South Korea

POPULATION 48,324,000
CHRISTIAN 24.2 percent
BUDDHIST 23.3 percent
CONFUCIANIST 1.0 percent
SHAMANIST 1.0 percent
WONBULGYO 0.3 percent
CHEONDOGYO 0.2 percent
OTHER RELIGIONS (INCLUDING DAEJONGGYO, TAOIST, EASTERN ORTHODOX CHRISTIAN, MUSLIM, JEHOVAH'S WITNESS, MORMON, JEONDOGWAN, UNIFICATION CHURCH, SOKA GAKKAI, AND TENRIKYO) 3.0 percent
NONRELIGIOUS 47.0 percent

Country Overview

INTRODUCTION

South Korea occupies the southern half of the Korean Peninsula, which juts out of north-eastern China. It is surrounded by the Yellow Sea to the west and the Sea of Japan to the east. Lying just east and southeast, respectively, are the Japanese islands of Honshu and Kyushu.

Following World War II the Korean Peninsula was divided along the 38th parallel into an initially Soviet-occupied northern zone and U.S.-occupied southern zone. In 1948 two ideologically opposed governments were formed: the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea).

South Korea is among the most religiously diverse countries in East Asia, although roughly half of the population claims to be nonreligious. Despite the introduction of foreign religions, such as Buddhism and Christianity, older practices of animism, geomancy, and shamanism have survived with a remarkable resilience.

Buddhist governments dominated Korea from the 370s to the 1390s. At the end of the fourteenth century the last such government was overthrown by the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), which declared Confucianism to be the official state creed for the next five centuries. Confucianist power, however, neither eliminated Buddhism nor successfully prevented Roman Catholicism from entering Korea in the eighteenth century, with Protestantism following a century later.

South Korea's four principal religions are Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism, and shamanism. The total number of Christians and Buddhists together—47.5 percent of the population—is slightly higher than the number of nonreligious. Of the Christian population, about three-quarters are Protestant and the rest are Roman Catholic. There are 18 different Buddhist sects. Smaller religious groups include Wonbulgyo, Cheondogyo, Daejonggyo, and Tongilgyo (Unification Church), as well as Islam, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormonism, Tenrikyo, and Soka Gakkai. New religions have drawn largely on traditional and Christian elements, resulting in diverse views. Multiple denominational affiliations are not uncommon among all groups.

RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE

South Korea has guaranteed religious freedom since 1898. But while religious discrimination has been largely minor throughout the twentieth century, shamanism has historically been associated with the lowest social classes; the remnants of such stigmatization are still visible today. There were an estimated 300 new religions in South Korea during the 1980s, though many were minor and temporary phenomena.

Major Religions

CHRISTIANITY

BUDDHISM

CHRISTIANITY

DATE OF ORIGIN Late Seventeenth century c.e.
NUMBER OF FOLLOWERS 11.7 million

HISTORY

Korea's earliest contact with Christianity occurred during the Japanese invasion of 1592, when Catholic Japanese soldiers "converted" Korean captives. Of more lasting significance, the Jesuit writings of Matteo Ricci reached Korea via China during the seventeenth century. The first Catholic missionary arrived in 1794, with Protestant missionaries following in the 1880s. Ricci's theological writings, heavily informed by physics and mathematics, were of particular interest to the scholarly circle Silhak (Practical Learning). Silhak consisted of yangban (aristocratic) reformers who pressed for sociocultural change, technological development, and openness to the outside world. Joseon dynasty authorities tried to halt the new religion's progress by arguing that Christianity was intolerant of other religions and that it eschewed ancestor devotion, which was highly regarded by Confucianism.

After 1885 both Roman Catholicism and Protestantism engaged in considerable missionary activity. After the initial establishment of both churches was completed about 1910, Korean Christianity began serving congregations according to the specific needs of their region and social circumstances. While Protestants achieved greater prominence in the early twentieth century by establishing numerous educational and medical institutions, the Catholic Church in the ensuing years was able to gain converts by providing the populace with similar services.

During the Japanese occupation (1910–45) the Roman Catholic Church largely pursued a policy of nonconfrontation; however, after the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, foreign Catholic authorities were expelled and replaced by Koreans chosen by the Japanese. During the Korean War (1950–53) Protestant churches were instrumental in providing relief aid and establishing international child-adoption programs. Leaders of both denominations spoke out against South Korea's military regimes in the 1960s–80s.

