THEOPHILUS, BYZANTINE EMPEROR

Reigned 829–842; d. Constantinople, Jan. 20, 842. Theophilus succeeded his father Michael II, bringing an energetic approach to all aspects of administration. With the support of patriarch John the Grammarian, he reinstituted Iconoclasm, forbidding all painted images. Non-conforming clergy and monks he exiled and imprisoned. The brothers Theodore and Theophanes achieved renown as graptoi (the inscribed) due to the iconoclastic verses Theophilus branded on their foreheads. Iconoclasm remained state policy until Theophilus' death, when the empress Theodora restored the veneration of images.

Theophilus' foreign policy was dominated by warfare against the Arabs in Asia Minor, Sicily, and southern Italy. In Asia Minor Theophilus won early victories against the caliph Ma‘mun, and had some modest military success in 837, aided by generals Manuel and Theophobus. However, the caliph Mu‘tasim defeated Theophilus at Dazimon (July 22, 838), captured Ancyra, then sacked Amorium (August 12, 838). The loss of Amorium, Theophilus' paternal city, was a humiliating blow. Only in 841, after Theophilus recaptured Germanicia and Melitene, did Mu‘tasim sign a truce. Arab attacks on Sicily and southern Italy continued. Palermo was captured in 831 and Taranto was lost in 839. Theophilus' attempts to gain military aid from the Franks, and from the Spanish caliph, failed. Treaties signed in 840 and 841 between Frankish king Lothair and the Venetians guaranteed Venice's mainland security and confirmed all Venetian possessions. These treaties provided the basis for Venice's independence from Byzantium.

Theophilus strengthened the empire in several ways. He augmented the theme system by creating the new themes of Cherson, Paphlagonia, and Chaldia. He also added the three new kleisourai (military districts guarding mountain passes) of Charsianon, Cappadocia, and Seleukeia. Leo the Mathematician created a system of fire-signals across Asia Minor that conveyed to Constantinople messages about Arab incursions. For his Khazar allies, Theophilus also built the fortress of Sarkel on the lower Don River. He issued a new copper follis in large numbers. Indeed, sound fiscal policy provided him with the funds needed to launch a building program in Constantinople. The city's walls were refurbished and the palace adorned with new ceremonial halls that included the Triconch and Sigma. His throne he adorned with mechanized devices to impress visitors, including golden lions that roared. He built a new imperial palace in the Arab style at Bryas.

Theophilus gained a reputation as a colorful, charismatic personality, and as a lover of justice. The stories about him include that of his bride show, where he rejected the outspoken Kasia in favor of the modest Theodora, to whom he gave a golden apple. He received petitions from ordinary citizens against even the most powerful officials (he punished the empress' own brother Petronas for disobeying the law). So firm was his reputation as a lover of justice that in the 12th century satirical dialogue Timarion Theophilus is made a judge in hell. Modern scholarship views Theophilus' reign as an important part of the revival of the Byzantine state in the early ninth century.

Bibliography: w. treadgold, The Byzantine Revival, 780–842 (Stanford, CA 1988) 263–384; j. rosser, "Theophilos (829–842)," Byzantiaka 3 (1983) 37–56; j. b. bury, A History of the Eastern Roman Empire: From the Fall of Irene to the Accession of Basil I (A.D. 802–867) (London, 1912) 120–153.

[j. rosser]