PROPHECY (THEOLOGY OF)

The theology of prophecy has never formed a specific treatise in theological manuals. Parts of it are scattered in fundamental, dogmatic, Biblical, and mystical theology, as well as elsewhere.

Prophecy in Tradition

For the scriptural theology of prophecy, see prophetism (in the bible). Here the theology of prophecy is first of all studied in the tradition of the Church (positive theology).

Beginnings until Montanism Inclusive. The New Testament shows that some received a special share in Christ's prophetic Spirit (Eph 4.7–11; 1 Cor 12.28; Acts 11.27; 13.1; etc.), while others shared this charism in a more general way (Acts 2.17, 33–38; 19.6; 1 Cor 11.4–5;14.26, 29–33). Abundant evidence indicates the continuation of the prophetic Spirit in the early Church: Didache 11–13; Ascension of Isaia 3.25–27; Justin, Dial. 87; Irenaeus, Haer. 2.32.4; 4.33.15; etc.

According to the Didache, prophets were more respected than bishops and deacons. They performed a similar service for the community, possibly a priestly service also (15.1–2; 10.7; 13.3). What they spoke "in the Spirit" was to be accepted (11.7). Some of the hierarchy enjoyed this charism in a special way: Ignatius of Antioch (Philad. 7.2; Polyc. 1.3; 2.2), and Polycarp of Smyrna (M. Polyc. 16.2).

False prophets, on the other hand, do not have "the ways of the Lord" about them (Didache 11.8). Hermas warned against the false prophets who are not Christlike (Mand. 11.7–10). Justin ascribed Gnostic ideas and Greek myths to them (Dial. 82.1; 35.3; 51.2; 8788; etc.). Though Irenaeus rejected the teaching of the false prophet Montanus, he also rejected the extreme position of the Alogi, who rejected prophecy (Haer. 3.11.9; cf. 2.49.3; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.7.5).

Asiatic Christianity with its history of prophets, millenarianism, and exaggerated Johannine teachings was a fertile soil for the Montanistic explosion of prophecy; as the "inspired" spokesperson for the Paraclete, Montanus, c. a.d. 172, inaugurated the era of the Paraclete (cf. Jn 16.12–13). Charismatic ministers ranked above the hierarchy (Jerome, Epist. 41.3). One sees the trend toward a purely spiritual Church in the writings of its great convert Tertullian, c. a.d. 207 (De pudicitia 21, 12). Although never officially anathematized, montanism was condemned by local synods for, among other reasons, its ecstatic exaggerations (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.16–18). After the Montanistic experience the role of prophets in the Church diminished. Origen (d. 254) acknowledged traces of this charism in his day, but says that there were no more prophets like those of the Old Testament (Cels. 1.2.46; cf. Acta of Perpetua and Felicity; Cyprian, Epist. 16.4; 2.3–4).

After Montanism. Subsequent to the Montanist episode, two main streams of charismatic prophecy continue down to the present day: a mystical, sometimes ecstatic, tradition of seers and heralds, and a more rational tradition of interpreters of the Spirit in the Scriptures.

Mystical (Ecstatic) Tradition. The roots of this tradition reach back into Greek and Hebrew history. Origen was mainly responsible for introducing to Christianity the Hellenistic prophetic tradition of Plato, Posidonius (d. after 51 b.c.), and the Jew, Philo (d. 1st century a.d.). This Greek-Hebrew tradition influenced the Alexandrians and, through them, the Cappadocians, especially Gregory of Nyssa (Vita Moysis ). The pagan Plotinus (d. a.d. 270) developed this same tradition with his Neoplatonic ideas. He so emphasized ecstasy that the prophet became a mere mouthpiece of God. His teachings in turn influenced St. Augustine's theory of visions and prophecies (Gen. ad litt. 12). Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (c. a.d. 500) also continued in the tradition of Plotinus and Nyssa, and was further influenced by the emanationism of Proclus (d. 485). Gregory the Great (d. 604) follows this same tradition in his mystical homilies that he delivered on Ezechiel.

