ZIMBABWE

Republic of Zimbabwe

CAPITAL: Harare

FLAG: The flag has seven equal horizontal stripes of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green. At the hoist is a white triangle, which contains a representation in yellow of the bird of Zimbabwe superimposed on a red star.

ANTHEM: God Bless Africa.

MONETARY UNIT: The Zimbabwe dollar (z$) is a paper currency of 100 cents. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 cents and 1 dollar, and notes of 2, 5, 10, and 20 dollars. z$1 = us$0.00007 (or us$1 = z$15190.8) as of 2005. These are official exchange rates, non-official rates vary significantly

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is used.

HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Independence Day, 18 April; Workers' Day, 1 May; Africa Day, 25 May; Heroes' Days, 11–13 August; Christmas Day, 25 December; Boxing Day, 26 December. Movable holidays are Good Friday, Holy Saturday, Easter Monday, and Whitmonday.

TIME: 2 pm = noon GMT.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

A landlocked country of south central Africa, Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia) lies between the Zambezi River on then and the Limpopo River on the s. It has an area of 390,580 sq km (150,804 sq mi), with a length of 852 km (529 mi) wnw–ese and a width of 710 km (441 mi) nne–ssw. Comparatively, the area occupied by Zimbabwe is slightly larger than the state of Montana. Bounded on the n and e by Mozambique, on the s by the Republic of South Africa, on the sw by Botswana, and on the nw and n by Zambia, Zimbabwe has a total boundary length of 3,066 km (1,905 mi). Zimbabwe's capital city, Harare, is located in the northeast part of the country.

TOPOGRAPHY

Most of Zimbabwe is rolling plateau, with over 75% of it lying between 600 and 1,500 m (2,000–5,000 ft) above sea level, and almost all of it over 300 m (1,000 ft). The area of high plateau, known as the highveld, is some 650 km (400 mi) long by 80 km (50 mi) wide, and stretches northeast to southwest at 1,200–1,675 m (4,000–5,500 ft). This culminates in the northeast in the Inyanga mountains, reaching the country's highest point at Mt. Inyangani, 2,592 m (8,504 ft). On either side of the highveld is the middleveld, a plateau ranging from about 600–1,200 m (2,000–4,000 ft) in height. Below 610 m (2,000 ft) are areas making up the lowveld, wide and grassy plains in the basins of the Zambezi and the Limpopo.

The highveld is a central ridge forming the country's watershed, with streams flowing southeast to the Limpopo and Sabi rivers and northwest into the Zambezi. Only the largest of the many rivers have an all-year-round flow of water.

CLIMATE

Altitude and relief greatly affect both temperature and rainfall in Zimbabwe. The higher areas in the east and the highveld receive more rainfall and are cooler than the lower areas. Temperatures on the highveld vary from 12–13°c (54–55°f) in winter to 24°c (75°f) in summer. On the lowveld the temperatures are usually 6°c (11°f) higher, and summer temperatures in the Zambezi and Limpopo valleys average between 32–38°c (90–100°f). Rainfall decreases from east to west. The eastern mountains receive more than 100 cm (40 in) annually, while Harare has 81 cm (32 in) and Bulawayo 61 cm (24 in). The south and southwest receive little rainfall. Seasonal shortages of water are common.

The summer rainy season lasts from November to March. It is followed by a transitional season, during which both rainfall and temperatures decrease. The cool, dry season follows, lasting from mid-May to mid-August. Finally, there is the warm, dry season, which lasts until the onset of the rains.

FLORA AND FAUNA

The country is mostly savanna, although the moist and mountainous east supports tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees include teak and mahogany, knobthorn, msasa, and baobab. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are hibiscus, spider lily, leonotus, cassia, tree wisteria, and dombeya. There are over 4,400 species of plants throughout the country.

Mammals include elephant, lion, buffalo, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, gorilla, chimpanzee, baboon, okapi, giraffe, kudu, duiker, eland, sable, gemsbok, waterbuck, zebra, warthog, lynx, aardvark, porcupine, fox, badger, otter, hare, bat, shrew, and scaly anteater. There are at least 270 species of mammal in the country.

Snakes and lizards abound. The largest lizard, the water monitor, is found in many rivers, as are several species of crocodile. About 500 species of birds include the ant-thrush, barbet, beeeater, bishop bird, bulbul, bush-warbler, drongo, emerald cuckoo, grouse, gray lourie, and pheasant.

ENVIRONMENT

Among the most serious of Zimbabwe's environmental problems is erosion of its agricultural lands and deforestation. By 1992, deforestation was progressing at the rate of 70,000–100,000 ha per year, or about 1.5% of the nation's forestland. This same rate of deforestation was reported to the year 2000. The confinement of large segments of the population to relatively unproductive lands before independence put severe pressure on these lands, a substantial portion of which may have been irreversibly damaged.

Zimbabwe's air is polluted by vehicle and industrial emissions, while water pollution results from mining and the use of fertilizers. Zimbabwe's cities produce 0.5 million tons of solid waste per year. The nation has been estimated to have the highest DDT concentrations in the world in its agricultural produce.

According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), the number of threatened species included 8 types of mammals, 10 species of birds, 6 species of amphibians, 2 species of invertebrates, and 17 species of plants. Zimbabwe has about half of the world's population of black rhinoceroses, an endangered species. Rare or threatened species include the cape vulture, black-cheeked lovebird, and brown hyena. For protection, the government has adopted a policy of shooting poachers on sight.

POPULATION

The population of Zimbabwe in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 13,010,000, which placed it at number 68 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 40% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 98 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–2010 was expected to be 1.1%. The projected population for the year 2025 was 14,430,000. The population density was 33 per sq km (86 per sq mi).

The UN estimated that 34% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 1.48%. The capital city, Harare, had a population of 1,469,000 in that year. Other large cities and their estimated populations included Bulawayo, 676,000; Chitungwiza, 321,782; Gweru, 137,000; Kwekwe, 88,000; Kadoma, 67,750; and Masvingo, 60,000.

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on the population of Zimbabwe. The UN estimated that 33.9% of adults between the ages of 15–49 were living with HIV/AIDS in 2001. The AIDS epidemic causes higher death and infant mortality rates, and lowers life expectancy.

MIGRATION

By early 1987, about 110,000 whites were estimated to have remained in Zimbabwe, about half the number since independence in 1980. There were also about 25,000 Coloured (of mixed race) and 10,000 Asians. Some 1.5 million people who had left for neighboring states during the civil war returned after independence, putting considerable strain on the new nation. In addition, by the end of 1992, famine and civil war in Mozambique had driven an estimated 136,600 Mozambicans into Zimbabwe. Between 1992 and 1996, 241,000 Mozambican refugees repatriated from Zimbabwe. As of 1999, Zimbabwe was hosting some 1,200 refugees, the majority of whom were from Somalia, Ethiopia, and countries in the Great Lakes region.

In the early 1990s, there were about 25,000 Zimbabwe-born whites and 14,000 Zimbabwe-born blacks living in South Africa. As of 1999, there was still a small but steady flow of Zimbabweans into South Africa and Botswana in search of better paid employment.

In 2000 there were 656,000 migrants living in Zimbabwe, including refugees. By 2004, there were 6,884 refugees and no asylum seekers. In that same year over 7,000 Zimbabweans sought asylum in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States. The net migration rate in 2005 was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population. The government views the migration levels as satisfactory.

ETHNIC GROUPS

Africans make up 98% of the total population in Zimbabwe and are mainly related to the two major Bantu-speaking groups, the Shona (about 82% of the population) and the Ndebele (about 14%). Of the former group, the Korekore predominate in the north; the Zezuru are in the center around Harare; the Karanga are in the south; the Ndau and Manyika in the east; the Kalanga in the west; the Rozwi are spread throughout the country. The various clans of the Ndebele, more recent immigrants from the south, occupy the area around Bulawayo and Gwanda. Other groups account for 11% of the African populace and include the Tonga near Kariba Lake, and the Sotho, Venda, and Hlengwe along the southern border.

Whites make up 1% of the non-African population. Europeans are almost entirely either immigrants from the United Kingdom or South Africa or their descendants; those from South Africa include a substantial number of South African Dutch (Afrikaner) descent. There are small groups of Portuguese, Italians, and other Europeans. Asians and peoples of mixed ancestry make up the remaining 1%.

LANGUAGES

The Shona speak dialects of the same Bantu language, Shona. There are six major dialects: Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Manyika, Ndau, and Kalanga. The Ndebele speak modified versions of Ndebele (or Sindebele), which belongs to the Nguni group of southeast Bantu languages.

English, the official language, is spoken by most Europeans and by an increasing number of Africans.

RELIGIONS

Historically, Christianity, brought into the region by Portuguese traders and Jesuit priests in the late 1500s, has been the dominant religion of the nation. About 60–70% of the total population belong to various Christian denominations, with the largest being Roman Catholic (between 17–27% of the population). Certain regions of the country have traditional links to specific denominations, based on "areas of interest," which were created by missionaries from groups such as the Catholics, Methodists, Anglicans, Dutch Reformed, and the Salvation Army. As a result, individuals will often claim adherence to their local denomination.

There is a small Muslim community, estimated at less than 1% of the population. They are primarily immigrants from South Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa. There are also small numbers of Greek Orthodox, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, and atheists.

A good number of indigenous churches have developed from the mainstream Christian churches. The Zimbabwe Assembly of God, a branch of the Assemblies of God Church, adheres strictly to Christian tenets and opposes incorporation of traditional practices and beliefs. Other groups such as the Seven Apostles, provide a mixture of traditional religious practices with Christianity. An organization known as Fambidzano formed in the mid-1970s to serve as a support coalition of indigenous churches. One of the goals of the organization is to provide continuing theological and biblical education for church leaders.

Belief in and practice of traditional religions is thought to be quite widespread, as it is sometimes practiced in conjunction with other established belief systems. The belief in and respect for traditional healers resulted in the organization of the Zimbabwe National African Traditional Healers' Association (ZINATHA), which provides licensing and regulation of healers.

In response to widespread belief in and fear of witchcraft, the government has initiated the Witchcraft Suppression Act (WSA), which prohibits the practice of witchcraft, but also calls for prosecution of those falsely accusing others of the practice or engaging in witch hunts. The act has helped protect those, particularly women, who have been falsely accused of witchcraft. However, members of ZINATHA are seeking an amendment to the law that would redefine certain terms. The Act defines witchcraft as "the use of charms and any other means or devices adopted in the practice of sorcery." The proposed amendment would refocus the law to prohibit any practices that are intended to cause harm.

Though relations between religious groups are generally amicable, some tensions exist between Christians and practitioners of traditional religions. In particular, Christian churches oppose traditional practices that allow polygamy and refuse the use of modern medicine. Some tension exists between the government and indigenous religions which refuse to participate in public health and vaccination programs because of religious beliefs in healing through prayer alone. The Zimbabwe Council of Churches, the Heads of Denominations, and the Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe are ecumenical groups that promote interfaith dialogue and cooperation, while offering forums for discussion of social and political issues.

TRANSPORTATION

In 2004, the National Railways of Zimbabwe, a public corporation, operated 3,077 km (1,912 mi) of rail lines (all of it narrow gauge), of which 313 km (194 mi) were electrified. Rail links exist with Zambia, Mozambique, Botswana, and the Republic of South Africa. Electrification of the railroads was begun following independence. There were 18,338 km (11,395 mi) of road in 2002, of which 8,692 km (5,401 mi) were classified as paved. In 2003, there were 401,007 registered motor vehicles, including 347,007 passenger cars and 54,000 commercial vehicles.

The Mazoe and Zambezi rivers are used for transporting chrome ore from Harare to Mozambique. Important ports and harbors are at Binga and Kariba.

In 2004, there were an estimated 404 airports, but only 17 of which had paved runways as of 2005. Zimbabwe operates domestic, regional, and European flights. Harare and Bulawayo are the principal airports. In 1997, total scheduled traffic included 938 million passenger-km (583 million passenger-mi) and 153 million freight ton-km (95 million freight ton-mi) of flight. Zimbabwe's passenger airline is Air Zimbabwe, and its international cargo airline is Affretair. In 2003, about 201,000 passengers were carried on scheduled domestic and international airline flights.

HISTORY

Evidence of Stone Age cultures dating back 100,000 years has been found, and it is thought that the San people, now living mostly in the Kalahari Desert, are the descendants of Zimbabwe's original inhabitants. The remains of ironworking cultures that date back to ad 300 have been discovered. Little is known of the early iron-workers, but it is believed that they were farmers, herdsmen, and hunters who lived in small groups. They put pressure on the San by gradually taking over the land. With the arrival of the Bantu-speaking Shona from the north between the 10th and 11th centuries ad, the San were driven out or killed, and the early ironworkers were incorporated into the invading groups. The Shona gradually developed gold and ivory trade with the coast, and by the mid-15th century had established a strong empire, with its capital at the ancient city of Zimbabwe. This empire, known as Munhumutapa, split by the end of the century, the southern part becoming the Urozwi Empire, which flourished for two centuries.

By the time the British began arriving in the mid-19th century, the Shona people had long been subjected to slave raids. The once-powerful Urozwi Empire had been destroyed in the 1830s by the Ndebele, who, under Mzilikaze, had fled from the Zulus in South Africa. David Livingstone, a Scottish missionary and explorer, was chiefly responsible for opening the whole region to European penetration. His explorations in the 1850s focused public attention on Central Africa, and his reports on the slave trade stimulated missionary activity. In 1858, after visiting Mzilikaze, Robert Moffat, Livingstone's father-in-law, established Inyati Mission, the first permanent European settlement in what is now Zimbabwe.

