PETER, APOSTLE, ST.

This article will discuss Peter's name, his career as presented in the Gospels, position in the Apostolic Church, death and burial, and representations in early art.

Name. In all likelihood, Peter's original name was šim’ôn (transliterated Σιμεών twice: Acts 15.14; 2 Pt1.1). The form Simon (Σίμων), a genuinely Greek name, is used much more often, about 50 times. This could be simply a NT adaptation of the Hebrew name, but it is also quite possible that Peter, like many of his compatriots, used two names, one Hebrew and one Greek. However, it was by neither of these names that he came to be generally known. Jesus gave him a new name, the Aramaic word for rock, kêpā'. In the primitive Church, which was at first Aramaic-speaking, this form of his name would have been most common. Later it was transliterated into Greek as Κηφ[symbol omitted]ς (Cephas), but this form turns up only nine times in the NT, once in John and eight times in the letters of Paul. In fact, only once does Paul refer to him in any other way; in Gal 2.7 he calls him Peter (Πέτρος). This is intended as a Greek translation of kêpā' and is used more than 150 times in the Gospels and Acts. It told the Greek-speaking Christians more about Peter's function than the noncommittal Cephas. Finally, there is the double name, Simon Peter, which occurs about 20 times, mostly in John.

Career as Seen in the Gospels. That Peter was accorded a special place among the Apostles appears from an examination of the Gospel material.

Early Background. Before his call to follow Jesus, Simon, son of Jonah (Mt 16.17) or of John (Jn1.42;21.15–17), was a commercial fisherman. He and his brother andrew worked in partnership with another pair of brothers, james and john, the sons of Zebedee (Lk5.10). The family home was in Bethsaida of Galilee (Jn1.44), but by the time Jesus began His public ministry, Simon had married and moved to Capharnaum (see capernaum). His mother-in-law lived with him there, and on one occasion Jesus cured her of a fever (Mk 1.30–31). There is no direct mention of his wife or of any children, but 1 Cor 9.5 is commonly interpreted to mean that he took his wife about with him on his missionary travels.

The Synoptic and Johannine traditions do not agree on the circumstances of his initial call to discipleship. According to John, the first meeting took place at "Bethany beyond the Jordan," where Peter, Andrew, and John were listening to the preaching of John the Baptist, who called their attention to Jesus (1.28, 40–42), and on this occasion Andrew recognized Jesus as the Messiah, and Jesus gave Simon his name of Peter. According to the Synoptics (Mt 4.18–22; Mk 1.16–20; Lk 5.11), the call took place in Galilee; Matthew and Mark differ somewhat from Luke in point of detail. It is, of course, possible to reconcile the two traditions. Peter may well have had his first meeting with the Master in the valley of the Jordan, with the definitive call to discipleship coming only later, after the return to Galilee. After all, John was an eyewitness. On the other hand, there is reason to suspect that John's account is influenced more by theological than by strictly historical considerations. In this account it is Andrew who first recognizes Jesus as the Messiah, and this is immediately at the beginning of the public ministry. In the Synoptics, it is Peter who first attains to this knowledge, and then only after several months of association with Jesus. Furthermore, it is in connection with this later avowal of Jesus' messianic dignity by Simon that the Lord changes his name to Peter. But John often telescopes historically separate incidents in order to make his "witness" more impressive. Using a sort of concentric-circle method of composition, he tends, from the very beginning of his Gospel, to present the whole truth about Christ in each episode. A striking example of this tendency to anticipate occurs in the passage under discussion. Even before he records Simon's change of name to Peter (1.42), he writes: "Now Andrew, the brother of Simon Peter, was one of the two." (1.40) (see john, gospel according to st.).

In the Synoptics. Simon Peter figures prominently in the Gospels, especially in the Synoptics. His leadership is indicated in many ways. He is pictured as taking the initiative on several occasions and as acting quite consistently as the spokesman of the disciples. With surprising boldness, he asked Jesus to let him walk across the water to meet him (Mt 14.28). He usually spoke for the whole group of disciples, and their acknowledgement of his leadership is no less eloquent for its being tacit. In their name he asked for an explanation of the parable of the Alert Servants (Lk 12.41). When Jesus asked them their opinion of His identity, it was Peter who answered and proclaimed that He was the Messiah (Mt 16.16; Mk 8.29; Lk 9.20). Immediately after this he objected to Jesus' prediction of the Passion and was reprimanded for his trouble (Mt 16.22–23; Mk 8.32–33). On another occasion he reminded Jesus of the sacrifice they had made in answering His call and asked what sort of reward they could expect (Mt 19.27; Mk 10.28; Lk 18.28). Even in some instances where one Gospel attributes a question to the disciples as a group, another makes it clear that it was Peter who was the interlocutor (cf. Mk 7.17 with Mt 15.15; Mt 21.20 with Mk 11.21).