EARLY AND MODERN LEADERS

Yi Seung-Hun, a Joseon diplomat in Beijing, returned home a baptized Catholic in 1784. His teachings formed the basis of the early Catholic movement. Protestant missionary work gained momentum in the late 1880s through the efforts of American Presbyterian and Methodist missionaries, such as Horace Allen, Henry Appenzeller, and Horace Underwood. In 1896 Protestant reformers Yun Chi-Ho (1865–1945) and So Chae-Pil (1866–1951) founded The Independent, Korea's first Christian newspaper, advocating a modern society based on Christian principles.

Christians formed the core of the independence movement (1896–1945), with Lee Seung-Hoon, Ahn Chang-Ho, Dr. Philip Jaisohn, and Yun Chi-Ho the most prominent leaders. South Korea's dictatorship era (1960s–80s) also gave rise to opposition leaders within the various churches, most notably Presbyterians Pak Hyong-Gyu and Mun Ik-Whan and Catholics Bishop Chi Hak-Sun and Cardinal Stephen Kim. Syngman Rhee, a Methodist with an American education, became the first president of the Republic of Korea.

MAJOR THEOLOGIANS AND AUTHORS

In the early 1880s Anglican missionary John Ross and Methodist Henry Loomis oversaw the Hangeul (Korean) translation of the New Testament, a task carried out by Lee Ung-Chang, Baik Hong-Joon, Kim Jin-Ki, Lee Sung-Ha, and Lee Soo-Chung. The use of Hangeul was crucial for the survival of Christianity in southern Korea. From about the 1890s through the 1930s, Revs. Horace Underwood and Henry Appenzeller introduced translations of American faith books and founded several Protestant magazines that were distributed through the Jesus Tract Society.

During the 1930s Protestant editors, such as Chun Young-Taik, launched the native magazines New Life, Real Life, Living Well, and others. Among the first native Presbyterian ministers, Kil Sun-Ju deserves mention for his inspiring sermons. Kil's theological writings include commentaries on Romans, cross-religious comparisons, and meditations. Native Korean theologies have emerged since the height of the 1980s antiregime movement, with the Minjung theology among the most influential.

HOUSES OF WORSHIP AND HOLY PLACES

Central Seoul's Gothic-style Myeongdong Cathedral, erected during the 1890s, is the oldest and one of the largest Roman Catholic structures in East Asia. It has played an important role in national independence movements, providing refuge for political dissidents and hosting union rallies and demonstrations during the final battles against military regimes in the 1980s. Among the largest churches in the world, the Full Gospel Church on Yoido Island (Seoul) claims a membership exceeding 700,000.

The common practice of kidowon (to go pray) represents an interesting blend of Buddhist and Christian culture. While there are no specific holy places of Christian devotion other than churches, kidowon is a function in which a person or group may hike into nature in search of places that may lend power to their prayers, fasts, or study of the scriptures. Some churches may have special kidowon prayer halls located in a beautiful natural surrounding, or individual members may see a special place in nature as their personal variety of kidowon.

WHAT IS SACRED?

Besides such universal Christian symbols as the cross, the Bible, and the rosary, some unique Korean elements deserve mention. South Korean Christians often carry their Bibles everywhere: to weekly Bible circles, to Sunday worship, and on public transportation. A used, worn Bible can reflect the divine value a person has attached to it. South Korean devotion to Christianity is also reflected in the countless illuminated Christian crosses on churches or housetops in villages, towns, and cities. Great significance is also attached to liturgical or service music.

HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

The most significant Christian holidays in South Korea are Easter, Pentecost, Christmas, and the traditional Lunar New Year. The latter, called seollal, is observed on 1 January with a midnight candle prayer intended to express hope for the new year. Depending on each congregation's culture, various festive days may be reserved for picnics, outings, sports and games days, prayer hikes, and discipleship training.

MODE OF DRESS

Christianization has been an important catalyst of modernization in South Korea. Donning Western suits became a symbol of progress and modernity following the decline of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910). Western missionaries encouraged the outward change of clothes as proof of inward renewal and a break with the superstitions of the past. Some Presbyterian women wear a white traditional Korean dress (hanbok) during Pentecost.