According to this mystical tradition, the monks and martyrs retained the charismatic gifts of the early Church. The classical prophets were models of the monastic ideal for their virtues, not their charismatic gifts, which were allegorized to serve as models for all monks (Nyssa's Vita Moysis ). This trend confused inner charismatic gifts and gifts of the Holy Spirit. The monks considered the charismatic gifts to be signs, even the essence, of perfection. In Syria (c. a.d. 350) this trend led to Messalianism, a heresy analogous to Montanism (condemned at Ephesus, 431). It founded Christian perfection upon the confused idea of charismatic gift. The exaggerated Messalian emphasis on charism died quietly, but helped the Areopagite's anticharismatic mysticism triumph in the East throughout the Middle Ages. In the West down to the scholastics the theology of prophecy may be studied in a theology of mysticism derived from Augustine and St. Gregory and in hagiographies of saintly people to whom the prophetic charism was attributed.

Joachim of Fiore (d. 1202) announced a third dispensation of the Holy Spirit to begin in 1260, causing a Montanistlike revival among many groups, especially the Fraticelli (condemned 1317–23 by Pope John XXII). By the 16th century the Church had stamped out many forms of spiritual enthusiasm, but they found new life in the Reformation's non-Catholic sects. R. Knox distinguishes mystical and evangelical streams of this tradition that have continued down to the present day (Enthusiasm 581–591).

While the revival of enthusiastic prophetism in the 1200s had little influence on scholastic treatises, St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) did make discriminating use of a Jewish-Arabic stream of prophetic tradition. The Arabic philosophers Avicenna (d. 1037) and Averroes (d. 1198) and the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides (d.1204) wrote of their respective prophets, Mohammed and Moses, and transmitted with varying emphases a Neoplatonic tradition of a natural prophecy.

Tradition of Rational Interpretation. The tradition of the prophet as interpreter appears in Aaron's relationship to Moses as prophetic interpreter (Ex 4.16; 7.1), as well as in the prophetic interpreters of the ecstatic Pythia of Delphi (see Fascher, 11 and following). In the New Testament, Christ is the interpreter of previously unintelligible Old Testament prophecies (Lk 24.27, 44–45; cf. Justin, Apol. 1.32.2). In 1 Corinthians ch. 14, Paul stresses the prophet's role as interpreter. As speaking in tongues lessened, the interpretation of the Spirit incarnated in Scripture became the content of prophecy.

The anti-Montanist reaction focused interest on the tradition of prophetic interpreters. St. John Chrysostom (d. 407) depicts Christian prophets as conscious, moderate people in contrast to the senseless, ecstatic pagan diviners (Hom. 29 in 1 Cor. 1; Patrologia Graeca 61:241). The twofold aspect of prophecy is concisely stated by Ambrosiaster: "Prophets may be understood in two ways: both those foretelling the future and those revealing the Scriptures" or "interpreting Scriptures" [on 1 Cor. 12.28, Eph 1.11 (Patrologia Latina 17:249, 378); cf. (Pseudo-) Jerome, Comm. in epist. 1 ad Cor. 12 (Patrologia Latina 30:756); Eucherius, d. c. 450, Instruct. liber, 2, 1 ad Cor. (Patrologia Latina 50: 805); Cassiodorus, d. c. 583, In psalt., praef., 1 (Patrologia Latina 70:12–14); Glossa ordinaria, 12th century, Lib. psalm., prothemata (Patrologia Latina 113:842)]. The prophetic interpreter became the preacher who used the literal sense as a point of departure for exegeting the spiritual, prophetic, allegorical, and mystical sense of Scripture [see exegesis, biblical, 5]. For other references in this tradition, see: Sedulius, c. 850, Coll. in epist. 1 ad Cor. 14, Patrologia Latina 103:155; R. Maurus, d. 856, In epist. ad Rom. 12, In epist. ad Eph. 4; Haimo of Halberstadt, d. 853, In epist. 1 ad Cor. 14, Patrologia Latina 117:587; Bruno the Carthusian, d. 1101, In epist. 1 ad Cor. 12–14, Patrologia Latina 153:189–197; R. Ardens, d. 1200, Hom. 20, In epist. ad Rom. 12.6, Patrologia Latina 155:1740; Abelard, d. 1142, In epist. Pauli ad Rom. 12, Patrologia Latina 178:939; St. Bonaventure, De prophetia, Cod. Assist, 186 fol. 11b. St. Thomas reproduces this tradition in his Scripture commentaries, but makes little use of it in the Summa (In epist. ad Eph. 3.5, lect. 1; In epist. ad Rom. 12.6, lect. 2; In epist. 1 ad Cor. 14, lect. 5; see P. Benoit, "Révélation et inspiration"334).