Whenever the Twelve are listed, it is always Peter who is mentioned first (Mt 10.2; Mk 3.16; Lk 6.14; Acts1.13), and Matthew underscores his preeminence by starting his catalogue thus: "first Simon, who is called Peter." Even within the circle of the favored three, Peter, James, and John, he is always named first. This privileged trio witnessed the raising of Jairus's daughter (Mk 5.37), the Transfiguration (Mk 9.1–7), and the Agony in the Garden (Mk 14.33). In many instances where a group of the Apostles is involved in an incident, only Peter is mentioned by name (Mk 1.36; 16.7; Lk 8.45; 9.32).

Quite often in the Gospel narrative, Peter is singled out for special attention. It was from his boat that Jesus addressed the crowd on the lake shore (Lk 5.3), and it was to Peter's house that Jesus went in Capharnaum (Mk1.29). It was with Peter that Jesus discussed the paying of the Temple tax, and immediately afterward He sent Peter to catch the fish in whose mouth was found the coin that covered the payment for both of them (Mt 17.23–26). Peter was the first of the Apostles to make a public declaration of his faith in Jesus as the Christ, and was selected as the Rock (his name!) on which the Church would be built (Mt 16.16–19). This selection was confirmed at the Last Supper when Jesus assured him that He was praying for the staunchness of Peter's faith in order that he, in turn, might be a bulwark for his fellow Apostles (Lk 22.31–32). When Peter answered that he was prepared to follow Him to prison and to death, Jesus predicted that, for all his protestations of loyalty, he would deny Him publicly before dawn (Lk 22.33–34; Mt 26.33–35; Mk 14.29–31). The sorry fulfillment of this prediction is recorded in all the Gospels. But the Synoptics record also the fact that when he realized what he had done, Peter wept in repentance. Shortly before this, when Jesus' enemies were preparing to lead him from the garden, Peter, again displaying his characteristic impetuosity, cut off the right ear of a servant of the high priest (Mk 14.47; cf. Jn 18.10). That Jesus recognized the sincerity of Peter's sorrow and forgave him is attested by the fact that He favored him with a special appearance after the Resurrection (Lk 24.34; 1 Cor 15.5).

In John. Peter does not figure quite so prominently in John as in the Synoptics. But then, the Johannine tradition has theological centers of interest quite different from those of the Synoptic tradition. John's anticipation of the recognition of Jesus as the Messiah and of the change of Simon's name to Peter is mentioned above. After the Eucharistic discourse (Jn 6.22–68), when Jesus asked the Apostles if they also were minded to leave Him, Peter replied: "Lord, to whom shall we go? Thou hast words of everlasting life, and we have come to believe and to know that thou art the Christ, the Son of God" (Jn 6.69–70). At the Last Supper he protested when Jesus approached to wash his feet (Jn 13.6–10), and he motioned to John to ask Jesus the identity of the betrayer about whom He had been speaking (Jn 13.23–24). In concert with the Synoptics, John records the prediction of Peter's denial (Jn 13.38) and its fulfillment (Jn 18.17–18, 25–27). He alone identifies Peter as the disciple who cut off the ear of the high priest's servant (18.10). On the morning of the Resurrection, Mary Magdalene brought news of the empty tomb to Peter and John. Together they hurried to the spot, but it was Peter who entered first (Jn 20.1–10). Simon Peter's decision to return to his fishing is recorded in Jn 21.3. While he and his companions were at their work, Jesus appeared on the shore. After He had successfully guided them to a good catch, John realized who He was and immediately told Peter. The latter jumped overboard and waded ashore (Jn 21.4–8). And when Jesus asked for some fish for breakfast, Peter dashed out and dragged in the whole catch (21.10–11). After they had eaten, Jesus elicited from Peter a threefold profession of love and gave him the commission to feed His lambs and His sheep, thus confirming him in his primacy (21.15–17). He then foretold Peter's martyrdom (21.18–19).