DIETARY PRACTICES

Christian dietary practices in South Korea do not deviate significantly from the culinary norm. Because tteok (special rice cakes) are some-times shared as offerings during Confucian ancestor worship, Christians may consume tteok only when it has been prepared separately from that used in the Confucian rituals. Food taboos for Christians may extend to foods that come from Buddhist temples and shamanistic rituals.

RITUALS

South Korean Christians commonly say grace before eating in restaurants, in dining halls, or even on trains. On Seoul's many university campuses students often lean onto each other in spontaneous prayer. House prayer meetings are also common; many Christians will undertake long commutes to take part in a prestigious home prayer group.

There is a taboo among Christians concerning the practice of bowing to shrines or ancestors. Christians may remedy tense family situations, however, by praying for their deceased, a practice seeming to represent a compromise between Confucian reverence and Christian proscription of idolatry.

RITES OF PASSAGE

Korean forms of Christian rites of passage include all or parts of the following for laity: Holy Communion, confession, baptism and anabaptism, marriage and funeral rites, and the Eucharist or Lord's Supper. For clergy the following rites remain important: candidacy, affirmation, and ordination. Wedding and funeral ceremonies are conducted with both traditional and modern elements. Many Christians still embrace important traditional Korean rites of passage, such as tteol (first birthday) and hwangap (60th birthday) celebrations.

MEMBERSHIP

Membership in Protestant denominations has risen enormously in South Korea since the Korean War (1950–53). There are many Anglo- and Korean-American missionaries in South Korea, in addition to many native Korean proselytizers. Based on the long, thriving presence of American missionaries in the country, Protestantism is almost synonymous with "American religion." Catholics are less fervent about seeking converts.

An extensive global network of Korean missions has evolved to attend to the needs of Korean diaspora communities worldwide. While many missionaries serve within South Korea, increasing numbers of South Korean missionaries from various denominations currently serve in other parts of the globe, including eastern Europe and Africa.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

South Korean Christians see a strong link between the Gospel and reforms in education, economics, and health care. Today liberal-minded Protestants are active in such causes as advocating women's rights, protesting against abortion of female babies, eliminating prejudice toward the physically and mentally challenged, combating discrimination against orphans and children from non-Korean backgrounds, and overcoming the clannish tradition of extending kindness only to family and friends. Christian-sponsored organizations have played an important role in reorganizing an agrarian society into an urban society and in easing industrialization pains by supporting union movements.

The situation for South Korean women benefited most significantly from the introduction of Christianity. Organizations such as the Women's Friendship Meeting, the Korean YWCA, and the Women's Christian Moderation Meeting became instrumental in the crusade against such nineteenth-century plights as concubinage and female confinement in the inner rooms of family residences (anbang). These Protestant women's groups, the members of which were called "progressive foxes" by the conservative establishment, battled strong resistance from Confucian-based favoritism toward males. Especially challenging was the task of convincing parents of the value of girl's education. This challenge proved easier with lower-class families than with Confucianist aristocratic yangban families. Along with Korean's "will to greatness" (as explained by Carter J. Eckert), Christianity offered what the country long had been ready to take on—namely, more humanity, more social mobility, more equality, more democracy, and more education. Institutions of higher education established by Christian churches include the Protestant universities of Yonsei and Ehwa and their Catholic counterparts at Sogang and Hyosung.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

South Korean Christian's views of marriage and family largely receive definition from both Christianity and Confucianism. Despite women's liberation emanating from Christianity, Confucian values of family continuity in harmony, male authority, and filial piety remain strong even in the modern nuclear family. Although divorce is frowned upon considerably, divorce rates are on the rise.

POLITICAL IMPACT

The sociocultural progress that entered Korea with Christianity's arrival also fueled the political fervor that drove the independence movement. Many Christians in contemporary South Korea, such as long-time opposition leader and president Kim Dae-Jung (served 1998–2003), a Catholic, have been outspoken advocates of human rights and critics of oppressive government. Many leaders maintain memberships in Protestant churches, and the rate of Catholics and Protestants in the parliament is high.

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES

A recent controversy has revolved around the defacing of traditional religious and national symbols—such as images of Korea's mythical founder, Dangun—which have been interpreted by some Christian leaders as idolatrous. Such incidents have caused a reorientation toward Eastern religions by many Koreans wary of Christian agitation. Another increasingly pressing issue is the tension between Christians and Buddhists. During the second half of the 1990s, there were more than 20 arson assaults on Buddhist temples, for which Protestant extremist groups claimed responsibility. Despite public apologies by liberal Protestant leaders, the attacks persisted.