To forestall Portuguese and Boer expansion, both the British government and Cecil Rhodes actively sought to acquire territory. Rhodes, whose fortune had been made through diamond mining in South Africa, became especially active in gaining mineral rights and in sending settlers into Matabeleland (the area occupied by the Ndebele people) and Mashonaland (the area occupied by the Shona people). In 1888, Lobengula, king of the Ndebele, accepted a treaty with Great Britain and granted to Charles Rudd, one of Rhodes's agents, exclusive mineral rights to the lands he controlled. Gold was already known to exist in Mashonaland, so, with the grant of rights, Rhodes was able to obtain a royal charter for his British South Africa Company (BSAC) in 1889. The BSAC sent a group of settlers with a force of European police into Mashonaland, where they founded the town of Salisbury (now Harare). Rhodes gained the right to dispose of land to settlers (a right he was already exercising de facto). With the defeat of the Ndebele and the Shona between 1893 and 1897, Europeans were guaranteed unimpeded settlement. The name Rhodesia was common usage by 1895.

Under BSAC administration, British settlement continued, but conflicts arose between the settlers and the company. In 1923, Southern Rhodesia was annexed to the crown; its African inhabitants thereby became British subjects, and the colony received its basic constitution. Ten years later, the BSAC ceded its mineral rights to the territory's government for £2 million.

After the onset of self-government, the major issue in Southern Rhodesia was the relationship between the European settlers and the African population. The British government, besides controlling the colony's foreign affairs, retained certain powers to safeguard the rights of Africans. In 1930, however, Southern Rhodesia adopted a land apportionment act that was accepted by the British government. Under this measure, about half the total land area, including all the mining and industrial regions and all the areas served by railroads or roads, was reserved for Europeans. Most of the rest was designated as Tribal Trust Land, native purchase land, or unassigned land. Later acts firmly entrenched the policy of dividing land on a racial basis.

In 1953, the Central African Federation was formed, consisting of the three British territories of Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia), Nyasaland (now Malawi), and Southern Rhodesia, with each territory retaining its original constitutional status. In 1962, in spite of the opposition of the federal prime minister, Sir Roy Welensky, Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia withdrew from the federation with British approval. The federation disbanded in 1963. Southern Rhodesia, although legally still a colony, sought an independent course under the name of Rhodesia.

Political agitation in Rhodesia increased after the United Kingdom's granting of independence to Malawi and Zambia. The white-settler government demanded formalization of independence, which it claimed had been in effect since 1923. The African nationalists also demanded independence, but under conditions of universal franchise and African majority rule. The British government refused to yield to settler demands without amendments to the colony's constitution, including a graduated extension of the franchise leading to eventual African rule. Negotiations repeatedly broke down, and on 5 November 1965, Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith declared a state of emergency. On 11 November, the Smith government issued a unilateral declaration of independence (since known as UDI). The British government viewed UDI as illegal and imposed limited economic sanctions, but these measures did not bring about the desired results. In December, the UN Security Council passed a resolution calling for selective mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia. Further attempts at a negotiated settlement ended in failure. In a referendum held on 20 June 1969, the Rhodesian electorate—92% white—approved the establishment of a republic.

The British governor-general, Sir Humphrey Gibbs, resigned on 24 June 1969. The Legislative Council passed the constitution bill in November, and Rhodesia declared itself a republic on 2 March 1970. The United Kingdom called the declaration illegal, and 11 countries closed their consulates in Rhodesia. The UN Security Council called on member states not to recognize any acts by the illegal regime and condemned Portugal and South Africa for maintaining relations with Rhodesia.

Problems in Rhodesia deepened after UDI, largely as a result of regional and international political pressure, African nationalist demands, and African guerrilla activities. Members of the African National Council (ANC), an African nationalist group, were increasingly subjected to persecution and arrest. Nevertheless, guerrilla activity continued. The principal African nationalist groups, besides the ANC, were the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU).

A meeting took place in Geneva in October 1976 between the British and Smith governments and four African nationalist groups. Prominent at the meeting were Joshua Nkomo, the leader of ZAPU; Robert Mugabe, leader of ZANU; Bishop Abel Muzorewa of the ANC; and the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, former leader of ZANU. Nkomo and Mugabe had previously formed an alliance, the Patriotic Front. The conference was unable to find the basis for a national settlement; but on 3 March 1978, the Smith regime signed an internal agreement with Muzorewa, Sithole, and other leaders, providing for qualified majority rule and universal suffrage. Although Bishop Muzorewa, whose party won a majority in the elections of April 1979, became the first black prime minister of the country (now renamed Zimbabwe-Rhodesia), the Patriotic Front continued fighting.

Meanwhile, the British government had begun new consultations on the conflict, and at the Commonwealth of Nations Conference in Lusaka, Zambia, in August 1979, committed itself to seeking a settlement. Negotiations that began at Lancaster House, in England, on 10 September resulted in an agreement, by 21 December, on a new, democratic constitution, democratic elections, and independence. On 10 December, the Zimbabwe-Rhodesian parliament had dissolved itself, and the country reverted to formal colonial status during the transition period before independence. That month, sanctions were lifted and a cease-fire declared. Following elections held in February, Robert Mugabe became the first prime minister and formed a coalition government that included Joshua Nkomo. The independent nation of Zimbabwe was proclaimed on 18 April 1980, and the new parliament opened on 14 May 1980.

Independence and Factionalism

Following independence, Zimbabwe initially made significant economic and social progress, but internal dissent became increasingly evident. The long-simmering rivalry erupted between Mugabe's dominant ZANU-Patriotic Front Party, which represented the majority Shona ethnic groups, and Nkomo's ZAPU, which had the support of the minority Ndebele. A major point of contention was Mugabe's intention to make Zimbabwe a oneparty state. Mugabe ousted Nkomo from the cabinet in February 1982 after the discovery of arms caches that were alleged to be part of a ZAPU-led coup attempt. On 8 March 1983, Nkomo went into exile, but returned to Parliament in August.

Meanwhile, internal security worsened, especially in Matabeleland, where Nkomo supporters resorted to terrorism. The government responded by jailing suspected dissidents, using emergency powers dating from the period of white rule, and by military campaigns against the terrorists. The government's Fifth Brigade, trained by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea and loyal to Mugabe, was accused of numerous atrocities against civilians in Matabeleland during 1983. By early 1984, it was reported that many residents in Matabeleland were starving as a result of the military's interruption of food supplies to the area.

Armed dissidents continued to operate in Matabeleland until 1987, and food supplies in the area continued to be inadequate. A round of particularly brutal killings—men, women, and children—occurred late in the year. The violence abated after the two largest political parties, ZANU and ZAPU, agreed to merge in December 1987.

A growing problem, however, was the political instability of Zimbabwe's neighbors to the south and east. In 1986, South African forces raided the premises of the South African black-liberation African National Congress in Harare, and 10,000 Zimbabwean troops were deployed in Mozambique, seeking to keep antigovernment forces in that country from severing Zimbabwe's rail, road, and oil-pipeline links with the port of Beira in Mozambique. Although Beira is the closest port to landlocked Zimbabwe, because of the guerrilla war in Mozambique about 85% of Zimbabwe's foreign trade was passing through South Africa instead.

Despite its reputed commitment to socialism, the Mugabe government was slow to dismantle the socioeconomic structures of the old Rhodesia. Until 1990, the government's hands were tied by the Lancaster House accords. Private property, most particularly large white-owned estates, could not be confiscated without fair market compensation. Nevertheless, economic progress was solid and Zimbabwe seemed to have come to terms with its settler minority. There was only modest resettlement of the landless (52,000 out of 162,000 landless families from 1980 to 1990) and when white farmers were bought out, black politicians often benefited. Some 4,000 white farmers owned more than one-third of the best land.

In March 1992, a controversial Land Acquisition Act was passed calling for the government to purchase half of the mostly white-owned commercial farming land at below-market prices, without the right of appeal, in order to redistribute land to black peasants. However, the government continued to move slowly and not until April 1993 was it announced that 70 farms, totaling 470,000 acres, would be purchased. Unease among whites grew, as did fear of unemployment, already at around 40%. Economic conditions also threatened to derail the Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP) designed by the IMF and the World Bank. ESAP pressed for a market-driven economy, reduction of the civil service, and an end to price controls and commodity subsidies.

Meanwhile, in the March 1990 elections, Mugabe was reelected with 78.3% of the vote. The Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) candidate, Tekere, received about 21.7% of the vote. For parliament, ZANU-PF got 117 seats; ZUM, 2 seats; and ZANU-Ndonga, 1 seat. There was a sharp drop in voter participation, and the election was marred by restrictions on opposition activity and open intimidation of opposition voters. At first, Mugabe insisted that the results were a mandate to establish a one-party state. In 1991, however, growing opposition abroad and domestically, even within ZANU-PF, forced him to postpone his plans. Sensing an erosion of political support, Mugabe restricted human and political rights, weakened the Bill of Rights, placed checks on the judiciary, and tampered with voters' rolls and opposition party financing. The government also suspended the investigation into the 1982–87 Matabeleland Crisis, a decision that prompted a November 1993 reprimand by the Organization of African Unity (OAU)'s Human Rights Commission.

As the economy sputtered, political opposition grew. In January 1992, Sithole returned from seven years of self-imposed exile in the United States. In July, Ian Smith chaired a meeting of Rhodesian-era parties seeking to form a coalition in opposition to Mugabe. Sithole and his ZANU-Ndonga Party, the United African National Congress, the largely white Conservative Alliance, and Edgar Tekere's ZUM were included. Students, church leaders, trade unionists, and the media began to speak out. In May 1992 a new pressure group, the Forum for Democratic Reform, was launched in preparation for the 1995 elections. Parliamentary and presidential elections in 1995 and 1996 though officially won by ZANU-PF, were discredited by opposition boycotts and low voter turnout. Then in 1997, a homegrown pro-democracy coalition was launched from the constituency for constitutional reform—the National Constitutional Assembly (NCA). The birth of the NCA dovetailed with the growing radicalization of the Zimbabwe Confederation of Trade Unions (ZCTU) and its transformation from a collective bargaining agent for organized urban industrial labor into a broad-based political opposition movement representing a wide spectrum of civil society, the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). The official launch of the MDC at Rufaro Stadium on 11 September 1999 was followed by the first Congress at which Morgan Tsvangirai was elected president, and Gibson Sibanda his deputy. NCA supporters embraced the MDC as a vehicle for implementing the new constitution should the government be amenable to it.

The MDC's first test came in February 2000 at a national referendum for constitutional changes strongly pro-regime. On 12–13 February, voters soundly rejected the proposals much to the chagrin of the ruling party. The results signaled that ZANU-PF was not invincible, and they catapulted Morgan Tsvangirai and the MDC into a leading position heading into the 24–25 June parliamentary elections. Again threatened, Mugabe cracked down on the opposition. In the run-up to and aftermath of the elections, 34 people were killed, including Tsvangirai's driver and a poll worker who were killed in a gasoline-bomb attack. Officially, but without the sanction of international observers, ZANU-PF claimed 62 of 120 elective seats in the House of Assembly, with the MDC taking 57 seats with a turnout of 60% of eligible voters.

The credibility the regime was further damaged in the 9–11 March 2002 presidential polls, the conduct of which was declared fraudulent by the opposition and—with the exception of the African Union (AU) and Southern African Development Community (SADC)—by the international community. Officially, Mugabe garnered 53.8% of the vote to 40.2% for Tsvangirai while others claimed 6.0%. The government prevented as many voters as possible in urban districts favorable to the MDC from registering, reduced the number of urban polling stations by 50% over the 2000 elections, added 664 rural polling stations, conducted a state media barrage, and intimidated the opposition. By some reports, 31 people were killed in January and February and 366 tortured. The opposition mounted a legal challenge to the results while the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe for one year.

By 2003, the country faced multiple crises. Owing to negative impacts of land grabbing, squatting, and repossessions of large white farms under the government's fast-track land reform program, some 400,000 jobs had been lost in commercial agriculture. Combined with a 90% loss in productivity in large-scale farming since the 1990s, some 5.5 million people in a population of 11.6 million were in need of food aid. Inflation had reached 228% and a fuel crisis threatened the nation. Strikes crippled production, prompting ever more severe repression by the government. More than 30% of the adult population was infected with the AIDS virus.

Given the devastating social impact of these issues, internal and diplomatic pressures were mounting for Mugabe to abandon his survival strategy in favor of a quick and clean exit strategy. One such move afoot was to offer the MDC a form of transitional government in exchange for cooperation in amending the constitution to allow a managed presidential succession and immunity from prosecution for the president and his followers in their retirement. However, there was a reluctance on the part of Tsvangirai's supporters to offer amnesty to a regime that had committed in excess of 550,000 cases of human rights violations ranging from murder, abduction, and rape to arson.

Tsvangirai was arrested and charged with treason in June 2003; he already had an outstanding treason charge from 2002 for attempting to assassinate Mugabe. In October 2004, Tsvangirai was acquitted of the 2002 treason charge. In August 2005, prosecutors dropped the remaining treason charges against Tsvangirai.

In a parliamentary election held in March 2005, the ZANUPF party won two-thirds of the vote. The opposition claimed the election was rigged, but the MDC won almost all urban seats in the second election in a row. From May to July of that year, tens of thousands of shanty dwellings and illegal street stalls were destroyed as part of a government clean-up program ("Operation Murambatsvina"—"Drive Out Rubbish"). In some cases the police forced people to knock down their own homes. In other cases, trucks and bulldozers moved in. The United Nations estimated the program left approximately 700,000 people homeless. The government's policy of moving city dwellers to rural areas only worsened the already dire consequences of food shortages. The main opposition to Mugabe's rule came from urban areas.

GOVERNMENT

Under the constitution of 18 April 1980, independent Zimbabwe had a bicameral parliament consisting of a house of assembly with 100 members, 20 of whom were elected by white voters, and 80 by persons on the common voters' roll, which included all voters except whites. The upper house, or senate, had 40 members, 14 of whom were chosen by the 80 assembly members elected from the common roll, 10 by the 20 white assembly members, 10 by the council of chiefs, and 6 nominated by the president on the advice of the prime minister. The racial basis of parliament could not be amended until 1987 unless by unanimous vote of parliament; amendment afterward needed only a 70% vote of the assembly. During the first 10 years of independence, the declaration of rights in the constitution could be amended only by a unanimous vote of the assembly; amendment of other clauses required a 70% majority. In August 1987, as soon as the constitution allowed, the separate representation for whites in parliament was abolished and the 20 seats were temporarily filled by representatives selected by the other 80 members.

