsenal Site. During the 1950s a team of rocketry specialists led by Wernher von Bruan worked at the arsenal site developing rockets for the U.S. military. In 1960 the Redstone Arsenal Site's space-related projects and personnel were transferred to the newly formed MSFC. The center developed the Saturn rockets used throughout the Apollo program. MSFC manages the manufacturing contracts for the space shuttle main engine, external tank, and reusable solid rocket motor. The center also conducts research in micro-gravity and space optics and develops programs for space shuttle pay-loads. It is a center of excellence for space propulsion.

STENNIS SPACE CENTER.

The Stennis Space Center (SSC) is located in Bay St. Louis, Mississippi. It was founded in 1961 as the static test facility for launch vehicles to be used in the Apollo program. SSC is home to the largest rocket propulsion test complex in the United States. It is NASA's primary installation for testing and flight-certifying rocket propulsion systems for the space shuttle and other space vehicles. The center also works with government and commercial partners to develop remote sensing technology. SSC is a center of excellence for rocket propulsion testing systems.

Other NASA Facilities

There are numerous facilities and installations that provide support to the field Centers and are either operated by NASA or under contract to NASA. Some of the major ones are described below.

JET PROPULSION LABORATORY.

The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) is located in Pasadena, California. This facility is owned by NASA but operated under a contractual agreement by the California Institute of Technology. JPL began informally during the 1930s as a group of student rocket enthusiasts under the direction of Professor Theodore von Kármán, head of the university's Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory. These rocket scientists achieved funding for their projects from the U.S. Army, and by the 1940s they were investigating new technologies in aerodynamics and propellant chemistry under the name of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In 1958 JPL was transferred from Army jurisdiction to NASA.

Jet propulsion is no longer the primary focus at JPL. The facility now serves as NASA's primary operator of robotic exploration missions. It also manages and operates NASA's Deep Space Network.

DEEP SPACE NETWORK.

The Deep Space Network (DSN) is an international network of antennas that enables NASA mission teams to communicate with distant spacecraft. As shown in Figure 2.4 DSN communications complexes are situated at three locations around the world (roughly 120 degrees apart) in Goldstone, California, Robledo, Spain, and Tidbindilla, Australia. This placement allows the JPL operations control center to maintain constant contact with spacecraft as the earth rotates.

WHITE SANDS TEST FACILITY.

The White Sands Test Facility (WSTF) is located at Las Cruces, New Mexico, a remote desert location. WSTF provides services to military and government clients. It is NASA's primary facility for testing and evaluating rocket propulsion systems, spacecraft components, and hazardous materials used in space travel. WSTF supports the space shuttle and ISS programs.

NASA'S WORKFORCE

At the height of Apollo development NASA employed nearly 36,000 people. By the early 1990s this number had dropped to 24,000 and continued to decrease over the next several years. As shown in Figure 2.5 the workforce leveled off at around 18,000 people in 1998 and has remained near this level since then. NASA reduced its workforce by offering employees cash bonuses to retire early and through normal attrition (not replacing workers that leave). During most of the 1990s the agency operated under a hiring freeze. One consequence of this was that very few young people entered the NASA workforce.

NASA divides its workforce into four main categories:

• Scientists and Engineers—Highly educated professionals that conduct aerospace research and development or perform biological, life science, or medical research or services. This category includes space scientists, biologists, aerospace engineers, physicians, nurses, and psychologists.
• Technicians—Technicians fall into two categories. Some are specialists that provide services such as drafting or photographic development. Others are skilled at particular trades (such as mechanics or electrical work).
• Professional Administrators—These employees operate non-technical functions such as management, legal affairs, public relations, and human resources.
• Clerical Workers—This includes secretarial, administrative, and clerical positions.

People engaged in technical work comprise nearly 60 percent of the agency's workforce. As of 2003 NASA employed approximately 10,600 people in technical occupations.

According to NASA's Human Resources department the vast majority of the agency's workforce is older than forty years old. (See Figure 2.6.) Only a tiny percentage of NASA's workforce is less than thirty years old. The average NASA employee is forty-six years old and has been with the agency for seventeen years. Figure 2.7 compares the gender and salary of NASA's employees to the overall federal workforce. Just over two-thirds of NASA employees are men. This percentage is somewhat higher than that found in the overall federal workforce.

Figure 2.8 shows that NASA technicians and scientists and engineers are overwhelmingly male, while clerical workers are overwhelmingly female. A slight majority of professional administrators are female.

The average male NASA employee earns nearly $10,000 more per year than the average female employee (See Figure 2.7.) Female workers also have a slightly lower average number of years of service and are less likely to have college degrees. Only 67 percent of the female employees have college degrees, compared to 85 percent of the male employees. The male employees also hold more and higher degrees (master and doctorate) than do female employees.

