CONSCIENCE, EXAMINATION OF

Refers to the regular reflection on one's life and action (thoughts, words, deeds, and omissions) in order to recognize areas in need of remediation and to move toward Christian perfection. It also refers to the list of actions or attitudes that serve as the focus of such reflection.

The tradition of an obligation for regular, even daily, examination of conscience evolved from the early Christian communities' concern that the members follow the Christian way of life by avoiding certain attitudes and actions and fostering those in keeping with the teachings of Jesus. Over time this practice became increasingly formalized in different yet fundamentally related expressions: (1) daily examination of conscience with a goal of moving toward Christian perfection; (2) the particular examination of conscience dependent on the spiritual ex ercises of St. ignatius of loyola; and (3) the examination of conscience in the context of proximate preparation for confessing one's sins.

In monastic writings of the 4th to 6th centuries, one finds the roots of the daily self-examination seen as essential to the Christian life. Themes in the authors of the period that recur later in the monastic writings include: the role of daily examination of conscience in helping the neophyte Christian maintain the original vigor and purity of heart (e.g., John chrysostom's Baptismal Instructions); the image of the daily self-examination as an experience of judgment in which the person stands as both accuser and accused (e.g., augustine, "On the Usefulness of Penance"); and the place of God's presence and grace as aids in the examination process (e.g., gregory the great). While the daily examen is not emphasized in the early monastic writings, it is nevertheless frequently mentioned in the context of confession and spiritual direction. By the time of benedict of aniane (9th century), the monastic Rule calls for daily examination of conscience as part of the process of spiritual growth.

From the 12th century through the reformation in the 16th century, the place of daily examination of conscience continued to take shape and to extend beyond the monastic walls. During this period, three central themes developed that continue to evolve into the modern era. First, there is an emphasis on self-knowledge which leads to knowledge of God; secondly, the examination of conscience is seen in the context of the whole Christian life and as part of the process of growth in faith; and, finally, there is an increasing focus on the method of examination. The Brothers of the Common Life popularized formal schemes for its practice among the faithful in the 14th century, and in the 16th century it is a prominent feature of the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius.

The Ignatian method begins by placing one's self in the presence of God and expressing gratitude for God's grace and goodness. One asks for God's help in recognizing areas of sin in one's life and then proceeds to review one's life and action (thoughts, words, deeds, and omissions) in an attempt to recognize areas in need of forgiveness. The individual asks God for pardon and resolves to attend more faithfully to the grace of God. At the heart of this method is an openness to and reliance upon God's grace active in the person's life. There is the recognition that it is by grace that persons come to awareness of their sinfulness, resolve to make amends, and persevere in being more faithful to God. This is what differentiates an examination of conscience within the Christian tradition from the self-improvement perspective within the secular context.

The particular examination of conscience dates back to the time of the Fathers of the Desert, but as used in the Church today, it depends largely on the Spiritual Exercises. On rising, the focal point of the particular examination is recalled. At noon, and before retiring, one prays according to the scheme of the general examination outlined above, modifying the third point according to the subject matter chosen for a particular examination. St. Ignatius also suggests that a record be kept of progress from day to day and week to week.

Evolving at the same time as daily examinations of conscience was the practice of a focused reflection on one's past in preparation for the practice of sacramental confession. In this context, penitentials with their lists of sins and corresponding penances were developed. Later, in response to the Fourth Lateran Council's (1215) requirement for annual confession and communion, manuals or handbooks of confession were written that contained an examination of conscience or a list of principal sins and virtues. These served as an aid to the confessor in guiding the penitents in the process of confession and in determining the nature of their sins and were in use up to the time of the Reformation.

Drawing from these manuals, small books written for the penitent were designed to act as an aid to the process of self-examination. Some of these books were condensed from larger manuals or were written by those who had authored the manuals. For the people who bought and used these books, a context was established within which the individual could understand what sin was, what repentance involved, and how sins were forgiven. In addition these books contributed to a milieu within which sin was of focal concern. Later brief examinations of conscience to be used as part of night prayer and longer ones to be used in conjunction with confession were added and are present in prayer books up to the present.

Shifts in the way in which the sacrament of pen ance is viewed and celebrated, along with a burgeoning interest in spirituality, has lead to changes in the content and the practice of examination of conscience within the present context. Widely circulated printed examinations of conscience tend to reflect a more communal and social nature of sin and are intended to be used both for individual reflection and as part of a community celebration of the sacrament.

Bibliography: h. jaeger, Dictionnaire de Spiritualité, s.v. "Examen de Conscience." j. regan, A Study of the Examination of Conscience as an Element of the Catechesis on Sin in the Prayer Books Published in the United States. (Ph.D. diss., Washington, D.C. 1989).

[j. regan/

j. b. wall]