Later Emphasis. Since the time of these scholastics the emphasis has been on the mystical (ecstatic) tradition of prophecy. The commentaries on the Summa of St. Thomas by the Dominicans—Cajetan, Cano, Soto, D. Báñez—and the Jesuits—Salmerón, Suárez, and De Lugo—have continued this tradition. Extraordinary prophets also manifest the continuance of this charism in the Church (e.g., Catherine of Siena, Teresa of Avila, Margaret Mary, Catherine Labouré, etc.). The 19th-century rationalists forced the Church to defend the miraculous character of supernatural prophecies of the future (see "Prophecy and Apologetics," below); Modernists forced the Church to safeguard the doctrinal, transcendental character of revelation. Prophecy as interpretation received little attention, though it harmonized better with the post-World War II development of prophecy. In scattered allusions in mystici corporis and in more elaborate studies of Y. M. J. Congar, K. Rahner, C. Journet, et al., the prophetic role of Christ in the Church has received greater attention. Vatican Council II's Dogmatic Constitution on the Church expresses this broader understanding of the nature of prophecy [12, 35; Acta Apostolicae Sedis 57 (1965) 16–17, 40–41].

In the Constitution one is told that all the people of God share in Christ's prophetic office through their anointing by the Spirit (1 Jn 2.20, 27). This charism may be extraordinary or more simple and widely diffused, but in any case "suited to and useful for the needs of the Church" (12).

The hierarchy continues Christ's office by teaching in His name and with His authority. Moreover, the discernment of the genuine character and proper use of this charism belongs to them. They are not to extinguish the Spirit but to test all things and hold fast what is good.

The laity's prophetic role is to bear witness socially (Eph 6.12). Their living and spoken testimony, especially in married and family life, have a special force in the ordinary surroundings of life. For this purpose God has given them understanding of the faith (sensus fidei ) and an attractiveness in speech (Acts 2.17–18), and so they must cooperate in the external spread and dynamic growth of the Church. To accomplish this mission the laity should acquire a more perfect grasp of revealed truth and pray for the gift of wisdom.

Prophecy and Apologetics

Prophecy is also a subject of concern to apologetics (practical theology).

Historical Background. The fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies has been a motive of credibility since the earliest days of the Church (see Acts 2.30, 34; 3.18, 22–26; 4.11; 7.52; 13.16–41; and the Evangelists, Mt1.23; 2.6, 15; 4.15; Mk 9.11; 12.36; Lk 4.18; 22.37; 24.25–27; Jn 3.14; 5.46; 12.14–16). The early apologies to the Jews continued in this vein; in fact most of the OT prophecies used are found in the NT. See: Epistle of Barnabas; Justin's Apology 1, and especially his Dialogue with Trypho ; Irenaeus's Demonstration of the Apostolic Teaching 42–97; and other passages in Tertullian's Adversus judaeos 8–9 and Adversus Marcionem 4–22; Origen's C. Celsum, passim; Cyprian's Quod idola dii non sint 13–14; Lactantius's Divinae institutiones 4.11; 5.3; Chrysostom's Quod Christus sit Deus 11; Augustine's In psalm. 66.9; Fid. invis. 5–9; etc. Apologists of the Middle Ages also used this argument: Amulo, Fulbert of Chartres, Peter Damien, Guibert of Nogent, Gislebert, Peter the Venerable, Abelard, Peter of Blois, etc. St. Thomas referred to this argument briefly (C. gent. 1.6) but concentrated on the theology of prophecy. The tradition of this argument survives to the present in the apologetics developed in the 17th century against deism and rationalism.