People employed by federal agencies (excluding the military) are called civil servants. In 2003 NASA employed around 18,000 full-time civil servants. Another 40,000 people supported NASA projects by working under contracts or grants handed out by the agency. The vast majority of these people work at or near NASA facilities. NASA's major contractors are manufacturing companies in the aerospace industry, for example, Boeing Corporation. NASA also funds research projects performed by people at private institutions, such as universities. In 2001 NASA funded 830 principal investigators engaged in biological and physical research for the agency. (See Figure 2.9.) The vast majority of these investigators (73 percent) were at universities. California and Texas accounted for just over one-fourth of all principal investigators.

Figure 2.9 also shows the locations of commercial space centers engaged in biological and physical research for NASA. There are fifteen of these centers located at universities in Alabama, Texas, Colorado, Florida, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Virginia, and Wisconsin. The centers conduct space-based research and development through a partnership of government, industry, and academic participants.

Astronauts

Astronauts are the most famous NASA workers. In 1959 the first group of seven astronauts was chosen from 500 candidates. All were military men with experience flying jets. At the time, spacecraft restrictions required that astronauts be less than 5 feet 11 inches tall. In the early days of the Apollo program all astronauts were chosen from the military services. This soon changed, and NASA began including civilian pilots with extensive flight experience. During the mid-1960s NASA expanded the astronaut corps to include non-pilots with academic qualifications in science, engineering, or medicine.

In 1978 the first group of space shuttle astronauts was selected. For the first time the trainees included women and minorities. The unique environment aboard the space shuttle permitted even more opportunities for non-pilots to fly into space.

A typical shuttle crew includes a commander and a pilot. Both of these crewmembers are considered pilot astronauts. In addition there can be three to five other crewmembers called mission specialists or payload specialists. Mission specialists are NASA astronauts (typically scientists) with specific on-board responsibilities during a mission. Payload specialists can be scientists, engineers, and ordinary citizens from the private/commercial sector or foreign astronauts invited by NASA to participate in a shuttle mission.

Space shuttle commanders, pilots, and mission specialists are career NASA astronauts, as are commanders and flight engineers that serve aboard the ISS. As of February 2004 NASA had 103 qualified commanders, pilots, and mission specialists as part of its active astronaut corps. Another forty experienced astronauts worked in management positions.

During the early 1980s NASA was enthusiastic about including private citizens on space shuttle flights. This was viewed as a way to better interest the public, and particularly children, in space travel. One of the most famous participants was Christa McAuliffe, the first school-teacher to go into space. On January 28, 1986, she died along with her crewmates when the shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after launch. This disaster ended NASA's policy of inviting private citizens on shuttle flights.

In 2002 NASA organized a new program to put a teacher in space called the Educator Astronaut program. Under this program qualified teachers were invited to apply to be full-time career astronauts. At the time NASA planned to select three to six Educator Astronauts for future space shuttle flights. Although the program continued following the 2003 Columbia disaster, its future is uncertain given the grounding of the space shuttle fleet and tentative plans to eliminate the shuttle program.

The 1980s witnessed several firsts in NASA's astronaut corps. In June 1983 Sally Ride became the first U.S. woman in space when she served as a mission specialist aboard the space shuttle Challenger. It was the shuttle's seventh mission. Two months later mission specialist Guion Bluford became the first African-American in space as part of the shuttle's next mission.

Astronaut Selection

NASA accepts applications from astronaut candidates on an ongoing basis. Civilian candidates submit their applications directly to NASA. Candidates in the armed forces are pre-screened by the military. Every two years NASA conducts a review process to select a new group of astronauts. This process begins in odd-numbered years and follows a very specific format.

The latest selection process began on July 1, 2003, as shown in Table 2.4. The first day of July is the cutoff date for receipt of new applications. Throughout July and August the applications are reviewed by the Astronaut Candidate Selection Rating Panel. The panel narrows the field to those applicants considered highly qualified (HQ) and collects information about them through the remainder of the year. This information is used to select HQ applicants for extensive interviews and medical examinations. By February of the following even-numbered year the selection process is complete. The names of the successful candidates are released to the media. Those selected begin training soon afterwards at Johnson Space Center in Texas. The training period lasts one to two years.

Pilot astronaut applicants must have at least 1,000 hours of command flying experience in jet aircraft. Preference is given to pilots with flight test experience. Pilot candidates must also pass a stringent medical examination and be between sixty-four and seventy-six inches tall. Mission specialists are required to pass a less stringent medical examination and must be between fifty-eight and half and seventy-six inches tall.

Astronaut Pay Rates

Civilian astronauts employed by NASA are civil servants. They are paid salaries based on the federal government's pay scale called the General Schedule or GS. There are fifteen GS pay levels ranging from the lowest (GS-1) to the highest (GS-15). NASA's mission specialists fall within grades GS-11 through GS-13 depending on their education, experience, and qualifications. These grade scales cover a salary range between approximately $50,000 and $100,000 per year.