After the 1990 elections, the two houses of parliament were merged into a single chamber of 150 members—120 elected by popular vote serving for five years, 10 traditional chiefs, 8 provincial governors, and 12 members appointed by the president. A constitutional change created an executive presidency and abolished the office of prime minister. ZANU leader Robert Mugabe assumed the presidency on 1 December 1987. Amidst controversy, he was reelected in March 1990, March 1996, and March 2002.

There is universal suffrage from age 18. The next presidential elections were scheduled for March 2008.

POLITICAL PARTIES

The Rhodesian Front Party, which dominated politics from its formation in March 1962 until the establishment of majority rule in 1979, advocated racial separation, division of land on a racial basis, and the protection of the Rhodesian whites. The party won all 20 Assembly seats reserved for whites in both the 1979 and 1980 elections, and in 1981, it changed its name to the Republican Front Party (RFP). Ian Smith, who served (1964–79) as prime minister, remained as party leader until his suspension from parliament in 1987. He was succeeded by Mark Partridge. The name of the party had previously been changed again to the Conservative Alliance Zimbabwe (CAZ). The CAZ won 15 of the 20 seats allotted to whites in the 1985 elections.

The principal black parties in Zimbabwean politics originated in the struggle for independence along ethnic lines. The Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) was formed in December 1961 and led by Joshua Nkomo. It was split in July 1963 by the creation of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole, and later by Robert Mugabe. ZAPU's constituency was eventually reduced to the Ndebele minority, while ZANU gained wide support among the Shona ethnic group. Both ZAPU and ZANU took up arms against the government and in 1976 allied themselves in the Patriotic Front (PF).

After Bishop Abel Muzorewa accepted the Smith government's proposal for an internal constitutional settlement in 1978, his followers, now known as the United African National Council (UANC), emerged as the major party. In elections on 17–21 April 1979, the UANC captured a majority of 51 seats in the new Assembly, and Muzorewa became the nation's first black prime minister. The elections, however, were boycotted by the PF, which continued its armed opposition to the government.

Under British auspices, a new constitutional settlement obtained PF approval in 1979, and the elections of 27–29 February 1980 were contested by nine parties, including ZANU-Patriotic Front, led by Robert Mugabe, and ZAPU (which registered under the name Popular Front). Of the 80 Assembly seats elected from the common rolls, ZANU-Patriotic Front took 57, Popular Front (or ZAPU) 20, and UNAC 3. In the July 1985 elections, ZANUPF won 63 seats, PF-ZAPU, 15. After much enmity and bitterness during most of the 1980s, ZAPU and ZANU finally agreed to merge in late 1987 under the name of ZANU-PF and the merger was consummated in December 1989.

President Mugabe declared his intention to make Zimbabwe a one-party state by 1990. He regarded his party's victory in the 1990 elections as a mandate to proceed with his plans to establish ZANU-PF as the only legal party. He was soon turned away from that scheme by strong pressure from creditor governments abroad and a chorus of opposition domestically, including from within ZANU-PF. Zimbabwe got caught up in the general press throughout tropical Africa for greater decentralization of power and competitive party politics.

New parties began to emerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s in preparation for the expected elections in 1995. Tekere's Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) contested the 1990 elections with some success. The UANC merged with ZUM in January 1994. In January, longtime Mugabe rival Sithole returned from exile and created his own party, also using the ZANU rubric of ZANUN donga or sometimes ZANU-Sithole.

In March 1993, former Chief Justice Enoch Dumbutshena launched the Forum Party, an outgrowth of the pressure group, Forum for Democratic Reform. The Democratic Party emerged from a split within ZUM.

In 1996 elections for Executive President, Robert Mugabe, the longtime ruler of Zimbabwe, won 93% of the vote, while his party, the Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front, won 98% of the available seats in elections held a year earlier. However, in both elections it was widely accepted that the result had been predetermined. The Zimbabwe government made little pretense of conducting a free and fair election.

Parliamentary elections were scheduled for April 2000, but were postponed until June. Two new strong political parties were formed to challenge Mugabe's ZANU-PF. The United Democratic Front (UDF) party was launched by Lupi Mushayakarara, former Rhodesian leader Ian Smith, Abel Muzorewa, and Ndabaningi Sithole, a pack of leaders that Mugabe dismissed as "ghosts of the past." A more formidable opponent emerged in the form of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) led by Morgan Tsvangirai. The MDC successfully campaigned against a government sponsored draft constitution in the national referendum held in February 2000 with the government securing 45% of the national referendum votes against 55% for the opposition. The opposition argued that the draft constitution further entrenched executive rule allowing Mugabe to dissolve cabinet and parliament, and to rule by decree. Led by the MDC, opposition parties won nearly half of the seats in the House of Assembly in the June 2000 elections.

Parliamentary elections were held on 31 March 2005. ZANUPF won 78 of 150 seats, or 59.6% of the vote. The MDC won 41 seats, or 39.5% of the vote. One seat was secured by an independent candidate. The elections were not marked by violence as in the past, but the opposition claimed the elections were fraudulent. Human rights groups said that hundreds of thousands of "ghost voters" appeared on the electoral role. Other parties functioning in Zimbabwe were the National Alliance for Good Government (NAGG), the International Socialist Organization, the Shalom Reform Zimbabwe Party, and the Zimbabwe Labour Party. The next parliamentary elections were scheduled for 2010.

Challenges to the continued success of the MDC included leadership, credibility on the streets, articulation of position on contentious issues, and resource base. It remained to be seen whether the MDC could transform itself in a sustainable way from a broad-based civic movement opposed to Mugabe into an organized political entity representing and voicing the interests of a defined constituency all the while contesting power.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Each of the eight provinces of Zimbabwe is administered by a provincial commissioner appointed by the central government. Local services are provided by city, town, and rural councils. The Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Planning is charged with ensuring the establishment of local authorities where necessary and local adherence to legislation. In addition to the eight provinces, two cities have provincial status: Harare and Bulawayo.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM

The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law and has been influenced by the system of South Africa. A four-member Supreme Court, headed by the chief justice, has original jurisdiction over alleged violations of fundamental rights guaranteed in the constitution and appellate jurisdiction over other matters. There is a High Court consisting of general and appellate divisions. Below the High Court are regional magistrate's courts with civil jurisdiction and magistrate's courts with both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Before independence, separate African courts had jurisdiction over cases involving traditional law and custom. Beginning in 1981, these courts were integrated into the national system.

The chief justice of the High Court is appointed by the president upon recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission. The Commission also advises the president on the appointment of the other judges.

In 1990 the Customary Law and Local Courts Act established a unitary court system made up of headmen's courts, chiefs' courts, magisterial courts, the High Court, and the Supreme Court. Under this system, customary law cases can be appealed through all levels to the Supreme Court.

The constitution provides for the right to a fair trial and the judiciary rigorously enforces this right. However, under Mugabe, the judiciary's reputation for independence from the executive branch has been compromised as the executive has refashioned the courts to conform with its dictates. Nevertheless, the High Court has ruled in favor in several of the MDC's elections petitions alleging violence and intimidation that obstructed the election process.

ARMED FORCES

Regular armed forces numbered 29,000 active personnel in 2005. The Army had an estimated 25,000 troops including a Presidential Guard. Armaments included 40 main battle tanks, most of which were listed as nonoperational, and 242 artillery pieces. The Air Force had 4,000 personnel with 50 combat capable aircraft, that included 13 fighters and 1 fighter ground attack aircraft. The service also had six attack helicopters. Paramilitary forces included the Zimbabwe Republic Police Force, with 19,500 members, and the Police Support Unit with 2,300 members. In 2005, the defense budget totaled $255 million.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Zimbabwe became a United Nations member on 25 August 1980 and belongs to ECA and several nonregional specialized agencies, such as the World Bank, the FAO, IAEA, UNESCO, UNIDO, and the WHO. It is also a member of the African Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Nations, the ACP Group, G-15, G-77, the African Union, the WTO, COMESA, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Preferential Trade Association (PTA) for eastern and southern Africa. Zimbabwe is part of the Nonaligned Movement.

In environmental cooperation, Zimbabwe is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, the Montréal Protocol, and the UN Conventions on the Law of the Sea, Climate Change, and Desertification.

ECONOMY

Zimbabwe has developed one of the most diverse economies in Africa. It has abundant agricultural and mineral resources and a well-developed industrial sector and infrastructure. Average annual growth during the first postindependence decade was 2.9%, but grew at an annual negative growth rate (i.e. declined) of 7.2% between 2001 and 2005 with a peak of -10.6% in 2003. Problems abound, with an annual average inflation rate of 246% between 2001 and 2005 and the unemployment rate above 70% in 2002. It is estimated that over 70% of Zimbabwe's population currently lives below the poverty line. A small white elite continues to dominate economic resources, but repatriation of white farms caused the flight of white capital in 2000, and by 2003, the land reform program had created chaos and violence. Inflation seriously threatened the gold mining and tobacco industries.

The government remained committed to the 1991–95 Economic Structural Adjustment Program (ESAP), despite severe hardships the Program caused average Zimbabweans. Central to this program was the reduction of the civil service by 25% with some 32,000 jobs eliminated by 1994. Although Zimbabwe recovered from the effects of the devastating 1991–92 drought, which caused a decline of between 8% and 9% in the GDP, thousands remained chronically dependent on food support. During 2000–05 period, many of Zimbabwe's population struggled to afford basic commodities as inflation rose. The African Development Bank and the IMF granted loans to Zimbabwe in 1999 and 2000, but Zimbabwe's external debt had already risen to $5 billion in 2001 and is currently estimated to be $5.2 billion. Civil unrest threatens the ruling government of Robert Mugabe. High budget deficits, inflation, and the HIV/AIDS pandemic prevent economic stability. As of 2002, the IMF's program with Zimbabwe remained suspended because the country was not complying with the IMF's conditions, and Zimbabwe had not made payments to the IMF since 2001. The World Bank also suspended programs in 2000 due to Zimbabwe's falling into arrears on payments. Mugabe's greater exercise of control over the economy did not portend well for the future. In its April 2005 World Economic Outlook, the IMF projected that real GDP in Zimbabwe would contract by 1.6% in 2005 and that growth would be stagnant in 2006. The fall in GDP in 2005 represented the seventh consecutive year of decline. GDP in 2005 was 40% lower than in 1998 and it is projected that in 2010 it will be 57% lower than in 1998.

INCOME

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2005 Zimbabwe's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $28.4 billion. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange based on current dollars. The per capita GDP was estimated at $1,900. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at -4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 266.8%. It was estimated that agriculture accounted for 17.9% of GDP, industry 24.3%, and services 57.9%.

Foreign aid receipts amounted to $186 million or about $14 per capita.

The World Bank reports that in 2003 household consumption in Zimbabwe totaled $12.87 billion or about $982 per capita based on a GDP of $17.8 billion, measured in current dollars rather than PPP. Household consumption includes expenditures of individuals, households, and nongovernmental organizations on goods and services, excluding purchases of dwellings. It was estimated that for the period 1990 to 2003 household consumption grew at an average annual rate of 0.4%. Approximately 20% of household consumption was spent on food, 21% on fuel, 3% on health care, and 15% on education. It was estimated that in 2004 about 80% of the population had incomes below the poverty line.

LABOR

In 2005, Zimbabwe's labor force was estimated at 3.94 million. As of 1996 (the latest year for which data was available), 66% of the workforce was engaged in agriculture, 24% in services, and 10% in industry. Growing unemployment remains a serious problem as new jobs fail to keep pace with the number of new job seekers. The unemployment rate in 2004 was estimated at 60%.

In 1981, the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) was formed as an umbrella organization for all trade unions and to promote the formation of a single trade union for each industry. As of 2002, about 25% of the salaried workforce were members of the 31 unions which formed the ZCTU. Spontaneous strikes and lockouts are banned. Government-mandated worker committees carry out many functions performed by unions elsewhere, and annual wage increases are mandated for all workers.

Since independence, a priority of the government's wage policy has been reduction of the huge variation in earnings among workers, partly by increasing minimum wages and by controlling increases in higher wage brackets. The monthly minimum wage in 2002 ranged from about us$14 for agricultural workers to us$30 in the manufacturing sector. Although children under the age of 15 are legally banned from employment, child labor is widespread in all aspects of the economy. Workplace safety and health continue to be problems. There are no general standards for the safety of the work environment. The government sets standards and enforces them on an inconsistent basis.

AGRICULTURE

In 2003, Zimbabwe had 3.3 million hectares (8.3 million acres) of arable land, covering 8.7% of the country's total land area. Most of what is now central Zimbabwe was sparsely populated when Europeans first settled into the region, gradually transforming the bush into fertile farmland. Since 2000, government policy changes have led to the seizure of 4,000 white-owned farms, and many who lost land have emigrated elsewhere in Africa or overseas. In 2003, agriculture accounted for 17% of GDP and 23% of exports.

In April 2000, some 35,000 guerilla veterans of Mugabe's Bush War revolution began expropriating hundreds of white-owned farms, frequently assaulting and occasionally murdering farmers. The farmland occupation cost millions of dollars in crop damage. Mugabe had promised to give each landless veteran z$50,000 as well as a monthly pension, but there was no money in the budget for it. Zimbabwe's High Court ordered police to evict the squatters from white farms, but the order was not enforced. Mugabe gave an implied approval of the confiscation by publicly declaring all white Zimbabweans as enemies of the state. The mainly white Commercial Farmers Union of Zimbabwe had been willing to negotiate redistribution of much of the farmland owned by whites, but Mugabe and the ruling ZANU-PF party were reluctant to settle. Previous land confiscations ordered by Mugabe have typically resulted in farmland left fallow or under the control of corrupt government officials. Crop production during 2002–04 fell by almost 25% compared with 1999–2001.