Faced with rationalism and liberalism in philosophical and theological thought of the 19th century, Pius IX twice defended prophecies as valid arguments for the divine origin of the faith (Denz 2779, 2907). Vatican Council I reemphasized this point: "Miracles and prophecies… constitute the surest signs of divine revelation suitable to everyone's understanding" (Denz 3009, cf. Oath against Modernism, Denz 3539).

Apologetic Proof from Old Testament Prophecies. There are presuppositions regarding the purpose and significance of Old Testament prophecies. (1) Only the general and consistent tenor of these prophecies was meant to be literally fulfilled in the great majority of cases. Only certain repeated major themes are true predictions, and these were fulfilled in a surpassing way in the NT. These general theme-fulfillments form the basis for the argument from OT prophecies. (2) NT fulfillment was not just equal to OT expectations, but surpassed them. Although the Prophets had no blueprint of the messianic era, they would have recognized in it the overfulfillment of their prophecies. (3) Ordinarily details in the OT prophecies cannot be used in a prophetic proof for a number of reasons. There is a poetic element in OT prophecy, conveying an idea by concrete details. But it is the idea and not the details that the author intends. There is a lack of temporal perspective. Though separated in time, events may be united in the prophetic perspective. There is sometimes a conditional element, even when the condition is not clearly stated. The Messiah and messianic era are described in terms of their own generation. The contemporary coloring of the prophecies is largely artificial and representative of unknown but ideal desires, personalities, etc., of the messianic era. The Prophets knew that their prophecies were only approximations, that the new covenant would be different from the old, even though their knowledge and their mentality forced them to describe the new covenant in terms of the old, which they knew.

Furthermore, the starting point for the proof should lie in the NT fulfillment and not in OT prophecy. The NT fulfillment greatly surpasses the OT prophecies. If one tries to find in OT prophecy what would come to pass in the NT, he is trying to find the greater in the less. The conclusion would contain more than the premises warrant. Hence, this method compels adjustments and modifications in the meaning of the OT prophecies to equate them to their NT fulfillment. On the other hand, beginning with the NT fulfillment, the greater, one can show that the OT prophecies relate to this NT overfulfillment.

20th-Century Theologizing

Attention may be directed to recent theologizing (speculative theology) concerning prophecy.

Prophecy in General. The current theology of prophecy is a modified descendant of St. Thomas's somewhat mystical explanation of prophecy in the Scripture Prophets. Accordingly, prophecy is a special charism of knowledge given for the instruction of mankind in whatever is necessary for salvation (De ver. 12.2). As a charism of knowledge it primarily affects the prophet's mind, not his will (Summa theologiae 2a2ae, 171.1; 174.3–4). This knowledge concerns truths normally hidden to the prophet's mind and is supernatural, if not in its essence, at least in its manner of acquisition (Summa theologiae 2a2ae, 171.2; 173.1; 174.3; De ver. 12.7).

Prophecy and Revelation. The manner in which the prophet receives his instruction involves two distinct elements. The principal element is an intellectual light illuminating the object and permitting the prophet to form a judgment about it. The secondary element consists in representations (ideas and, antecedently, the sensations and images from which the ideas are abstracted); these furnish the subject matter for the intellectual light.

The degree of revelation granted the prophet will vary according to his reception of light and representations (see Summa theologiae 2a2ae, 173.2; 174.2 and ad 3; 174.3; De ver. 12.7). (1) The highest degree of prophetic knowledge (revelation in the strict sense) occurs when the prophet receives both intellectual light and new ideas, e.g., oracles of OT Prophets, Jer 28.16–17. (2) The prophet may receive light alone (revelation in the broad sense). In this instance the ideas may come from another (e.g., Joseph received light to interpret the dreams of the Pharaoh) or may be already familiar to the prophet but now with supernatural certitude and firmness of judgment. Hence, the light of revelation and of inspiration (see below) may intermingle and represent a borderline case of prophecy. This case did not concern St. Thomas but interests modern theologians. (3) When one receives representations alone without intellectual light for judgment of them, it is not strictly a matter of revelation or prophecy, e.g., Pharaoh's dreams.