Because of a broad traditional acceptance, abortion of female children is not addressed comprehensively enough even by Christian churches. This practice is still widely upheld by the older, and especially male, sector of society.

CULTURAL IMPACT

Christianity, as part of a broader Western influence, has throughout the twentieth century led South Korea to new approaches in faith, ethics, and education, as well as in music, literature, and art. Even so, South Koreans have put a distinct Korean spin on their work, appropriating Western ideas and forms and placing them into indigenous contexts. Minjung art, for example, a form of political art that emerged out of South Korea's movement for democracy, combined Western-based values and ideas with Korean images and political concerns.

BUDDHISM

DATE OF ORIGIN 372 c.e.
NUMBER OF FOLLOWERS 11.3 million

HISTORY

The Chinese monk Shuntao introduced Mahayana Buddhism to the kingdom of Goguryeo in 372 c.e. Buddhist teachers introduced Koreans to Chinese methods of agriculture, architecture, lunar calendrics, and writing, while the Korean aristocracy appropriated the Buddhist Avatamsaka (hwaeom, meaning all things and people have their fixed place within the harmony of the universe) doctrine to support their autocratic rule. Mahayana (accepting diverse kinds of people with varying beliefs) ritual practice was acknowledged to be superior, though not contradictory, to that of shamanism, and its spiritual success beckoned leaders to maintain it as a reliable nation-protection religion.

Buddhism became a state-sponsored faith during the Unified Silla (668–935) and Goryeo (935–1392) periods. Monasteries received huge landholdings, on which they were expected to build temples and pagodas. The world's most extensive scriptures, hewn into wood-blocks, were crafted. Only one, the Tripitaka Koreana (from the thirteenth century), survived.

The assets used to enrich Buddhist culture exhausted the country's economy and ultimately led to the state's demise toward the end of the Goryeo period. With the establishment of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), Buddhism lost its central role in Korean society and was relegated to remote monastic estates, on which taxes were now levied. During the twelfth century the contemplative Seon Buddhism (Zen in Japan) began to spread, deemphasizing textual study (Kyo) and encouraging meditation as the true means of attaining "worldlessness." Following the Hideyoshi invasions (1592–1604), Buddhism improved its standing among the Joseon because 5,000 monks had joined the fight against the invaders.

At the end of the Joseon dynasty, Japanese colonists used the distinctively Eastern aspects of Buddhism to counter Christianity's increasing influence. This period's legacy is the Taego order. Unwilling to be seen in accord with Japan, however, many Buddhists kept a low profile until liberation (1945). After the Korean War (1950–53) Buddhist monks gradually reclaimed their presence in the cities by instituting socioreligious centers. Since then Buddhism has grown considerably by adapting creatively to modern needs, allowing it to compete with Christianity for members.

EARLY AND MODERN LEADERS

Ilyeon (1206–89) was among the first monks to write national history from a Buddhist perspective. He recorded native Goryeo poetry, documented the nation's early years, and provided the earliest written account of Dangun, Korea's mythical founder. Other notable monks included Weonhyo (617–86) and Jinul (1158–1210). Jinul added a disciplinary ethos to Buddhism that resonated with military and Confucian rulers, clearing the path for Seon (Zen) masters Sosan (1520–1604) and SaMyeong (1544–1610), who lent monk troops to the Joseon defense against Hideyoshi. Noteworthy twentieth-century Buddhists include Han Yong-Un, a fierce challenger of celibacy and one of only two Buddhist signers of the 1 March 1919 independence declaration, and Ko Un, a writer-activist who protested the military dictatorships of the 1970s–80s.

MAJOR THEOLOGIANS AND AUTHORS

Weonhyo (617–86) exerted a powerful influence on early Korean Buddhism. His ideas about a unified "Pure Land," while invoking expectations of a paradise, formed a this-worldly viewpoint that appealed to converts. Uicheon (1055–1101) and Jinul (1158–1210), both syncretists, worked to unify the two major branches of Kyo and Seon (Zen).

During the 1970s–80s progressive monks founded Minjung Buddhism, allying themselves with the masses in the struggle against dictatorship. They justified their prodemocratic activism against conservative fellow clergy by claiming that the bodhisattva tradition called for resistance against tyranny.