Since 1991, Zimbabwean agriculture has undergone a fundamental transition away from artificial producer and consumer prices, which were set far below world market levels. Many commercial farms changed from corn, cotton, and oilseed production to tobacco and horticultural activities because the government refused to permit producer prices to keep pace with rising input prices. About 63% of the economically active population was engaged in agriculture in 2000.

In the early 1990s, drought severely affected the output of every crop except tobacco. Corn, wheat, cotton, oilseed, coffee, and sugar outputs all declined by at least 75%. Tobacco production in 2004 was 80,000 tons. Corn production in 2004 totaled only 1,000,000 tons, down from 2,609,200 tons in 1996. In 2004, cotton production totaled 100,000 tons. Marketed production figures of other crops in 2004 were wheat, 80,000; sorghum, 80,000; soybeans, 93,000; peanuts, 150,000; coffee, 9,000; and sunflower seeds, 5,000. Rice, potatoes, tea, and pyrethrum are also grown.

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

In 2005, some 5,400,000 head of cattle, 2,970,000 goats, 610,000 sheep, 610,000 hogs, 112,000 donkeys, and 28,000 horses were held. Chickens numbered about 23 million. Livestock raising is an important industry, which has been helped by increased diversification initiated after 1965. In 2005, beef production totaled 96,700 tons; pork, 27,500 tons; and goat meat, 12,800 tons. Fresh milk production from cows totaled 248,000 tons.

FISHING

There is some commercial fishing on Kariba Lake. Rural Zimbabweans fish the smaller lakes and rivers. The total catch in 2003 was estimated at 15,600 tons, with dagaas accounting for 67%.

FORESTRY

About 49% of Zimbabwe's land area is estimated to be forest, but this classification included scattered tree savanna and considerable areas of grassland likely to be reforested in the foreseeable future. Forestry is gaining importance in Zimbabwe. There are hardwood forests in the western part of the country and in the Victoria Falls area. About 100,000 tons of teak, mahogany, and mukwa (kiaat) are cut annually. Roundwood production totaled 9.1 million cu m (321 million cu ft) in 2004, with about 89% used as fuel wood. Sawn wood production that year was 397,000 cu m (14 million cu ft). Softwood afforestation projects have been undertaken in the eastern districts to supply local needs heretofore met by imports; however, the loss of woodlands may be as high as 1.5% per year.

MINING

Zimbabwe's chief minerals were coal, gold, copper, nickel and clays. Zimbabwe was a world leader in the production of lithium minerals, chrysotile asbestos, and ferrochromium, with more than half of the world's known chromium reserves. Zimbabwe was self-sufficient in most minerals, producing 35 commodities mainly from small-scale mines. The total value of mineral production totaled $804.3 million in 2003. Employment however in the mining and quarrying sector has declined between 1998 and 2002, dropping from 61,000 to 43,000 in 2002. The fall may be attributed to economic conditions that have forced many smaller mining operations to shutdown between 2000 and 2003. However, another 100,000 to 300,000 were thought to be employed in the panning for gold. Of total exports of $1.23 billion in 2003, mineral and manufactured metal exports accounted for $492.3 million, up from $426.6 million in 2002.

Gold production peaked in 1999 at 27,666 kg, but government policies caused a more than 50% drop to 12,564 kg in 2003. As a result, gold exports also fell, from $236.1 million in 1998 to $137.4 million in 2003. Gold historically had been a major export.

Although several major metals saw production increases in 2003, most of the other minerals saw production declines ranging from 5% to more than 60% in 2003. Among the reasons for the decline were: general domestic economic conditions compounded by the state-sanctioned expropriation of commercial farmlands which threatened to spill over to the mining sector, and the high incidence of HIV/AIDS—25% of the 15–49-year-old population was infected—added substantially to the mining sector's labor costs, through absenteeism, lost productivity, medical treatment, and skill replacement.

Output of other major minerals in 2003 included chromite (gross weight), 637,099 metric tons, down from 749,339 metric tons; asbestos, 147,000 tons, down from 168,000 in 2002; mine copper concentrate (metal content), 2,767 metric tons, up from 2,502 metric tons in 2002; mined nickel, 11,600 metric tons (estimated), up from 8,092 metric tons; lithium minerals (gross weight), 12,131 metric tons, down from 33,172 metric tons in 2002; black granite, 47,007 metric tons, down from 408,550 metric tons in 2002; iron ore (metal content), 184,000 tons, up from 136,000 in 2002; and marketable phosphate rock concentrate, 95,496 metric tons, down from 107,854 metric tons in 2002. The Madziwa nickel mine was closed down in 2000, the Mhangura Copper Mines were near depletion, and Munyati Copper Mines Ltd. suspended operations in 2000, following its abandoned sale. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, copper replaced gold and asbestos as the most valuable mineral, but its production has not kept pace with other minerals. Zimbabwe in 2003 also produced palladium, platinum, rhodium, selenium, silver, barite, hydraulic cement, clays (including montmorillonite bentonite and fire clay), emerald, feldspar, graphite, kyanite, limestone, magnesite, mica, nitrogen, rough quartz, sulfur, talc, and vermiculite. National PGM metal production grew in 2003 to an estimated 8,418 kg, up from 4,729 kg in 2002. No antimony, lead, zinc, diamonds, or iron oxide pigments were produced in 2003.

Gold panning was legal, but, by the Gold Trade Act, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe had a monopoly on purchasing and exporting of all gold and silver produced in the country. The revised code also permitted unlimited foreign exchange to companies that exported more than 75% of their production, and mining companies were allowed to keep 5% of their export earnings, to buy imported raw materials. Coal deposits in the Hwange area were substantial.

Excess government intervention in the economy and in staterun industries has been a major contributor to the growing number of closed mines and suspended projects, undermining the ability of the mining sector to generate more than 25% of export earnings. The government has been making efforts to privatize its interests in the energy, mining, and rail sectors, and to loosen its foreign exchange rules. Although the short-term outlook was not favorable, the natural resource endowment and a well-developed infrastructure remained in place.

ENERGY AND POWER

Zimbabwe relies heavily on hydroelectricity and coal for its energy needs. Wood is also important.

With no proven oil reserves or refining capacity, the country's demand for refined oil is met by imports. In 2002, imports of refined petroleum products averaged 21,560 barrels per day, of which distillates accounted for 11,490 barrels per day and gasoline 5,680 barrels per day. Demand for refined products averaged 22,330 barrels per day in that same year. A pipeline from the Mozambique port of Beira to Mutare provides the majority of Zimbabwe's refined petroleum and diesel oil; the rest comes from South Africa.

Coal reserves in Zimbabwe were estimated at about 809 million tons at the beginning of 1998. Production in 2002 totaled 4,068,000 short million tons, with much of that amount going to the coal-fired Hwange plant for electricity production. Imports of coal totaled 43,000 short tons that year.

Electrical production is shared with Zambia. In 2002, Zimbabwe produced 8.279 billion kWh of electricity, of which 54% was from fossil fuels and 46% from hydropower. Consumption of electricity in 2002 was 11.394 billion kWh. Installed capacity in 2002 was 1.961 million kW, of which 61.5% of capacity came from conventional thermal plants.

INDUSTRY

Zimbabwe has a substantial and diverse manufacturing base, which is partly a legacy of the international sanctions imposed over the five years prior to independence. Industry accounted for only 14% of GDP in 2001, however. Manufacturing was at its lowest level in 15 years in 2001 due to civil unrest. Food and beverages, minerals processing, chemical and petroleum products, and textiles account for the majority of the value added by manufacturing. Lower levels of consumer demand because of high prices have affected producers of many household goods, clothing, footwear, drink, and tobacco products.

The Zimbabwe Iron and Steel Corporation (ZISCO) was operating at 30% in 1996, and supplied 60% of local need. The Zimchem chemical refinery processes a range of chemical products. Cement is produced in large quantities. Zimbabwe also has a substantial cotton and textile industry. The textiles industry has lost some 17,000 jobs in recent years to foreign competition from South Africa, which used subsidies, export incentives, and tariff protection to support its textiles industry. The gold mining industry faced collapse and closure in 2000 because of a lack of foreign exchange. Gold output dropped by half in that year, and 46,000 jobs were in peril. The tobacco industry was also in danger of foreclosure due to farm repatriation. As of 2005, the dire condition of the economy (a severely problematic balance of payments situation, devaluation of the currency, desperate foreign currency shortage, high inflation, very high interest rates, a fall in exports, and fuel shortages) was damaging the operations and viability of the manufacturing, construction, and mining sectors, in addition to agriculture.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Much of Zimbabwe's research effort is directed at improvements in agriculture. The government's budget for agricultural research is administered by the Agricultural Research Council which is headquartered in Harare and operates seven research institutes, eight research and experiment stations, and the National Herbarium and Botanic Garden. In Harare, at the Blair Research Laboratory, simple, innovative technologies are being developed to improve Zimbabwe's water supply and sewage disposal. Other research organizations, all in Harare, include the Geological Survey of Zimbabwe, the Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, and the Public Health Laboratory. The National University of Science and Technology, founded in 1990 at Bulawayo, has faculties of industrial technology and applied sciences. The University of Zimbabwe, founded in 1955 at Harare, has faculties of agriculture, engineering, medicine, science, and veterinary science. Degrees in agriculture and polytechnic studies are offered by seven colleges. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 24% of college and university enrollments. In 2002, high technology exports were valued at $21 million, or 3% of all manufactured exports.

DOMESTIC TRADE

Harare and Bulawayo are the country's principal distribution centers. They are linked by rail and road to smaller towns that serve as centers for their immediate rural areas. Head offices of most of the large companies are in one or the other of the two cities. There are supermarkets and department stores in Harare as well as few newer shopping centers offering a wider variety of goods. Many products are locally produced. Kwe Kwe serves as a processing and distribution center for livestock, tobacco, steel, and chrome. Mutare is a regional trading center. A chaotic, controversial land reform program and uncontrolled inflation have hindered the domestic trade and economy.

Business hours are generally from 8 am to 5 pm Monday through Saturday. Banks are open from 8:30 am to 2 pm Monday through Friday, except on Wednesday, when they close at noon. Saturday banking hours are from 8:30 to 11 am.

FOREIGN TRADE

Due to violence in 2000, the annual tobacco auction that usually provides 30% of Zimbabwe's foreign exchange earnings had less than 20% of its normal sales volume and sold bales at prices 15% lower than usual. Unmanufactured tobacco from Zimbabwe (30% of total exports) typically accounts for about 11% of the world's export market in that category.

Gold had been the second-largest export commodity, but gold revenues were down by almost 50% in 2000 due to high inflation rates in Zimbabwe and low world market prices for gold. Other important exports include cotton (9.2%), iron and steel (9.2%), sugar (4.7%), and nickel (4.4%).

In 2005 the principal exports in terms of monetary revenues were as follows: gold ($366 million), tobacco ($227 million), ferro-alloys ($185 million), and platinum ($121 million). During the same year the principal imports were as follows: fuels ($413 million), chemicals ($401.3 million), machinery ($271.4 million), and manufactured goods ($268.7 million).

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Zimbabwe's imports grew by an average of 11% between 1988 and 1998, reflecting a relaxation of import controls and the inflow of capital goods needed for investment, but declined rapidly after 1998. The rapid rise of the current account deficit since 1989 was caused primarily by the surge in imports from the creation of the

Open General Import License (OGIL) list of items possible for importation without first obtaining a foreign exchange allocation from the government. With huge pent-up demand and future uncertainty about the program, importers rushed to take advantage of the opportunity, often hoarding several years' supply of items, which caused the trade deficit to balloon. After 1997, the amount of imports leveled off, and dropped rapidly in 1998. Due to the government's disastrous land reform programs, the commercial sector, as the traditional source of exports and foreign exchange, has suffered considerably.

The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that in 2005 the purchasing power parity of Zimbabwe's exports was $1.686 billion while imports totaled $2.053 billion resulting in a trade surplus of $367 million.

BANKING AND SECURITIES

Zimbabwe has a relatively well-developed financial sector, in sub-Saharan Africa, second only to that of South Africa. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ) administers all monetary and exchange controls and is the sole bank of issue. The Zimbabwe Development Bank was established in 1983 as a development finance institution.

Five commercial banks and 10 merchant banks operate in Zimbabwe. Commercial banks include Barclays, Standard Chartered, Stanbic, the Zimbabwe Banking Corporation, and the Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe. Merchant banks include the Merchant bank of Central Africa, First Merchant Bank, Standard Chartered Merchant Bank, Syfrets Merchant Bank, National Merchant Bank of Zimbabwe. Commercial banks are obliged to maintain a statutory deposit ratio of 20%. The Post Office Savings Bank is an important savings institution. High inflation rates in the late 1990s prompted the government to print $250 million worth of Zimbabwean dollars in order to keep the state running, instead of depreciating the currency itself.

The International Monetary Fund reports that in 2001, currency and demand deposits—an aggregate commonly known as M1—were equal to $2.4 billion. In that same year, M2—an aggregate equal to M1 plus savings deposits, small time deposits, and money market mutual funds—was $3.3 billion. The money market rate, the rate at which financial institutions lend to one another in the short term, was 21.52%. The discount rate, the interest rate at which the central bank lends to financial institutions in the short term, was 57.2%.

The Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE), with floors in Harare, deals in government securities and the securities of many privately owned companies. The stock exchange opened in 1946. Until 1993, it was insignificant as a source of new capital, but the government allowed foreign investment through the ZSE, and by September 1995 the net foreign inflow exceeded us$125 million. In 1997, the value of shares traded more than doubled, but in 1998, there was an 88% decline in the value of shares traded because of social unrest and high interest rates. 2001 proved to be a banner year, however, with market capitalization at a soaring all-time high of just under $8 billion, and trading valued at $1.5 billion. The ZSE Industrial Index was up 158% for the year, at 46,351.9, despite the severe economic slowdown caused by President Robert Mugabe's policies. As of 2004, a total of 79 companies were listed on the ZSE, which had a market capitalization of $1.941 billion. In that same year, the ZSE Industrial index rose 173.3% from the previous year to 1,097,492.5. Trading value in 2004 totaled $136 million.

INSURANCE

Insurance companies must be registered with and licensed by the Registrar of Insurance, make security deposits with the treasury, file annual financial reports, and observe other government regulations. Principal types of insurance written are life, fire, automobile, employers' liability, and accident. Automobile third-party liability is compulsory. There were some 50 insurance companies doing business in Zimbabwe in the mid-1980s.

In 1996, insurance companies continued to complain about the persistence of regulations that they considered to be inappropriate in the liberalized environment. Two foreign-owned insurance companies were reported to be holding out against government localization requirements against which a deadline of 1 August 1993, for 51% local shareholding had been set. The requirement on insurance companies and pension funds to invest 55% in government securities was also felt to be too high. In 2003, the value of all direct insurance premiums written totaled $482 million, of which life insurance premiums accounted for $277 million. NicozDiamond was the country's top nonlife insurer in 2003, with gross written nonlife premiums of $195 million. In 2002, Old Mutual was the leading life insurer, with gross written life insurance premiums of $144.3 million.

PUBLIC FINANCE

Zimbabwe derives its principal revenues from income taxes, sales tax, customs and excise duties, and interest, dividends, and profits. Principal categories of expenditure are education, defense, debt service, and agriculture. Budgets for the 1970s and the 1980s were generally in deficit. Escalating fiscal deficits in the 1980s led to the implementation early in 1991 of an extensive reform program, which focused on fiscal deficit reduction and monetary reforms. A

severe drought in 1992, however, set back the program; the deficit rose to more than 10% of GDP in 1993, and 15% of GDP in 2000. In 1999, an estimated one-third of the total budget was spent on troops sent to the Congo. Pay raises from 60% up to 90% were given to the civil service and the army.

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Zimbabwe's central government took in revenues of approximately us$1.4 billion and had expenditures of us$1.9 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -us$496 million. Public debt in 2005 amounted to 30.1% of GDP. Total external debt was us$5.17 billion.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported that in 1997, the most recent year for which it had data, central government revenues were z$30,539.8 million and expenditures were z$36,454.4 million. The value of revenues in US dollars was us$36,314 million and expenditures us$43,346 million, based on a official exchange rate for 1997 of us$1 = z$0.841 as reported by the IMF. Government outlays by function were as follows: general public services, 25.0%; defense, 7.1%; public order and safety, 6.2%; economic affairs, 6.8%; housing and community amenities, 4.4%; health, 8.1%; recreation, culture, and religion, 0.1%; education, 24.2%; and social protection, 18.2%.

TAXATION

The corporate tax rate as of 2005 was 30% plus a 3% AIDS levy, down from a flat rate of 36.8%. A 5% levy is imposed on the net profits of banking institutions. New projects or enterprises in designated growth point area are taxed at 15% for five years. Other tax concessions are available for export manufacturers. Dividends paid to a Zimbabwean company are not taxable, but dividends paid to a foreign company are subject to 15% withholding if the company is stock exchange-listed, and 20% otherwise. Listed securities are exempt from capital gains tax, which is otherwise 20%. Withholding rates may be reduced or eliminated in double taxation agreements. Zimbabwe has tax treaties with at least 12 countries, including the United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, Canada, South Africa, Poland, Malaysia, Bulgaria, and Mauritius.

The primary tax on individuals is an income tax, which is based on a graduated scale of rates: 0%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, and 40%.

As of 2005, Zimbabwe had a value-added tax (VAT) with a standard rate of 15%, which was applied to most goods and services. Exempt from the VAT were rail or road passenger transport, financial, medical, educational and training services, long-term residential leases, tobacco, and fuel. Exports are zero-rated, as are prescribed drugs and tourist services. Tobacco sold on the auction floor is subject to a 1.5% levy. There are excise duties on alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, and tobacco. Other taxes include a betting tax, and stamp, transfer, and estate duties.

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES

Zimbabwe uses the GATT system of tariff codes. Imports are subject to duty, import tax, and surtax. Capital goods are exempt from all three. Duties mostly range between 15% and 20% but can go as high as 60%. The surtax is 10% and sales tax is charged to the importer as the end-user. The customs duty for textiles is 5% and the duty for clothes is 15%.

Zimbabwe is a member of the 14-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC), which was formed to promote "regional integration," and the 22-nation Preferential Trade Area (PTA) of Eastern and Southern Africa, which provides reduced duties on trade between member countries.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT

From independence in 1980 until 1991, the government was very defensive toward foreign investment, subjecting each proposal to careful scrutiny and requiring foreign investors to get permission from the Foreign Investment Center for the development of any new enterprise in Zimbabwe. Enterprises could be 100% foreign owned, especially in priority areas, but there was (and is) in effect a strong preference for joint ventures with at least 30% local participation.

In 1991 there was some revision of the regulations but the emphasis on indigenization remained at least as strong as the emphasis on the need to attract foreign investment. There is a long list of reserved sectors, but priority areas are offered a schedule of tax and tariff exemptions and incentives. Incentives are aimed at encouraging capital investments, the transfer of technology, the utilization of local raw materials, the development of rural areas, the use of labor-intensive methods, and the hiring of local personnel. Industries geared toward exporting that meet EPZ requirements receive tax holidays and customs free trade. In 1992, as part of a structural reform program under the IMF's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF), the Zimbabwe Investment Centre (ZIC) was established as a one-stop shop for investment approval. In 1995, disbursements under the ESAF program were suspended for failure to meet IMF targets, and in 1996, the government substituted a second plan, the Zimbabwe Program for Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST), whose operations investors have found much less satisfactory. By the late 1990s, political turbulence and the government's defiance of the IMF had greatly increased investor risk, and brought foreign direct investment flows to a standstill.

Foreign investment has played a crucial role in Zimbabwe's development. In 1998, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Zimbabwe totaled over $444 million; by 2001, FDI in-flow had fallen to $5.4 million. In the last three years (2003–05) FDI has all but dried up, as the government's focus on political objectives at substantial cost to the economy continue and a return to better policies and practices seems no closer. At the end of the 1970s, foreigners owned an estimated 70–80% of listed corporations. Today, offshore ownership of shares on the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange has fallen to approximately 25%.

There has been a comparable decline in foreign portfolio investment, reflected in the transformation of Zimbabwe's capital account balance, from a surplus in 1995 equal to 7.1% of GDP to a deficit in 2002 equal to 6.5% of GDP. The lack of foreign currency in the country has made investment even less attractive because of the near-impossibility of converting earnings out of the rapidly depreciating local currency, which the government in many cases restricts. The suspension of IMF funding, with its negative implications about the credit-worthiness of the country, has limited most business transactions to a cash basis. The situation was worsened in June 2003, when the IMF suspended Zimbabwe's voting rights in the organization for failure to make effective efforts to repay arrears of about $305 million to the fund. Zimbabwe's total arrears increased from $700 million at the end of 2001 to $1.5 billion at the end of 2002. Somewhat ironically, the Zimbabwe Stock Exchange (ZSE), founded in 1896 and open to foreign investment since 1993, has been the bestor second-best-performing emerging market stock exchange since 1999, propelled by inflation rates that in 2003 were reaching 300%.

Most foreign investment in Zimbabwe has roots in the colonial era, such as the mining conglomerate Anglo-American of Zimbabwe (AMZIM), and the timber company Lonrho, long the country's two largest investors. In 2001 Lonrho sold its timber holdings in Zimbabwe to Brotherhood Holdings Ltd. for a cash payment of $275 million. AMZIM, after selling off a number of subsidiaries, announced in June 2003 that it was relocating its headquarters to South Africa. Government policy allows squatters to take over, at times forcefully, white-owned commercial farms. When Zimbabwe was Rhodesia, white farmers, constituting less than 1% of the population, controlled over one-third of the land. Under Zimbabwe's investment regime investments in agriculture were discouraged and underutilized land was subject to fair-value purchase by the government for redistribution to family farmers. This policy primarily affected the 50% of the 11 million ha of agricultural estates created prior to independence. The United States provided some funding for a land-for-purchase program from 1980 to 1997, but by 1998 the government had rejected this gradualist approach as too slow. By 2003, over 4,000 white-owned farms had been taken against the will of the owners.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

A three-year transitional development plan was adopted for 1982–85. It called for investments in the public sector and assumed an average net growth rate of 8% per year. Manufacturing was to receive 23% of total investment, transport 14%, and agriculture 13%. Total investment fell 30% short of this goal. The Five-Year Development Plan for 1986–90 called for an annual growth rate of 5.1%, some 60% from public-sector investment and 40% from foreign sources. Education, defense, and debt service were the largest categories of government spending. During the 1990s, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) supported Zimbabwe's balance of payments, but in 1999 President Robert Mugabe declared that he would sever ties with the development fund. The president was not willing to "save" the economy under a structural adjustment plan because it would have effectively bankrupted the government. In 2000, economic development slid backwards as inflation spiraled, industries died, and agricultural production fell; but in terms of leveling the distribution of wealth between blacks and whites, it was a red-letter year.

Mugabe's radical land reform program, poor management of the economy, and interference with the judiciary have combined to prevent further investment and development. Shortages of food, fuel, and foreign exchange marked the early 2000s. The IMF adopted a declaration of noncooperation for Zimbabwe in 2002 and suspended its technical assistance to the country, due to the nonpayment of arrears. In 2003, the IMF suspended Zimbabwe's voting and related rights. That year, inflation stood at 385%, and economic and social conditions had deteriorated, including a rise in unemployment and poverty, and a worsening of the HIV/AIDS pandemic in the country. In February 2003, the government launched a National Economic Revival Program (NERP) designed to stabilize the economy. The Economist Intelligence Unit notes that since no fundamental changes in economic policy are expected, the economic collapse of recent years is expected to continue and real GDP is forecast to contract by 4.2% in 2006 and 1.5% in 2007. Inflation is forecast to remain firmly in triple digits as monetary policy will remain loose and the government will struggle to rein in spending, and because of ongoing food and foreign-exchange shortages and high world oil prices.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The social insurance system, instituted in 1993, has been updated in 2001, 2002, and 2003. All employed persons between the ages of 16 and 64 who are citizens or residents of Zimbabwe are covered. Old age pensions, disability, and survivorship benefits are provided under the program. Workers' compensation is available to all private-sector employees except domestic workers; government employees are covered under a state plan.

In 1993, a social security system was introduced providing old age, disability, and survivor's pensions. The program covers all employees between the ages of 16 and 65. Retirement is normally allowed at age 60. Free health care is provided for low-income families (about 75% of the population). Maternity benefits provide 70% of regular earnings for 90 days. Workers compensation insurance is provided for private sector employees. The State Disability Act provides coverage to public sector employees.

Domestic violence and abuse is common, and is on the rise due to economic stress and high unemployment. As of 2004, there was no legislation addressing domestic abuse, and officials often condone wife beating. Despite some legislative advances, women are bound by traditional customs which are discriminatory in areas of property ownership and inheritance. Sexual harassment in the workplace is prevalent. Rape, including politically motivated assaults, remain a huge and underreported problem. There are hundreds of thousands of orphans due to the large number of deaths from HIV/AIDS. Education is not compulsory, and schooling is not free.

There are numerous reports of human rights violations. Abuses included police killings, beatings, and torture, violation of privacy rights, and persecution of journalists. The government has generally failed to take action against those responsible for human rights abuses.

HEALTH

All health services are the responsibility of the Ministry of Health, which covers 50% of total health care expenditures provided by local authorities (with Ministry of Health grants), mission churches (also with grants), and industrial organizations and private services. The government has declared its intention to provide free medical services for all. Prior to independence, facilities for Africans were free, but these were greatly inferior to those available to Europeans. Zimbabwe has been focusing on building and/or upgrading rural health care centers and district hospitals and expanding rural health programs, such as immunization, control of diarrheal diseases, training of health care workers, and improving the supply and affordability of essential drugs. The local pharmaceutical industry is well developed. The Ministry of National Supplies operates the Government Medical Stores, which procures goods on behalf of the Ministry of Health. There were four tiers of health care delivery in Zimbabwe: 56 rural hospitals and 927 health centers (public and private) providing preventive and curative services; 55 district hospitals; 8 provincial and 4 general hospitals; and 5 central hospitals located in major cities. As of 2004, there were an estimated 6 physicians and 54 nurses per 100,000 people. About 85% of the population had access to health care services. An estimated 85% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 68% had adequate sanitation.

As of 2002, the crude birth rate and overall mortality rate were estimated at, respectively, 24.6 and 24 per 1,000 people. About 54% of married women (ages 15 to 49) were using contraception. The fertility rate was 3.8 births per woman. Infant mortality was 52.34 per 1,000 live births in the same year, and life expectancy was only 39.13 years in 2005. Maternal mortality rates were high with an estimated 695 per 100,000 live births and the disease pattern for mothers and children was one of mainly preventable diseases. The government of Zimbabwe paid for 80% of the routine immunizations. The immunization rates for children under five were as follows: diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 78%; polio, 79%; measles, 73%; and tuberculosis, 82% in 1994.

Guinea worm incidence has decreased from 1,570 cases in 1991 to 257 in 1995. Commonly reported diseases were malaria and measles. Tuberculosis continues to be a major health problem. Local campaigns are under way to control schistosomiasis, which affects a large percentage of the African population. An estimated 16% of children under five years old were considered malnourished.