In a somewhat different approach, K. Rahner stresses three points in his theory of prophetic knowledge. (1) Prophecy involves the whole mind in all its capacities. It usually takes the form of an imaginary vision. God contacts the depths of the prophet's soul, and a sensory experience results. Vision and auditory elements intermingle in keeping with the nature of God's contact. The echo or reflex of this experience in the rest of the prophet's sensibilities is influenced by all his dispositions: elements of fantasy, attitudes of expectation due to religious training or historical situation, etc. (2) The subjective principle of the experience must be a divine reality, grace as a self-communication of God; otherwise it could be a parapsychological experience. (3) The objectification of this grace-experience in words does not give full expression to it. Evidence for the agreement between the grace-experience and its objectification may be: a miracle; inner evidence, a conviction of being spoken to by God; the transcendental character of the grace-experience making the prophetic insight self-evident. In the case of revelation in the OT and NT a supernatural saving providence of God controlling and guaranteeing this agreement is presupposed. (See discussion of private revelations below.)

Prophecy and Inspiration. Prophecy involves not merely revelation, but inspiration also. St. Thomas cites Peter Lombard's definition of prophecy (Comm. in ps., praef.), an abbreviation of Cassiodorus's (In psalt., praef., 1): "Prophecy is a divine inspiration or revelation announcing the issue (eventus ) of things with invariable truth" (Summa theologiae 2a2ae, 171.6 sed c.). In this definition, revelation and inspiration are complementary ideas (Summa theologiae 2a2ae 171.1 ad 4). Revelation concerns the perception of divine truth through intellectual light and representations. Inspiration connotes a preparatory elevation of the mind to the supernatural level by a movement of the Holy Spirit. Commentators have tended to oversimplify St. Thomas's notion of inspiration by restricting it to a supernatural light or judgment without any representations (Zigliara, Lagrange, Vosté, Bea; see P. Benoit, "Révélation et inspiration" 322–324). St. Thomas, however, says inspiration may involve intellectual visions (De ver. 12.12 sed c.; ibid. 12.9 corp.).

Prophecy as Revelation and Inspiration. In distinguishing revelation and inspiration as aspects of prophecy, St. Thomas was limited by the problematic of his time. It viewed prophecy in the speculative, abstract, Greek tradition of truth. Viewed in the Semitic tradition, prophetic revelation and inspiration take on a broader meaning. Revelation in the Bible is a concrete, living manifestation of the personal God in the holiness of His being as creator and savior, truth and life. It does not require a direct "vision" or "hearing" of some spectacle or divine oracle, although this is often the case. It can take place through the varied manifestations of history in which God makes Himself visible to His people. From the psychological viewpoint of the prophet, revelation includes all the activity of speculative knowledge brought about by the supernatural light of the Holy Spirit. Its central and specific element is the supernatural judgment or knowledge attaining truth with a divine certitude, whether the truth be revelation in the strict or broad sense (see revelation, theology of).

Inspiration directs all the practical activities of the prophet as he is involved in communicating these revealed truths. This inspiration also enlightens his judgments: (1) Speculative-practical judgments that deal with the truths revealed to him; sometimes through inspired intellectual visions, further revelation in the broad sense results. Revelation and inspiration may thus intermingle.(2) Practical judgments that direct the concrete execution of the work in conformity with the end intended; the end of this inspiration might be to speak, to act, or to write the truths that are communicated.

Revelation and inspiration are not clearly distinct. All supernatural revelation requires a supernatural elevation of the mind, an inspiration. On the other hand, every inspiration or supernatural elevation of the mind enlightening judgment leads to some perception of revelation.

Prophecy and Private Revelations. Revelations are "private" not because they are addressed to a few (they may concern many), but because they do not belong to the deposit of faith (closed since the death of the last Apostle, Denz 3421). They are not prophetic assertions, but commands showing the Church how to act in a concrete historical situation. In approving them, the Church does not act infallibly but acknowledges such revelations as worthy of human faith. Since they lack the providential safeguards of public revelation, the prophet's subjective involvement sometimes misrepresents the grace-experience. Even saints and blessed have communicated historical and theological errors (see K. Rahner, Visions and Prophecies, 64–75). Hence, much uncertainty surrounds the content of their message and must be left to the personal judgment of each inquirer.