Primacy. Because of its theological importance, Peter's confession in Mt 16.16–19 calls for special comment. All three Synoptics record his avowal of Jesus' messiahship, but Matthew alone includes his profession of faith in Jesus' divine sonship and the promise of primacy that follows. This passage presents several problems. First, is the matter peculiar to Matthew authentic, and if it is, why did Mark and Luke omit it? It used to be the fashion in certain circles to deny flatly the authenticity of the Matthean material. Now, however, there is general agreement that Mt 16.17–19 is part of the original Gospel according to St. Matthew. But there is still some question as to whether the promise was made on this specific historical occasion. The question is not an idle one. Mark and Luke both record the event that took place at Caesarea Philippi, but both give a shorter version of Peter's confession: "Thou art the Christ" (Mk 8.29); "the Christ of God" (Lk 9.20). And neither of them makes any mention of the change of Peter's name or of the promise of primacy at this point. Interestingly enough, even in Matthew's account, Our Lord brings the incident to a close with the charge "to tell no one that he was the Christ" (16.20).

The explanation may lie in Matthew's method of composition, which is obviously synthetic. He groups incidents and sermons topically rather than chronologically. The section in which this passage appears (13.54–19.1) is concerned with the structure of the Kingdom, and within this section Matthew has gathered several incidents that point up Peter's prominence: his walking on the water, his role in the drama of the Transfiguration, his finding of the coin for the Temple tax (for himself and Jesus) in the fish's mouth, and his inquiry about the forgiveness of offenses. It is quite possible that, following his method of logical grouping, he filled out the incident at Caesarea Philippi with another confession of Peter from the post-Resurrection period, the profession of faith that occasioned the bestowal of the primacy. In the Johannine tradition, this bestowal took place in a post-Resurrection context. Such a remarkable act of faith would seem more in place in this context. At any rate, whether or not it is in its proper historical setting in Mt ch. 16, the text is certainly authentic and retains its full force (see matthew, gospel according to st.).

In the Early Church. After Christ's Ascension Peter is undisputed leader of the Church. He takes the initiative in the election of Matthias to the Apostolic college (Acts 1.15–26). At Pentecost he explains to the curious crowd the meaning of the strange phenomena that accompanied the descent of the Holy Spirit (2.14–40). His cure of the lame beggar is the first recorded miracle of an Apostle (3.1–11). He takes advantage of this occasion to preach Christ within the Temple precincts (3.12–26), and when the authorities arrest him and his companion, John, he fearlessly defends himself before the Sanhedrin (4.1–22). So great did his renown become that people brought their sick on stretchers and placed them on the ground in the hope that his shadow might fall upon them as he passed (5.15). And when all the Apostles were arrested, Peter again spoke in their defense (5.29–32). Once they were released on the advice of Gamaliel, they continued steadfastly to spread the Good News, in spite of the fact that they had been flogged as a warning (5.40–42). Peter vigorously condemned Ananias and Sapphira in the name of the Church (5.1–11). Leaving James in charge of the local community, he visited the churches in Samaria (8.14) and Galilee (9.31–32), Lydda (9.32), Sharon (9.35), and Joppa (9.36). In Lydda he cured the paralytic Aeneas, in Joppa he raised Tabitha from the dead. In Caesarea he received the centurion Cornelius into the Church (10.9–48).

This last incident illustrates the forthrightness and decisiveness of Peter's leadership. The question of the admission of Gentiles into the Church was far from being settled. In fact, it took a supernatural vision to form Peter's convictions on the matter, but, once convinced, he acted fearlessly. The reaction of the Jerusalem community was not favorable, but when Peter explained his action they acquiesced (11.1–18).

Not long after this, Herod Agrippa I arrested Peter, but he was miraculously released from prison; thereupon he departed, and went "to another place" (12.1–17), the identity of which is unknown. Antioch in Syria is a good possibility. At any rate, he was back in Jerusalem for the council called to discuss the still burning question of the admission of Gentiles into the Church. The matter had been somewhat clarified. It was no longer a question of whether or not they should be admitted, but rather of the terms on which they could be admitted—whether or not they needed to observe the Law. After a preliminary discussion among the Apostles, Peter settled the matter by citing the case of Cornelius (Acts 15) (see jerusalem, council of).

It is uncertain whether Paul's altercation with Peter at Antioch, as recounted in Gal 2.11–14, preceded or followed the council (see galatians, epistle to the). Peter was associating freely with the Gentile members of the Antioch church until some of the Judaizers came from Jerusalem. Apparently in an attempt to avoid trouble, he avoided the Gentiles while this group was in town. This created a nasty situation. The Gentiles were hurt and bewildered, and Paul, their champion, remonstrated with Peter for his disturbing inconsistency.