HOUSES OF WORSHIP AND HOLY PLACES

Sanshin, a mountain god of shamanistic origin, is unique to Korean Buddhism. A shrine in his honor can be found on a mountain above most major temples. It usually features a white-bearded old man, a tiger, and a pine tree (symbolizing spirituality, strength, and longevity, respectively). Among the most spectacular of South Korea's temples or holy sites are the Bulguk temple, Seokguram grotto, Pongdeok bell, and Haein temple (housing the Tripitaka Koreana, the world's oldest, most complete Buddhist scripture). Today these temples and shrines serve as residences for nuns and monks, places of prayer, destinations for pilgrimages, and tourist attractions. Private sites of Buddhist worship also exist, in the form of apartments, houses, rooftops, backyards, and business shrines.

WHAT IS SACRED?

The three sacred foundations of South Korean Buddhism are the Buddha himself, an extensive body of sutras (scriptures), and a clergy of right-living and -thinking. In practice this translates into meditation, a study of the sutras, and a search for inspiration. Kwaneum (goddess of mercy), Korea's most popular bodhisattva (enlightened being), is unique only to that country.

HOLIDAYS AND FESTIVALS

In 1975 the South Korean government declared Buddha's birthday a national holiday. The elaborate festivities on this (lunar) day in April include Bathing the Buddha ceremonies, followed by congratulatory speeches, lectures, displays of paper lanterns, the issuing of merit certificates for sponsors, purification and prayer sessions, and concerts. Buddhists might conclude this day with an extensive family feast honoring the Buddha. After dark many Buddhists visit the thousands of lighted lotus lanterns around a monastery. Buddha's birthday is also an important day for offering alms.

MODE OF DRESS

Both nuns and monks are easily spotted in city crowds in their long gray robes, pointed straw hats, and emblematic knapsacks. Around the wrist they typically wear a Buddhist rosary, which may have either 18 beads, symbolizing the Buddha's original 18 disciples, or 108 beads, representing humankind's 108 delusions.

Religious dress code is almost exclusively restricted to the ordained. Inside a monastery different dress codes distinguish different levels of ordination. For example, a probationary candidate (haengja) is given a used robe, which he wears during the months of his postulancy. During this time he must not wear any formal robe (changsam) or any festively dyed cloak (kasa). Upon ordination a haengja is given a regular robe, a pair of baggy gray pants with leggings, and the traditional outer jacket. He is now addressed as an ordained novice (sami). For travel, or in the cold season, monks wear a thick cotton coat. A fully ordained monk wears a large, dark brown kasa. Summer clothing may consist of a light polyester changsam. A monk who has disrobed (renounced his commitment) surrenders his formal robes to the monastery and returns to secular life. Various full festive regalia are required for ritual specialists, public speakers, and performers during major celebrations.

DIETARY PRACTICES

South Korean Buddhists usually adhere to the strict Mahayana dietary requirements of vegetarianism (no meat, eggs, fish, or dairy products). By maintaining these rules, Korean monasteries have become a protector of culinary traditions in rural areas, although the traditional peasant diet allows for meat. Monastic food taboos include alcohol and even garlic and onions, as they are seen as aphrodisiacs.

RITUALS

Buddhist ritual practice flourished during the Goryeo dynasty (935–1392). Most rituals were intended to protect the nation from evil or solve serious problems. Others prepared the living and the dead for nirvana or pacified the spirits of the seas, skies, earth, and underworld. Chants and recitals were for purification, exorcism, offerings, and benedictions. Ritual activity declined sharply at the end of the Goryeo era and became largely deemphasized during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910).

Life for observing Buddhists is imbued with daily and annual rituals. Most are simple, such as the burning of incense to ward off evil. Some of the few salient rituals in Seon (Zen) practice are the regular commemoration rituals—on the first of each lunar month—for former monastic leaders.

Each shrine in a monastery receives a short, simple service. After cleaning the shrines and filling their water vessels, monks place rice offerings on the altar, recalling the Buddha's habit of eating one major daily meal. These rituals are important only for ceremonial specialists, while the majority of monks are primarily interested in honing their meditative skills or performing chores. Also important is Enlightenment Day (usually in early January), during which Buddha's complete, perfect self-realization experience is reenacted.