The AIDS epidemic is among the worst in the world. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 24.60 per 100 adults in 2003, the fourth highest in the world. As of 2004, there were approximately 1,800,000 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. There were an estimated 170,000 deaths from AIDS in 2003. Demographic surveys project that AIDS may increase child mortality rates nearly threefold by the year 2010 in Zimbabwe.

HOUSING

In rural areas, Africans live in villages and on farms in housing that is mainly of brick or mud and stick construction with thatch or metal roofs. The villages are usually small (except for the massive protected villages), with fewer than 100 inhabitants. Urban housing is generally of brick. According to the latest available information for 1980–88, total housing units numbered two million, with 4.2 people per dwelling. In 2000, the housing deficit was estimated at over one million units. In 2001, about 3.4% of the urban population lived in slums.

The Zimbabwe National Association of Housing Cooperatives (ZINAHCO) is an umbrella organization of over 1,000 national housing cooperatives. The organization was established as a means of providing advice to member groups on dealing with local and national authorities and to offer training in building techniques. In 2003, ZINAHCO was working to change urban building standards which dictate that hook-ups to public services must be in place before an owner may begin to build a home. The Cooperatives argue that for many of the urban poor living in slum shacks, it is more appropriate to first allow for the construction of permanent structures with communal utility services. Residents can then install utilities at a later date, as they can afford to do so.

EDUCATION

A unitary system of education under the Ministry of Education has replaced the dual system of separate educational facilities for Africans and non-Africans formerly maintained by the Rhodesian government. Education is free and compulsory for seven years between the ages of 6 and 13. Secondary education lasts for six years (four years lower and two years upper). The government has developed a strong vocational school and apprenticeship system.

Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 80% of age-eligible students. The same year, secondary school enrollment was about 38% of age-eligible students. It is estimated that about 80.6% of all students complete their primary education. The student-to-teacher ratio for primary school was at about 39:1 in 2003; the ratio for secondary school was about 22:1. In 2003, private schools accounted for about 86.9% of primary school enrollment and 71.3% of secondary enrollment.

The University of Zimbabwe provides higher education on a multiracial basis. Other universities include the National University of Science and Technology and the Africa University, which is sponsored by the United Methodist church. In 2003, it was estimated that about 4% of the tertiary age population were enrolled in tertiary education programs. The adult literacy rate for 2004 was estimated at about 90%, with 93.8% for men and 86.3% for women.

As of 2003, public expenditure on education was estimated at 4.7% of GDP.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS

The National Free Library of Zimbabwe was founded in 1943 in Bulawayo as a national lending library and center for interlibrary loans. It has over 100,000 volumes. The Bulawayo Public Library holds about 100,000 volumes and operates a mobile library service. Other libraries include the Harare City Library, with 200,000 volumes and the Turner Memorial Library in Mutare. The National Archives of Zimbabwe, located in Harare, receives a copy of every book published in Zimbabwe, as does the Bulawayo Public Library. The library at the University of Zimbabwe is the largest in the country, with 500,000 volumes in the main library and branches. The Parliament of Zimbabwe holds a collection of 115,000 volumes.

The Zimbabwe Museum of Natural History (1901) at Bulawayo has geologic, ethnographic, historical, and zoological collections. A Railway Museum is also located in Bulawayo. Located in Harare are the Zimbabwe Museum of Human Sciences, with archaeological, historical, zoological, and other collections, the National Gallery of Zimbabwe, which displays works of national, regional, and European art, and the Queen Victoria Museum. There is a military museum in Gweru and a children's museum in Marondera.

MEDIA

The Ministry of Information, Posts, and Telecommunications provides telephone, telegraph, and postal services. In 2003, there were an estimated 26 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people; about 131,000 people were on a waiting list for telephone service installation. The same year, there were approximately 32 mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people.

The state-owned Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation controls all domestic broadcasting of television and radio. In total there were 7 AM and 20 FM radio stations in 1998. In 1997, there were 16 television stations. In 2003, there were an estimated 362 radios and 56 television sets for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were 52.7 personal computers for every 1,000 people and 43 of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet. There were seven secure Internet servers in the country in 2004.

There are a number of independent and government-owned newspapers in the country. The Herald (2002 circulation, 122,166) and the Chronicle (74,032) are owned by the Mass Media Trust (MMT), a holding company affiliated with the ZANU-PF. Though circulation figures were not available at this printing, The Daily News, an independent publication, is reported to have the largest circulation in the country. Major independent weeklies include The Financial Gazette, The Independent, and The Standard.

The constitution provides for free expression, but allows for legal limitations in the name of defense, public safety, public order, state economic interest, public morality, and public health. There is said to be a high degree of self-censorship employed by the media, though an increasingly independent press is sometimes critical of the government.

ORGANIZATIONS

The government encourages the development of agricultural and other cooperatives, which are seen as a means of improving the subsistence economy. The Zimbabwe National Chamber of Commerce has many branches. The Consumer Council of Zimbabwe is located in Harare. The Africa regional office of Consumers International is in Harare.

The National Arts Council of Zimbabwe is based in Harare. The Zimbabwe Medical Association and the Zimbabwe Scientific Association serve as both professional associations and educational/research organizations. The Wildlife Society of Zimbabwe is an educational and activist group for conservation and environmental issues.

National youth organizations include Youth for Christ, Junior Chamber, the Zimbabwe National Students Union, Zimbabwe Student Christian Movement, the Boy Scouts Association of Zimbabwe, The Girl Guides Association of Zimbabwe, and YMCA/YWCA. There are sports associations promoting amateur competition for athletes of all ages in a wide variety of pastimes, including softball, baseball, badminton, and track and field.

The Zimbabwe Association for Human Rights was established in 1994. Active groups for women's rights and social development include the Kunwana Women Association, the Musasa Project, the Zimbabwe Association of University Women, and the Zimbabwe Women's Bureau. Amnesty International, Habitat for Humanity, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, UNICEF, and the Red Cross have national chapters.

TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION

Tourist attractions include Victoria Falls and the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River, numerous wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves, including Hwange National Park, the eastern highlands, the Matobo Hills, and the Zimbabwe ruins near Masvingo. There are safari areas in the Zambezi Valley below the Kariba Dam and at Tuli. Resort, camping, and fishing facilities are also available. South African visitors still account for the largest share of the tourist trade. Political progress in South Africa brightens the outlook for tourism in Zimbabwe. A passport, visa, onward/return ticket, and sufficient funds are required for travel to Zimbabwe. Precautions against typhoid, malaria, and hepatitis are recommended.

In 2001, approximately 2,067,864 tourists visited Zimbabwe. Tourism receipts for 2003 totaled us$44 million. In that year there were 5,766 hotel rooms with 12,053 beds and a 38% occupancy rate. The average length of stay was three nights.

According to 2005 US Department of State estimates, the cost of staying in Harare was us$301 per day, and at Victoria Falls, us$411 per day.

FAMOUS ZIMBABWEANS

The country's former name, Rhodesia, was derived from Cecil John Rhodes (1853–1902), whose company administered the area during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Lobengula (1833–94), king of the Ndebele, whose grant of the minerals concession in his territory to Rhodes in 1888 led to European settlement, headed an unsuccessful rebellion of his people against the settlers in 1893. Prominent African nationalist leaders are Joshua Nkomo (1917–99), leader of ZAPU; Bishop Abel Muzorewa (b.1925) of the United Methodist Church, who became the nation's first black prime minister in 1979; and ZANU leader Robert Gabriel Mugabe (b.1924), who became prime minister after independence and later first executive president; he has been head of state since 1980. Ian Smith (b.1919) was prime minister from 1964 to 1979. Many of the early works of the British novelist Doris Lessing (b.1919) are set in the Rhodesia where she grew up.

DEPENDENCIES

Zimbabwe has no territories or colonies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Harmon, Daniel E. Southeast Africa: 1880 to the Present: Reclaiming a Region of Natural Wealth. Philadelphia, Penn.: Chelsea House Publishers, 2002.

Masters, William A. Government and Agriculture in Zimbabwe. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1994.

Meldrum, Andrew. Where We Have Hope: A Memoir of Zimbabwe. London, Eng.: John Murray, 2004.

Owomoyela, Oyekan. Culture and Customs of Zimbabwe. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002.

Renwick, Robin. Unconventional Diplomacy in Southern Africa. New York: St. Martin's, 1997.

Rotberg, Robert I. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy: The Tribulations of Southern Africa, 1960–2000. Cambridge, Mass.: World Peace Foundation, 2002.

Rubert, Steven C. and R. Kent Rasmussen. Historical Dictionary of Zimbabwe. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2001.

Sheehan, Sean. Zimbabwe. 2nd ed. Tarrytown, N.Y.: Benchmark Books/Marshall Cavendish, 2004.

Zeilig, Leo and David Seddon. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Africa. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Zimbabwe

PROFILE
PEOPLE AND HISTORY
FOREIGN RELATIONS
GOVERNMENT
ECONOMY
DEFENSE
U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS
TRAVEL

Compiled from the January 2008 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:

Republic of Zimbabwe

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.), slightly larger than Montana.

Cities: Capital—Harare (pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other towns—Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.

Terrain: Desert and savanna.

Climate: Mostly subtropical.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Zimbabwean (sing.), Zimbabweans (pl.).

Population: (2003 est.) 12.5 million.

Annual growth rate: (2003 est.) 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be 18% and a high level of net emigration.)

Ethnic groups: Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.

Religions: Christianity 75%, off-shoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

Education: Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—90.5% (2004 est.).

Health: Infant mortality rate—51.7/ 1,000 (2006 est.). Life expectancy—men 37 (2006), women 34 (2006).

Work force: (2006 est.) 900,000 in formal sector.

Government

Type: Parliamentary.

Constitution: December 21, 1979.

Independence: April 18, 1980.

Government branches: Executive—President (chief of state and head of government), Cabinet. Legislative—In the 150-seat House of Assembly, 120 seats are popularly elected and 30 are directly appointed by the president or selected through a process strongly influenced by him. In the 66 seat Senate, 50 seats are popularly elected, 6 are directly appointed by the president, 8 chiefs are elected from the 8 rural provinces (excluding the metropolitan provinces), and 2 are the president and vice president of the Council of Chiefs. Judicial—High Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary courts.

Political subdivisions: Town Councils and District Councils.

Political parties: Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF); Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); United People's Party (UPP).

Economy

GDP: (2006 est.) U.S. $407.4 million (World Bank est).

Real GDP growth rate: (2006) -¥5.1%.

Real per capita GDP: (Reliable estimates of current GDP and population size are unavailable.)

Avg. inflation rate: 7,634.8% (year-on-year, July 2007, by official accounts; private sector estimates are roughly triple the official figure).

Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

Agriculture: (15% of GDP) Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugarcane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

Industry: manufacturing, public administration, commerce, mining, transport and communication.

Trade: (2006) U.S. exports—U.S. $47.58 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $103.28 million. Partners (2000 est.)—South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports (2004)—U.S. $1,989 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Primarily of the Bantu group of south and central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are divided into two major language groups, which are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about 75% of the population, have lived in the area the longest and are the majority language group. The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing about 20% of the population and centered in the southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African Zulu group, they maintained control over the Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia in 1890.

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.

The literacy rate is estimated at 90.5%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system has been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, the new Midlands State University in Gweru, the new Solusi University in Bulawayo (Seventh Day Adventist), the new Bindura University of Science in Bindura, fourteen teacher-training colleges, and twelve polytechnical institutes and industrial training centers, is being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.

Early History

Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites is the “Great Zimbabwe” ruins, after which the country is named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous Africans who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's south-eastern coast.

In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonization of south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders some 300 years later. Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples took place. Successive waves of more highly developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions supplanted the original inhabitants and are the ancestors of the region's Africans today.

British Settlement and Administration

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under the British South Africa Company's administration.

Following the abrogation of the company's charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia's white settlements were given the choice of being incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.

After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on developing Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The settlers’ demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for Europeans.

In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. Although the federation flourished economically, the African population, who feared they would not be able to achieve self-government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed it. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after much crisis and turmoil,

and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.

Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)

The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little willingness to accede to African demands for increased political participation and progressively replaced more moderate party leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the more moderate European opposition.

Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep their dominant position, the white Rhodesians refused to give such assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom.

Post-UDI Events

The British Government considered the UDI unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that it would not use force to oppose it. On November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other nations to do the same.

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the “Patriotic Front” and combined their military forces, at least nominally.

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.

On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith administration signed the “internal settlement” agreement in Salisbury with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming “Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's” first black prime minister. However, the installation of the new black majority government did not end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 1972.

Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's conservative government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of consultations that culminated in an agreement among the Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and independence.

The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979. On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British authority to officially recognized independence, the “Zimbabwe-Rhodesia” reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the Rhodesian rebellion and the “internal settlement,” as well as the beginning of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.

Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African guerillas.

The British Government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following independence. The United States was the first nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare) on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.

In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe's first cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.

Zimbabwe Since Independence

Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation was generally successful during the country's first two years of independence, as the former political and military opponents began to work together. Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.

Splits soon developed, however. In 1981,several MPs from Smith's party left to sit as "independents,” signifying that they did not automatically accept his anti-government posture. More importantly, government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe's government. Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.

As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as “Father Zimbabwe”) and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members. Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other properties seized from PF-ZAPU.

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and the continuing antigovernment dissidence, the government kept in force a “state of emergency,” which was first declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread powers under the “Law and Order Maintenance Act,” including the right to detain persons without charge.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political tension rose in the country as a result. The pacification campaign, known as the “Gukuruhundi,” or strong wind, resulted in as many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PF-ZAPU agreed to unite in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.

In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and to replace the whites whose reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 whites in the Senate and House of Assembly. Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the campaign was not free and fair although the actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency was lifted in July 1990.

After the remaining restrictions of the Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18, 1990, the government embarked on a campaign of amending the existing constitution. Both the judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticized some of the first amendments, which were enacted in April 1991, because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government.