Death and Burial. It is quite certain that Peter spent his last years in Rome. The first of the two epistles ascribed to him was written from "Babylon," a code name for Rome. It is, however, impossible to say how long he stayed there. An old tradition that he spent 25 years in Rome is quite unacceptable. All that can be said with certainty is that he went to Rome and was martyred there. St. Clement of Rome wrote, about a.d. 95, in his Epistle to the Corinthians (5–6): "To these men [Peter and Paul], whose lives were holy, there is joined a great multitude of elect ones who, in the midst of numerous tortures inflicted for their zeal, gave amongst us a magnificent example." St. Ignatius of Antioch, in his Epistle to the Romans a few years later, says that it is not for him to give them orders as Peter and Paul did. In the first half of the 2d century Papias wrote that Mark's Gospel was a record of Peter's Roman preaching (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 3.39.15). From the second half of this century comes the testimony of Irenaeus, a man well acquainted with the universal Church of his day; he is quite explicit on the activity of Peter in Rome (Adversus haereses 3.3.3). By the late 2d and early 3d centuries, the tradition of Peter's Roman sojourn and martyrdom is solidly established. The martyrdom is usually dated 64 or 65 during the Neronian persecution. The tradition that he was crucified goes back to Tertullian (De praescriptione 36; Scorpiacus 15).

The earliest testimony to Peter's burial on Vatican Hill comes from the Roman priest Caius during the reign of Pope Zephryinus (199–217). The tradition has been constant since then, and recent archeological discoveries beneath the Basilica of St. Peter have confirmed it. For details see the article on the vatican.

Peter in Early Christian Iconography. The earliest known painting of Peter is in a house in Dura-Europos, a city in the Syrian desert not far from the Euphrates. One of the rooms of this house, which was built in 232–233, was used as a Christian chapel. The walls are covered with paintings, one of which depicts the miracle of the walking on the lake. Peter is on the point of sinking, and Jesus is stretching out his hand to him. The figure of Peter is very well preserved and portrays him as bearded and with a fine head of curly hair. In the mausoleum of the Valerii, discovered during the recent excavations beneath St. Peter's, there is a scratching of just the head of an old man, bald, with wrinkled brow and pointed beard. The accompanying Latin inscription has been translated as follows: "Peter, pray Christ Jesus for the holy Christian men buried near your body." Both the picture and the inscription have been dated about 280.

Peter is depicted also in the friezes decorating Christian sarcophagi. In the center of one such frieze, from the 4th century, Christ is pictured predicting Peter's denial, and Peter himself is shown being arrested and striking a rock to procure water for the baptism of his jailer. On another type of sarcophagus, of Asiatic columnar construction, he is pictured at the head of the Apostles, carrying a cross and receiving from Jesus the scroll of the New Law.

With the coming of peace under Constantine and the building of churches, portraits of the Apostles become more common. An interesting example of the differences in art traditions comes from the Basilica of San Lorenzo Fuori le Mura at Rome. The mosaics, which date from 578, show a definite Byzantine influence, and Peter is pictured at Christ's right. In the Roman tradition, from the 4th to the 13th century, he appears always at Christ's left. St. Peter is traditionally represented as carrying two keys, a symbolism based on "the keys of the kingdom of heaven" of Mt 16.19, their number probably determined by the "two swords" of Lk 22.38.

Feast: June 29 (Ss. Peter and Paul).

Bibliography: u. holzmeister, Vita S. Petri Apostoli (Paris 1936). o. cullmann, Peter, Disciple, Apostle, Martyr: An Historical and Theological Study, tr. f. v. filson (2d rev. ed. Philadelphia 1962). o. karrer, Peter and the Church: An Examination of Cullmann's Thesis, tr. r. walls (New York 1963). j. lebreton and j. zeiller, The History of the Primitive Church, tr. e. c. messenger, 4 bks. in 2 (reissue; New York 1951), pub. as A History of the Early Church, 4 v. (1962). j. finegan, Light from the Ancient Past (2d ed. Princeton 1959) 297–304. j. dupont, "Pierre et Paul dans les Actes," Revue biblique 64 (1957) 35–47; "Pierre et Paul à Antioch et à Jérusalem," Recherches de science religieuse 45 (1957) 42–60, 225–239. d. stanley, "Études matthéennes: La confession de Pierre à Césarée," Sciences Ecclésiastiques 6 (1954) 51–61. r. e. brown, k. p. donfried, and j. reumann, eds., Peter in the New Testament (Minneapolis 1973). r. pesch, Simon-Petrus (Stuttgart 1980). t. v. smith, Petrine Controversies in Early Christianity (Tübingen 1985). Anchor Bible Dictionary 5 (New York 1992) 251–63.

[j. j. castelot]