RITES OF PASSAGE

During the Bodhisattva Precepts Ceremony adult laity are confirmed or reconfirmed in their faith. They receive an ordination certificate, along with a touch to the forearm with a glowing incense stick. This symbolic endurance of pain signifies bodily detachment, while the certificate reminds worshipers to keep the 10 Buddhist precepts (e.g., not to kill, steal, or lie and to refrain from sex and alcohol).

In monasteries rites mark the stages of monkhood. Specific rites exist for young monks as they gain further acceptance into the order, with different robes marking each stage. According to Robert Buswell in The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in Contemporary Korea, most monks view ritual as a "minor part" of their lives and place greater emphasis on Seon (Zen) Buddhist practice—namely, the search for enlightenment.

MEMBERSHIP

Since the 1970s Buddhism has attempted to adapt to modernity, printing a vernacular "Buddhist Bible" and distributing updated versions of Buddhist chants, folk songs, and borrowed Christian hymnals with texts from Buddhist scriptures. In the cities monks have formed proselytizing centers, many sponsored by lay auxiliary associations. With a greater overall presence in society, Buddhist membership grew from 700,000 in 1962 to more than 11 million in 1991.

Lay Buddhist organizations today are shouldering major responsibilities in proselytizing. Buril Hoe (Buddha Sun Society), for example, sponsors many socioreligious functions, including services, lectures, ceremonies, music sessions, vegetarian feasts, and site pilgrimages. Especially important has been the society's efforts to allow laity to directly communicate with clergy, from the lowest to the highest ranks. This new relationship provides mutual awareness of needs and mutual benefits in the strengthening of Buddhism.

Based on a 1997 survey, most Buddhists claim to be at ease with their religion because it does not appear as demanding as Christianity, and worshipers freely admit their lack of absolute devotion to their faith. They donate sizable sums of money only twice a year (during major festivities), and about 55 percent of Buddhists never read the scriptures. Most followers are women, while church leadership is overwhelmingly recruited from a monastic male elite.

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Peacefulness, tolerance, loving compassion, and ecumenical spirit, all prominent in South Korean society today, can largely be credited to the enduring presence of Buddhism. These virtues helped clear the path for contemporary religious tolerance and diversity in Korea. There has been a long-standing critique that meditation and detachment foster ignorance of modern ills in society. In today's South Korea, with its highly educated citizenry, social responsibility has become obligatory for any prominent religious organization. Following centuries of internal tensions, Seon (Zen) Buddhism has, since the late 1960s, developed a renewed image of social involvement. The difficult events of the 1950s–80s prompted Buddhist clerics to take a more active role in pushing for the country's democratization.

SOCIAL ASPECTS

Korean Buddhists see their faith largely as a higher protection mechanism that reaches where modern economic securities still cannot advance—namely, the well-being and happiness of the family. This includes educational and professional success, a peaceful earthly life from pregnancy to the funeral bier, and an assurance of heavenly life upon reaching the state of nirvana.

POLITICAL IMPACT

Aside from its influence on peace, the political impact of Buddhism is hard to measure, because it focuses so intently on the search for self-actualization. Only today, with so much emphasis on measurable success, has Buddhism expressed its values more prominently. In recent decades Buddhist political activism has helped guide the search for democracy, a modern Korean identity, and environmental protection. Patience and goodwill are needed when it comes to unification with North Korea, and Buddhism has been consistently vocal in its demands for the peaceful unification of the country. Korean Buddhism passed an important test during the 1980s when it supported the politically oriented Minjung Bulgyeo (Buddhism for the masses) by lending its social values and worldview to the cause of democratization.

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES

The age-old preference toward male children prevails in South Korean society. Only recently has the dark side of this practice—namely, abortion of female children—been confronted by religious organizations. From within Buddhism the Venerable Seongdeok, a nun from Unmun temple, and the Venerable Seok Myogak, a monk from Bulguk temple, have spearheaded the organization of self-help groups for young women who have been pressured to abort female fetuses. Venerable Seongdeok has also openly criticized the Jogye order for investing too much of its revenue in building maintenance instead of allocating funds to women's support groups.

Another recurring issue has been the question of whether a broader curriculum—one including Buddhist cultural history, comparative philosophy, and English—should be taught to young monks in training. Buddhist leaders such as Cheong Pyeong-Jo, a professor at Dongguk University, South Korea's leading Buddhist institution of higher education, have supported the modernization of monastic education.