In particular, genuine supernatural prophecies of the future must be distinguished from (1) magical, (2) parapsychological, (3) national, and (4) fabricated prophecies that do not involve revelation. Supernatural prophecies tell one nothing essentially new beyond the perspective of Scripture, but manifest God as Lord of history. Usually they announce a call to penance, prayer, trust. Their authenticity depends somewhat on the prophet's personal piety, integrity, and mental and bodily health. The only absolute proof is a miracle confirming the prophecy itself (see revelations, private).

Prophecy in the Community and in the Hierarchy. As was noted above, the NT charism of prophecy is shared by all God's people, laity and hierarchy. The broader community of baptized non-Catholics and even non-Christians oriented to God also share in it to some extent. Regarding the individual prophet, his inspiration and revelation (private or public, as the case may be) have a community or ecclesial context. One cannot say how much their prophesying has been influenced by a more general revelation and inspiration in the community, but prophets enjoy their charism to a greater or lesser degree as spokesmen representing a common understanding, attitude, or need of God's people (see P. Grelot).

The role of the hierarchy is to safeguard and preserve the faith and to discern the prophetic Spirit. While the hierarchy has this gift of discernment, it must not extinguish the Spirit. It is a duty, not a condescension, for the hierarchy to heed the suggestions of God's people as long as they are not contrary to the Spirit. The Church is both charismatic and institutional (Eph 2.20); exaggeration of either aspect distorts the nature of the Church. Under-standing is necessary for the prophetic Spirit to manifest itself harmoniously in both the hierarchy and the community (1 Cor 14.33).

See Also: freedom, intellectual; freedom of speech (in church teaching); miracles (theology of); symbol in revelation.

Bibliography: Prophecy in Tradition. h. u. von balthasar, Besondere Gnadengaben und die zwei Wege menschlichen Lebens (Die Deutsche Thomas-Ausgabe 23; Heidelberg 1954). e. fascher, ΠΡΟΦΗΤΗΣ Eine sprach-und religionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung (Giessen 1927). r. a. knox, Enthusiasm (New York 1950; repr. 1961). j. lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia 1962). n. fuglister, "Prophet," h. fries, ed., Handbuch theologischer Grundbegriffe (Munich 1962–63) 2:350—372. Prophecy and Apologetics. a. michel, Mystery and Prophecy, tr. c. j. moell (West Baden Springs, Ind. 1954). b. vawter, "Messianic Prophecies in Apologetics," Catholic Theological Society of America, Proceedings 14 (New York 1960) 97–119. r. murphy, "Notes on OT Messianism and Apologetics," The Catholic Biblical Quarterly 19 (Washington 1957) 5–15. Contemporary Theologizing. p. synave and p. benoit, Prophecy and Inspiration, tr. a. dulles and t. l. sheridan (New York 1961). p. benoit, "Révélation et inspiration," Revue biblique 70 (Paris 1963) 321–370. p. grelot, "L'Inspiration scripturaire," Recherches de science religieuse 51 (1963) 337–382. k. rahner, Visions and Prophecies, tr. c. henkey and r. strachan (Quaestiones Disputatae 10; New York 1963); The Dynamic Element in the Church, tr. w. j. o'hara (ibid. 12; 1964). l. volken, Visions, Revelations, and the Church, tr. e. gallagher (New York 1963). y. congar, Lay People in the Church, tr. d. attwater (Westminster, Md. 1957). k. rahner, Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche ², ed. j. hofer and k. rahner, (2d new ed. Freiburg 1957–65) 8:800–805. a. jepsen, Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (3d ed. Tübingen 1957–65) 5: 627–638. a. michel, Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, ed. a. vacant et al. (Paris 1903–50; Tables générales 1951–) 13:708–737.

[r. x. redmond]