Active-duty military personnel selected to be NASA astronauts remain on the military payroll during their assignment to Johnson Space Center.

NASA'S GOALS FOR THE FUTURE

NASA's stated overall goal for the future is to improve life on Earth, while extending human life to outer space and searching for other life in the universe. NASA believes that this goal will be achieved through three broad missions:

• Understanding and protecting Earth
• Exploring the universe and searching for life
• Inspiring young people to appreciate the importance of space exploration

NASA pursues its goals through agency divisions called enterprises. The role and goals of each enterprise are explained in the agency's 2003 Strategic Plan, which was published in early 2003. According to the plan there are six NASA enterprises:

• Aerospace Technology—Developing new technologies, materials, and systems for space flight and sharing relevant information with the commercial, academic, and military sectors
• Biological and Physical Research—Researching the challenges associated with human exploration of space
• Earth Science—Applying space research to improving methods for predicting climate, weather, and natural hazards on Earth
• Education—Encouraging young people to pursue studies in science, mathematics, technology, and engineering and to pursue careers in aeronautics and space-related fields
• Human Exploration and Development of Space—Operating and supporting the space shuttle program and the International Space Station.
• Space Science—Researching the origins of life and the universe, the existence of life on other planets, the formation of stars and galaxies, the evolution of the solar system and universe, the mechanisms of life, and the relationship between matter and energy

In February 2004 NASA's goals for the twenty-first century were redefined in A Renewed Spirit of Discovery: The President's Vision for U.S. Space Exploration. In this document President George W. Bush spelled out his goals for the nation's space program over the next few decades:

• Implementing an affordable space exploration program that includes robotic spacecraft and human explorers
• Putting astronauts on the Moon by the year 2020
• Developing new technologies and equipment needed to acquire data about potential destinations for human astronauts
• Promoting international and commercial participation in the exploration program

The president called for the space shuttle fleet to be retired by 2010. NASA's participation in the ISS would end in 2016 with the completion of specific research objectives at the station.

NASA's plan for achieving the president's mandate includes such ongoing missions as Mars Rover, which will be used as stepping stones to future exploration missions.

Human travel to the Moon and Mars will require development of new launch and crew vehicles. NASA no longer has any of the Saturn V rockets that lifted Apollo spacecraft into space. A new heavy-lift vehicle must be developed. A new crew exploration vehicle (CEV) is also needed. A space shuttle cannot serve this purpose, because it was designed only for low Earth orbit. NASA plans to use robotic spacecraft to test new technologies and gather data about the Moon and Mars before sending humans to explore them.

To accomplish these tasks NASA plans to reorganize itself. A new enterprise and office called Exploration Systems will be formed within the agency. This office will be responsible for research, testing, and development of new exploration vehicles and systems.

NASA'S BUDGET

NASA is a federal government agency. For accounting purposes the federal government operates on a fiscal year (FY) that begins in October and runs through the end of September. Thus, fiscal year 2004 covers the time period of October 1, 2003, through September 30, 2004. Each year by the first Monday in February the President of the United States must present a proposed budget to the U.S. House of Representatives. This is the amount of money that the president estimates will be required to operate the federal government during the next fiscal year.

It can take many months for the House to debate, negotiate, and approve a final budget. Then, the budget must also be approved by the U.S. Senate. This entire process can take longer than a year. This means that NASA can be well into a fiscal year before knowing the amount of its budget for that year. For example, NASA's FY 2004 budget was not yet approved by the Senate as of February 2004. In 2003 the House of Representatives approved nearly $15.5 billion for NASA for FY 2004. This occurred before the president announced his plans for NASA.

Figure 2.10 shows the FY 2004 budget request broken down by each NASA enterprise. Space flight is the single most expensive enterprise, followed by space science, and aeronautics. Together these three enterprises comprise 82 percent of NASA's total budget. The budget request is broken down in more detail in Figure 2.11, which shows that operation of the space shuttle program is, by far, the single most expensive project at NASA. It requires nearly $4 billion a year. This is approximately 25 percent of the entire FY 2004 budget request.

In February 2004 NASA responded to the president's orders by developing a tentative long-range mission plan as shown in Figure 2.12. The plan incorporates the president's proposed yearly budgets for the agency through FY 2009. Then, it continues to project program expenses through FY 2020 assuming that NASA receives a modest budget increase each year.

The long-term plan assumes that shuttle program costs will decrease slowly until 2010 and disappear by 2012. The money saved by eliminating the shuttle program will give a funding boost to the new lunar and Martian exploration program. In 2017 another boost for exploration funds is projected when U.S. participation ends in the ISS program.

Expenses on aeronautics and other science activities are predicted to remain virtually unchanged over the next few decades. Funding for human/robotic technology and development of a crew exploration vehicle is expected to grow modestly between 2004 and 2009.

NASA's ability to follow through with this long-range plan is dependent on Congressional approval of projected budgets and successful implementation of the new technologies that will be required for success.