Perhaps the most controversial issue for Buddhists has been the recent arson attacks (more than 20 during the second half of the 1990s) on Buddhist sites and verbal assaults on Buddhist believers. In hope of remedying deteriorating relations between Buddhists and Christians and preventing further violence, several Buddhist associations have organized dialogues between the two groups.

CULTURAL IMPACT

Outstanding examples of Buddhist architecture, sculpture, and painting draw large crowds to South Korean temples and museums, many of which are included on UNESCO's World Heritage List. Among them are the Haein temple near Daegu, featuring the Buddhist scriptures of the Tripitaka Koreana, along with its depository Janggyeon Panjeon (fifteenth century). The Seokguram grotto and Bulguk temple (both eighth century), near the city of Gyeongju, are also regarded by South Koreans as important cultural assets.

Buddhist sculpture claimed a central role in South Korean fine arts from the fourth century until the end of the Goryeo dynasty (935–1392). Buddhist thought also influenced the national literature through the popular hyangga style of poetry, reflecting the sublime poetic spirit of the Unified Silla period (668–935).

Other Religions

Ancient Eurasian migrants probably introduced early forms of shamanism to the Korean Peninsula. Its earliest influence can be traced to legends surrounding Korea's mythical founder, Dangun, dating back almost 5,000 years. South Korean shamanism worships three major spirits: the mountain spirit Sanshin (usually depicted as an old man with a tiger at his feet), Dokseong (a recluse), and Chilseong (the Big Dipper). It also acknowledges thousands of lesser spirits that reside in natural objects, such as rocks, trees, and streams. Shamanism, having no established temples or scriptures, sets up shrines in homes, backyards, and businesses. It is relatively free of orthodox structure and has a dualistic worldview in which body and soul are separate entities. This view allows for souls or spirits to enter a living body by way of a "physical possession."

Most Korean shamans (mudang) are women. A mudang acts as an intermediary between the living and the spiritual world. She is believed to be capable of averting bad luck, curing sickness, and assuring favorable passage from this world to the next. Mudang are also believed to resolve lingering conflicts between the living and the dead. While a few wealthy mudang may operate from a Seoul office suite, most work from their houses or apartments. Their regular healing services include focused listening followed by judicious suggestions for better or healthier living. The consultation usually concludes with a brief touching of a specifically selected stone, commonly called the Stone Grandmother.

Mudang will also perform elaborate kut ceremonies sponsored by families wishing to communicate with their deceased. In addition, these ceremonies may be used for opening new office buildings or christening ships. Kut rituals involve one or two fellow mudang, musicians, and assistants who prepare food, decorate the altar, and help the mudang change dresses. There are 12 stages of ritual performance, during each of which the mudang wears a different ceremonial dress. In recent decades public performances of kut have enjoyed increasing popularity. The emphasis is almost exclusively on entertainment.

Records from the Three Kingdoms period (c. 37 b.c.e.–668 c.e.) reveal the earliest influence of Confucian ideas. The Unified Silla government (668–935) sent delegations of scholars to Tang China to study Confucian institutions and to record their observations. For the Goryeo dynasty (935–1392) Buddhism served as an "otherworldly" state religion, while Confucianism formed the "this-worldly" philosophical foundation of its power. After the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) supplanted the Goryeo kingdom, almost everything related to Buddhist lavishness was eradicated, and the Joseon embraced Confucianism as the official state ideology. The Joseon developed a Confucian value system, reinforced by education, protocol, and civil administration. Monarchs encouraged the erection of stone-tablet monuments to historic figures who had lived according to Confucian precepts, and royal scholars published these brave people's stories as collected essays of prominent men (munjip).

After liberation from Japanese occupation in 1945, Confucianism as a religion began to become publicly invisible. However, it established itself as a strong moral-philosophical backbone for the entire nation. Confucianism's presence in South Korea today shines through most consistently in attitudes toward education, wher-ever new forms of Confucianism are emerging. Many modern-day South Koreans arrange for a Confucianstyle funeral of their deceased or perform regular annual ceremonies of ancestor worship. Families of high status maintain their own cemeteries where elders are worshiped.