During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in October 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992, when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers were also vocal critics of the government during this time. In June 1992, police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there was widespread industrial unrest. In August and September 1996, thousands of civil servants demanding salary increases organized a national strike and in October and November of the same year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

In part through its control of the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security forces, the government managed to keep organized political opposition to a minimum through most of the 1990's. Beginning in 1999, however, Zimbabwe has experienced a period of considerable political and economic upheaval. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government has grown in recent years, in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions. The opposition is currently led by the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which was established in September 1999.

The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorized government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly there-after, the government, through a loosely organized group of war veterans, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterized by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the mid-term suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Since the presidential election, the political climate has remained tense and intensely polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to rural council elections in September 2002 and various parliamentary by-elections that year. Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana, Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were marred by widespread intimidation and beatings. The government also passed legislation that curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube and Gas-ela were subsequently dropped and in October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. In August 2005, the government dropped a second charge of treason against Tsvangirai.

The government subscribed to the electoral principles of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2004 but failed to implement key elements of the principles in advance of the 2005 parliamentary elections. The campaign period and election day were largely non-violent, but the elections were not free and fair. The election process was marred by repressive legislation that limits freedom of speech and assembly; millions of expatriate Zimbabweans were not permitted to vote; the government used food distributions to influence an increasingly hungry population; an astonishingly high 10% (as high as 30% in some areas) of would-be voters were turned away; and discrepancies in officially announced results and the govern-ment's refusal to release key voting data have led to questions about the possibility of fraud.

In May 2005, the government began Operation Murambatsvina (also known as Operation Restore Order), ostensibly to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. A UN Special Envoy sent to Zimbabwe to assess the scope and impact of operation estimated that some 700,000 people nationwide lost their homes, their source of livelihood or both. Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter. The government interfered with non-governmental organization (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances. Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities.

The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced. As of September 2007, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced. The government campaign of forced evictions continued in 2006 and 2007, albeit on a lesser scale.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of “active nonalignment.” In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe usually adhered to positions established by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or, until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth. Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for Namibia (South-West Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as chairman of the frontline states in southern Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of the non-permanent seats in the UN Security Council for the following two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and gave it much-needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and responsibility.

Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, Botswana, Serbia, Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six countries are represented in Harare as are several international organizations including UN institutions, the European Union, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF); African Development Bank; The World Trade Organization; Southern African Development Community (SADC); Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM; African Union (AU); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The IMF Executive Board in July 2004 postponed until January 2005 deliberations on a recommendation for Zimbabwe's compulsory withdrawal from the institution. The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October 2004 in a decision not linked to the country's considerable arrears. Shortly after the March 2002 presidential election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from leadership councils for one year after the Commonwealth's election observer team found the conduct of the election seriously flawed. After this suspension was upheld in December 2003, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Historically, Zimbabwe's closest links have been with the U.K.; however, in the past seven years, this relationship has been very strained. The government has demonized Britain in the press, blaming the country for Zimbabwe's problems, and claiming that Britain reneged on promises made at Lancaster House to provide money for land reform. As with the U.S., thousands of Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private links remain close; however, official relations are strained.

Other West European countries have ties with Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share certain philosophical affinities and have provided much assistance, as have France, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Portugal and Greece maintain links partly because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek communities in the country. Similar historical ties have led to the establishment of relations with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh. The government's “look east” policy has led to closer diplomatic relations with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and China.

Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with virtually every African country, although some ties are closer than others. African nations with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, D.R.C., Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia.

Ruled continuously by a liberation party, Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with a number of revolutionary states and organizations. Among these are the People's Republic of China, Cuba, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the Palestine Liberation Organization.

GOVERNMENT

According to Zimbabwe's constitution, the president is head of state and head of government, and is elected for a 6-year term by popular majority vote. Parliament is bicameral and sits for up to a 5-year term. The 150-member house of assembly consists of 120 elected seats, 10 chiefs elected by their peers but influenced by the president, eight provincial governors and 12 non-constituency MPs appointed by the president. The parliament elects a speaker from outside its membership and a deputy speaker from among its members.

In September 2007 the House of Assembly and the Senate unanimously passed Constitutional Amendment 18 which provides for significant changes in the country's electoral dispensation. The amendment sets out the framework to harmonize presidential and parliamentary elections, reduce the presidential term of office from 6 years to 5, to increase the number of seats in the House of Assembly from 150 to 210 and in the Senate from 66 to 93, to empower Parliament to serve as an electoral college should the office of president become vacant for any reason, and to empower the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission (ZEC) to delimit parliamentary and local constituencies. The amendment came into effect on October 1. In September 2005 the government used its two-thirds majority in parliament to pass a constitutional amendment that established a 66-member Senate. The Senate consists of 50 elected seats, 6 seats directly appointed by the president, 8 chiefs elected from the 8 rural provinces (excluding the metropolitan provinces), and the president and vice president of the Council of Chiefs.

The Zimbabwean constitution institutionalizes majority rule and protection of minority rights. The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service, including the military and police, and the independent Public Service Commission is charged with making appointments at lower levels on an equitable basis.

The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court who, like the other justices, is appointed by the president on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The constitution has a bill of rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The bill of rights could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by unanimous vote of the parliament. Zimbabwe is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a provincial governor appointed by the president. The provincial administrator and representatives of several service ministries assist the provincial governor. In 2004, the Mugabe government declared Bulawayo and Harare to be provinces with their own respective provincial governors even though there is no constitutional provision for these newly created positions. Zimbabwe is governed by President Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwean African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), which has dominated the legislative and executive branches since independence in 1980.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 2/1/2008

Pres.: Robert MUGABE

Vice Pres.: Joseph MSIKA

Vice Pres.: Joyce MUJURU

Min. of Agriculture: Rugare GUMBO

Min. of Defense: Sidney SEKERAMAYI

Min. of Economic Development: Sylvester NGUNI

Min. of Education, Sport, & Culture: Anneas CHIGWEDERE

Min. of Energy & Power Development: Michael NYAMBUYA

Min. of Finance: Samuel MUMBENGEGWI

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Simbarashe MUMBENGEGWI

Min. of Health: David PARIRENYATWA

Min. of Higher & Tertiary Education: Stanislaus MUDENGE

Min. of Home Affairs: Kembo MOHADI

Min. of Indigenization & Empowerment: Josiah TUNGAMIRAI

Min. of Industry & Trade: Obert MPOFU

Min. of Information & Publicity: Sikhanyiso NDLOVU

Min. of Legal & Parliamentary Affairs: Patrick CHINAMASA

Min. of Local Govt.: Ignatius CHOMBO

Min. of Mines: Amos MIDZI

Min. of National Security: Didymus MUTASA

Min. of Policy Implementation: Webster SHAMU

Min. of Public Services: Nicholas GOCHE

Min. of Rural Housing & Social Amenities: Emmerson MNANGAGWA

Min. of Science & Technology: Olivia MUCHENA

Min. of Small- & Medium-Scale Enterprises: Sithembiso NYONI

Min. of State Affairs Responsible for Land & Resettlement Programs: Paul MANGWANA

Min. of State Enterprises, Antimonopolies, & Anticorruption: Samuel UNDENGE

Min. of Tourism: Francis NHEMA

Min. of Transport & Communications: Chris MUSHOWE

Min. of Water Resources & Infrastructural Development: Munacho MUTEZO

Min. of Women's Affairs, Gender, & Community Development: Oppah MUCHINGURI

Min. of Youth Development & Employment: Ambrose MUTIHIRI

Min. Without Portfolio: Elliot MANYIKA

Governor, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe: Gideon GONO

Ambassador to the US: Simbi Veke MUBAKO

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Boniface Guwa CHIDYAUSIKU

Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.

ECONOMY

Properly managed, Zimbabwe's wide range of resources should enable it to support sustained economic growth. The country has an important percentage of the world's known reserves of metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include coal, platinum, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore. However, for the country to benefit from these mineral deposits, it must attract foreign direct investment.

In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks and whites reached record highs, although the disparity in incomes between blacks and whites remained, with blacks earning only about one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975, however, Rhodesia's economy was undermined by the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining earnings from commodity exports, worsening guerilla conflict, and increasing white emigration. When Mozambique severed economic ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on South Africa for access to the outside world. Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per year) was allocated to defense, and a large budget deficit raised the public debt burden substantially.

Following the Lancaster House settlement in December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the strongest and most complete industrial infrastructures in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as rich mineral resources and a strong agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3% contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to drought and foreign exchange crisis. Growth in 1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardships. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 1999, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; inflation vaulted over 7,634.8% (year on year) in July 2007; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated. In a desperate attempt to control inflation, the government forced firms and supermarkets to reduce prices by half in July 2007, which resulted in severe shortages of basic and other commodities.

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. Large scale commercial farming has been effectively destroyed over the course of the last five years under the government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco had traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco production in 2006, however, slumped to its lowest level—about 50 million kg—since independence, off from a peak in 2000 of 237 million kg. Gold production, another former key foreign currency source, slid by about 48% in the first half of 2007 to 4.54 metric tons compared to the corresponding period in 2006. Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests in years of drought or floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls every year since 2001. Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, but the condition of urban roads and the unpaved rural road network has deteriorated significantly since 1995 for lack of maintenance. Rail lines connect with an extensive central African railroad network, although railway track condition has also worsened in recent years, along with locomotive availability and utilization. The electric power supply has become erratic and blackouts are common due to low generator availability at the Kariba hydroelectric power plant and unreliable or nonexistent coal supplies to the country's large thermal plants. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.

The largest industries are metal products, food processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing, furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers have sharply scaled back operations due to the poor operating climate and foreign exchange shortages. Zimbabwe is not a member of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and a number of textile businesses have migrated to other African countries in a bid to benefit from the opportunities offered by AGOA. Zim-bbabwean producers still export lumber products, certain textiles, chrome alloys and automobile windscreens to the U.S.

Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources. Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal, platinum, nickel, and copper could lead to an economic recovery one day. No commercial deposits of petroleum have been discovered, although the country is richly endowed with coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be exploited.

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted sharply since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image.

Energy Resources

With considerable hydroelectric power potential and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an energy source than most other comparably industrialized countries, but it still imports 40% of its electric power needs from the DRC, Mozambique and South Africa. Only about 15% of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is accounted for by oil, all of which is imported. Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil per year. Dependence on petroleum is managed through the price controls for vehicle fuels, the use of gasohol, and the substitution of diesel-electric locomotives on the railway system. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal reserves that are utilized for power generation, and recently discovered in Matabeleland province are coal bed methane deposits greater than any known natural gas field in Southern or Eastern Africa. In recent years, however, poor economic management and low foreign currency reserves have led to serious fuel shortages.

DEFENSE

At independence, then-Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his government's top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PF-ZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.

Although as of late 2004, the ZDF had an active duty strength of 33,000 and the air force about 4,000 men these numbers have come down substantially because of resignations due to poor pay and working conditions. Today, the ZDF is largely immobile and beset by shortages of supplies, including food. The U.S. Congress terminated support for military cooperation programs in 2001.

U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS

After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in November 1965, the United States recalled its Consul General from Salisbury, closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS) library, and withdrew its Agency for International Development (USAID) and trade promotion officials. After 1965, the small remaining American consular staff continued to operate under authority of exequaturs issued by Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a republic, the United States closed its Consulate General on March 17, 1970.

In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the United States to import strategic materials, such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation, which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy, and the United States continued to support the balance of the sanctions program. After the legislation was repealed in March 1977, the United States once again enforced all sanctions.

The United States supported the United Nations and the United Kingdom consistently in their efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to accept the principles of majority rule. Beginning in 1976, the United States began to take a more active role in the search for a settlement in cooperation with the British. The Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent the weight of the United States to the search for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to increase their influence in southern Africa. The United States supported British efforts to bring about and implement the settlement signed at Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and extended official diplomatic recognition to the new government immediately after independence. A resident Embassy was established in Harare on Zimbabwe's Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in 1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington, Zimbabwe's relations with the U.S. were handled by its Ambassador to the United Nations (UN) in New York.

At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period toward the government's goals of postwar reconstruction, distribution and development of land, and the development of skilled manpower. By the end of FY 1986, the United States had contributed $380 million, the majority in grants, with some loans and loan guarantees. However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously agreed upon were not affected by the decision, nor were regional development programs that might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was restored in 1988.

USAID assistance to Zimbabwe since 2002 has focused on family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, democracy and governance programs, emergency food aid, and assistance to internally displaced persons. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance program in August 2000. CDC's program consists of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and health sector infrastructure support.

Since 2000, the United States has taken a leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean Government's increasing assault on human rights and the rule of law, and has joined much of the world community in calling for the Government of Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States imposed targeted measures on the Government of Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions against selected individuals, a ban on transfers of defense items and services, and a suspension of non-humanitarian government-to-government assistance. Despite strained political relations, the United States continues as a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $400 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2007, most of which was food aid.

President Mugabe visited Washington informally in September 1980, and on official working visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in 1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led the Zimbabwean delegation to the UN on several occasions, including most recently in 2006. Vice President George Bush visited Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several African countries.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

Last Updated: 2/19/2008

HARARE (E) 172 Herbert ChitePO Ave., Harare, Zimbabwe, APO/FPO No APO/FPO, 263-4-250593/4/5, Fax 263-4-796488, INMARSAT Tel 00-873-683-142-869, Workweek: Mo-Th:7:30:-5:00; Fri:7:30-12:30, Web-site: http://harare.usembassy.gov.

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

December 21, 2007

Country Description: Zimbabwe is a developing landlocked country in southern Africa. Tourist facilities are available in Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe, major cities, and selected game parks.