Wonbulgyo, or Won Buddhism, was established in 1916 by Chungbin Pak (1891–1943), later called Sotaesan Taejongsa (Great Ancient Teacher). It combines traditional Buddhist teachings with a concern for social reform and environmental conservation. Sotaesan founded the Won order with the goal of ushering all humans from the state of suffering into earthly paradise. He held that humans had become slaves to materialism, which obstructed the attainment of enlightenment. Won Buddhism's objective is the truth of Irwon (one circle). Based on the tenet of Irwon, Won Buddhists offer respect to anybody they meet, any work they do, and any object they handle. Won Buddhists performed selfless relief work for war refugees following liberation (1945) and during and after the Korean War (1950–53). Today they have a quarter million members and envision one global religious community.

Cheondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way) is a blend of shamanistic, Confucian, Buddhist, Taoist, and Roman Catholic elements. Originally called the Donghak movement, it is regarded as Korea's first important syncretic religion. It was founded in 1860 by Choe Jeu (1824–64) in reaction to foreign Christian religions and encroaching modernity. Choe, a landed aristocrat, claimed that God (Haneullim) had told him to preach all-encompassing renewal to the world. His four basic teachings are as follows: (1) There is complete unity between humans and God; (2) the mind of a human being is a replica of God's mind; (3) service to fellow humans represents service to God; and (4) all human beings are equal, regardless of social status or class.

The Joseon government came to fear Choe and his ideal that humans are their own gods, and executed him as a heretic in 1864. By then, however, Choe had acquired a number of followers, who were already disseminating his ideas in written form. Donghak spread among Korea's poor and eventually caused the largest peasant insurrection in Korean history, the Donghak uprisings of 1894, which led to the Sino-Japanese War in 1895. In the 1970s–80s the Donghak movement received renewed interest among members of the influential Minjung movement.

Daejonggyo (Great Religion of Dangun), founded by Na Cheol and Oh Hyeok in 1909, revolved around Korea's legendary founder, Dangun. By realigning Koreans with Dangun, Daejonggyo encouraged the purification and unity of the national spirit. Na Cheol saw the belief in Dangun and his line of descendants as the only way to save the nation from Japanese hegemony. Daejonggyo became a major resource for recruits and funds for the anti-Japanese struggle. Na Cheol retired as a high priest of the religion in 1916 and committed ritual suicide, becoming a martyr of both Daejonggyo and the independence movement. Today Daejonggyo claims about a quarter million followers in South Korea. It has its own temples, shrines, and schools and publishes the sacred writings of the Dangun Bible.

Jeondogwan (the Evangelical Church) was founded by Pak Tae-Seon, who was expelled from the Presbyterian Church in the 1950s for heresy. By 1972 his following numbered as high as 700,000, many of whom lived in Jeondogwan communes.

The Holy Spirit Association for the Unification of the World Christianity, or Unification Church (Tongilgyo), was founded by Moon Son-Myong in 1954 with the goal of Korean and, ultimately, global unification. During the 1970s the Unification Church had several hundred thousand members worldwide. Moon claimed that God had appointed him as a messiah to unify all people into one family, governed by himself.

Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society), or Jangga Hakhoe in Korean, a popular religious organization in low-income areas of major cities, originated as a radical society of followers of the thirteenth-century Japanese monk Nichiren Shoshu. It comprises Buddhist, Shinto, and Christian elements distilled into a simple doctrine of optimism, faith healing, and strong leadership, with the ultimate goal of world leadership. The lore of Nichiren Shoshu spread in Korea in the early 1960s. By 1969 Soka Gakkai's membership had expanded to 30,000 households. Although the government initially banned the religion, in 1965 the group won a lawsuit under the country's religious freedom laws.

Today the group has many international chapters, organized into Soka Gakkai International, with about 80,000 members in South Korea. The faithful are expected to chant daily, donate money, and recruit new members. Soka Gakkai is involved in multiple businesses and finance corporations. Former members created the worldwide Soka Gakkai Victims Association, which in 1995 counted about 10,000 members.

Tenrikyo, a new religion from Japan, is fast growing in Korea and around the world. Some research indicates that in South Korea there are between 500,000 and 600,000 members, who congregate in about 150 groups. Their faith is based on Jiba, the source of all blessings, which includes the search for world harmony, balance of body and mind, altruism, self-correction, and, mainly, a joyous life. Tenrikyo emphasizes proselytizing so others may find access to the joyous life.

Michael C. Reinschmidt

See Also Vol. 1: Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, Mahayana Buddhism, Reformed Christianity

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