Entry Requirements: A passport, visa, return ticket, and adequate funds are required. U.S. citizens traveling to Zimbabwe for tourism, business, or transit can obtain a visa at the airports and border ports-of-entry, or in advance by contacting the Embassy of Zimbabwe at 1608 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20009; telephone (202) 332-7100. American citizens considering travel to Zimbabwe to visit tourist destinations, including eco-tourist sites or hunting safaris, or for business purposes, are advised that the Government of Zimbabwe has declared that American visitors with proper documentation will be allowed entry with-out difficulty. However, the Government of Zimbabwe has also signaled an intention to refuse entry to Americans who are believed to have a bias against the Zimbabwean government. In some instances, Zimbabwean immigration officials have used materials found in searches of travelers and their luggage as an explanation to refuse entry. Travelers should obtain the latest travel and visa information from the Embassy of Zimbabwe.

Upon arrival in Zimbabwe, travelers should keep all travel documents readily available, as well as a list of residences or hotels where they will stay while in Zimbabwe. Travelers to Zimbabwe must carry some form of identification at all times.

Since January 2007, several American citizens applying for or renewing residency or work permits have had their applications denied without explanation and been asked to depart the country, sometimes despite having lived and worked in Zimbabwe for many months or years.

U.S. citizens who intend to work in Zimbabwe as journalists must apply for accreditation with the Zimbabwean Embassy at least one month in advance of planned travel. The Government of Zimbabwe uses an extremely expansive definition of journalism; any formal interviews, filming or photography may be considered “practicing journalism.” If you are in doubt about whether or not your purpose of travel constitutes journalism, please seek clarification from the Zimbabwean Embassy in Washington BEFORE you travel. It is no longer possible to seek accreditation within Zimbabwe at the Ministry of Information. Journalists attempting to enter Zimbabwe without proper advance accreditation may be denied admission, detained for questioning, arrested or deported. Journalists seeking to file stories from Zimbabwe must comply with the requirements of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act, which requires that journalists seek accreditation by paying a $100 (U.S.) application fee and, if accredited, a $500 (U.S.) accreditation fee.

U.S. citizen students and faculty at educational and other institutions who wish to do research in Zimbabwe should contact a host educational or research institution for affiliation prior to applying for a visa. Despite fulfilling all such requirements and receiving appropriate permission, legitimate researchers have been detained in the past by the police because the subject of their research was believed to be sensitive.

While there is no set legal limit on the amount of foreign currency that a person can carry into Zimbabwe, it is illegal to take more than $1,000 U.S. dollars or more than $5,000,000 Zimbabwean dollars out of the country, whether departing by road or air. Travelers seeking to depart with greater amounts of local currency risk having the money confiscated and/or being prevented from leaving pending a court appearance.

Safety and Security: The political, social, economic, and security situations in Zimbabwe are volatile and could deteriorate quickly without warning. In response to growing public protests against deteriorating conditions, the Zimbabwe Government continues to authorize its security forces to suppress all dissent by whatever means deemed necessary. In recent months, political leaders at the highest levels of the Zimbabwean government have condoned the security forces’ use of violence against opponents of the government. The government has defended its right to treat individuals roughly, including those in custody, and has warned of more such actions.

As campaigning and preparations for 2008 presidential elections take place, there is an increased potential for political violence, particularly at large rallies or demonstrations. Government security forces have attacked peaceful demonstrations protesting political repression and a deteriorating economic situation. U.S. citizens are strongly urged to avoid all political rallies and demonstrations, or large gatherings of any kind anywhere in Zimbabwe. During the past year, political demonstrations, which occur in both urban and rural areas, have resulted in injuries. One member of the opposition political party, Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), was killed on March 11, 2007 by Zimbabwean police who broke up a prayer rally in Highfields, a low-income suburb of Harare. In the weeks following, numerous opposition members were kidnapped from their homes and public places and beaten and tortured. The govern-ment's security forces have also directed violence at common citizens, indiscriminately beating individuals on the street and in private establishments.

Zimbabwean media outlets, particularly those affiliated with the Government of Zimbabwe, publish incendiary reports accusing the United States, Australian and British governments of funding terrorism and advocating regime change in Zimbabwe. On April 1, 2007, a government sponsored newspaper, The Herald, charged that a UK Embassy employee was “meddling” in Zimbabwean affairs and threatened that if she didn’t cease her conduct, she might next arrive in London in a body bag.

Resident and visiting Americans have been arrested, detained, or threatened with expulsion for activities that would not be considered crimes in the U.S., including the expression of opinions regarding the current political regime in Zimbabwe. The streets around State House, the official residence of the President, and the Botanical Gardens are particularly sensitive and a number of pedestrians and motorists, including Americans, have been assaulted by local security forces when walking or driving in that area. President Mugabe and other senior government officials travel around Harare accompanied by large and aggressive motorcades that have been known to run motorists off the road, and by security personnel who occasionally beat and harass drivers who fail to pull out of the way quickly enough. American citizens are advised to be aware of police vehicles flashing lights and sirens and move quickly off the road if overtaken by a motorcade.

American visitors have been detained in the past under suspicion of operating as journalists without a license for photographing cultural sites and areas that may not immediately appear to be sensitive. Tourists may also be subject to harassment or arrest for photographing police, road-blocks, occupied commercial farms, and government buildings or military installations, official residences or embassies, including the president's palace. Prior written permission must be obtained from the appropriate government office before taking such photographs. It is not always immediately apparent what the police deem sensitive and American citizens have been detained for hours for photographing such seemingly innocuous subjects as fruit carts and religious buildings such as churches, mosques and synagogues. American citizens are encouraged to be very aware of their surroundings before taking any pictures outside game parks and known tourist areas.

The government frequently uses road blocks to enforce order, particularly in urban centers. Road blocks can be particularly dangerous, and extreme caution should be used when approaching them. When instructed by police or other security officials to stop at a roadblock, comply with these instructions. If possible, carry a mobile phone or other means of communication. In November 2002, Zimbabwean police outside of Mutare killed an American citizen at a road-block.

Other ongoing security conditions that could affect the safety of tourists in Zimbabwe include rising crime and the occupation of commercial farms by members of the National War Veterans’ Association and others. The so-called war veterans have seized American-owned property, and residents and tourists alike should avoid areas where war veterans are active.

Sharp price cuts on local goods have caused widespread shortages of bread, milk, meat, poultry and gasoline, and other basic goods, resulting in occasional outbreaks of violence as security agents seek to enforce the price cuts and citizens rush to buy available goods. Visitors should be prepared for food shortages and avoid large gatherings, particularly around shopping areas and in the high-density suburbs of Harare and Bulawayo.

Zimbabwe is currently experiencing a significant nationwide fuel shortage. Drivers can spend days parked in lines at gas stations waiting for fuel. Emotions in these lines can run quite high and have sparked isolated protests. Travelers should carefully assess their fuel situation, keep their tanks full, and consider carrying extra fuel in sealed containers specifically designed for such purpose before making any long-distance journeys.

Americans who travel to Zimbabwe should closely monitor the situation, keep travel documents up to date, and make their own contingency plans. Americans overseas are advised to make or update complete inventories of their household effects and to maintain an adequate supply of food, water and necessary medications in their home.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's web site, where the current World-wide Caution Travel Alert, Travel Warnings and other Travel Alerts can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.

Crime: Crime is a serious problem in Zimbabwe, and is driven by the country's deteriorating economy. Street crime in Zimbabwe is a serious problem. Americans and other foreigners are perceived to be wealthy and are frequently targeted by criminals who operate in the vicinity of hotels, restaurants, and shopping areas of the major cities and tourist areas such as Victoria Falls. Although the majority of crimes in Zimbabwe are non-violent, perpetrators are generally armed with weapons, which can include firearms. The downtown sector of Harare and its high density residential suburbs are particularly high-crime areas. A number of American visitors have been assaulted or robbed while walking in the town of Victoria Falls, especially after dark.

Travelers should secure their luggage at airports, railway and bus stations, and when making calls from public telephones. Purse-snatchers will often work in teams of two, with one person acting as a diversion. A typical mugging involves a group of young males who surround and overwhelm their victim in a public area. Avoid displaying or carrying unnecessary valuables, such as expensive jewelry, and do not carry large sums of money. Cell phones are of particular interest to local thieves.

Always secure items such as passports, money, jewelry, and credit cards in hotel safety deposit boxes or safes when not being used. The use of credit cards is not recommended unless the exchange rate can be determined before their use.

Travelers should avoid driving at night outside the low-density suburban areas. Drivers should be alert for “smash and grabs,” where thieves break the windows of cars stopped at intersections and take items from inside the car. Car doors should always be locked and the windows rolled up. Handbags, wallets, and other items should be placed out of sight under car seats or in the trunk of the car. While stopped in traffic, drivers should always be aware and look around to identify potential trouble. Drivers should always leave sufficient maneuver room between their vehicle and the one in front so they can drive away from danger. Travelers who suspect that their vehicle is being followed should drive to the nearest police station or other protected public area for assistance. Reducing idle times at traffic lights by slowing in advance to anticipate the changing of the light is an effective deterrent. Drivers should also be cautious of people using ploys to lure them out of their cars. In one ploy, an assailant will slash a tire and then offer to help with the flat, particularly on the road to Harare International Airport. Beware of drivers in vehicles without license plates who stop to render aid or who cause minor accidents. Always drive to a well-lit and populated area before making repairs or exchanging information.

Travelers are encouraged to make two photocopies of the biographic/ identification page of their passport. They should leave one copy at home with friends or relatives and carry the second copy with them for identification purposes.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance.

The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities, particularly outside of Harare and Bula-wayo, are extremely limited. Many illnesses or accidents require medical evacuation to South Africa. All travelers are strongly urged to obtain medical evacuation insurance coverage prior to arriving in Zimbabwe. Doctors, hospitals and air ambulance medical evacuation services often expect immediate cash payment for health services. Travelers are urged to carry an ample supply of prescription and other medications, as they will not likely be available in Zimbabwe. Provincial hospitals in rural areas have rudimentary staffing, equipment, and supplies, and are not equipped to provide medical care in case of a serious accident. The fuel shortage further diminishes emergency response capabilities. Emergency patients have sometimes had to arrange their own transportation to the hospital.

The water supply is not always potable; use bottled or distilled water for drinking.

Malaria is prevalent throughout Zimbabwe, except in Harare, due to the capital's high altitude. The CDC strongly recommends that malaria prophylaxis and preventive measures are taken when traveling outside of Harare.

In early 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed a limited outbreak of cholera in Harare, Chikomba and Buhera districts. Cases of cholera were also confirmed in Harare in January and February 2007.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's web site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith/en.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Zimbabwe is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The main roads throughout Zimbabwe are generally in fair but deteriorating condition. Most lack passing lanes, shoulders, breakdown lanes, lighting, reflectors, and similar safety features.

Service stations frequently lack fuel or repair parts. Inter-city commuter bus travel, except by “luxury coaches,” is dangerous due to overcrowding, inadequate maintenance, and drivers who are fatigued and who fail to adhere to local speed limits and to obey traffic rules or regulations. Travelers are advised to avoid driving at night due to pedestrians (in dark clothing) and animals walking in the poorly lit roads. Motor vehicles often have no headlights or taillights and are difficult to see at night. Traffic moves on the left and many people drive over the speed limit. The passing lanes are not always clearly marked, and road visibility at times can be restricted. In urban areas, lane markers are often faded and traffic, streetlights are often inoperable and large potholes are cropping up in previously well-maintained roads.

It is illegal to operate a cellular telephone while driving in Zimbabwe. Drivers are required to wear seat belts or helmets if driving motorcycles. Car seats are not legally required for small children. Travelers should pack several pairs of latex gloves in the event of a road accident involving serious injuries or bleeding, as Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in southern Africa.

A nationwide fuel shortage makes internal travel difficult and unreliable, and severely restricts the response capability of police and other emergency services.

The Ministry of Transport is the government authority responsible for road safety in Zimbabwe. There is no national established network of roadside emergency service. However, the Automobile Association of Zimbabwe, similar to the American Automobile Association, is willing to provide roadside emergency service to nonmembers for a fee. Travelers interested in contacting the service during their stay in Zimbabwe may contact AA Zimbabwe at 263-4-752-779. AA Zimbabwe's 24-hour emergency roadside helpline is 263-4-707-959.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the Government of Zimbabwe's Civil Aviation Authority as not being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for the oversight of Zimbabwe's air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's web site at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: The U.S. Embassy does not receive notification of the arrest of American citizens by the Zimbabwean police. Further, the Government of Zimbabwe does not always grant immediate or repeated visits to detained or incarcerated Americans by Embassy consular officers. In April 2007, two Americans were detained by Zimbabwean police in Harare. They were not charged with any crime, they were not asked if they would like legal representation, and they were not arraigned before a magistrate. The the police failed to give consular notification, failed to grant consular visitation, and refused to provide Embassy staff any information about their whereabouts, despite repeated inquiries. In this case, the police officer in charge made comments which suggested that their refusal to provide information or consular access was at least partially motivated by political considerations and the strained state of U.S.-Zimbabwe relations. In August 2007, two more Americans arrested under similar circumstances were detained for two days and deported. Zimbabwean officials failed to notify U.S. consular officials of the arrests; after U.S. officials became aware of the detentions they were refused visitation.

U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. If arrested, American citizens should ask to contact the American Embassy.

Under Executive Order 13288 of March 7, 2003, the United States placed sanctions on the property and economic assets of certain Zimba-bwean government officials deemed most responsible for undermining Zimbabwe's democratic institutions. Under U.S. law, it is illegal for American citizens or residents to engage in any transaction or dealing with the targeted individuals or other entities designated by the Secretary of the Treasury under this sanctions program. It is not otherwise illegal for American citizens to transact business with Zimbabwean firms. U.S. citizens intending to engage in business or financial transactions in Zimbabwe are advised to consult the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control web site at www.treas.gov/offices/enforcement/ofac/ for up-to-date information on these sanctions.

It is illegal to exchange foreign currency for local currency with anyone other than an authorized currency dealer affiliated with the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. Authorized currency dealers include the major banks, such as Standard Chartered and Barclays. Street vendors and private individuals may also offer this service, but they should be avoided. Travelers observed by the police engaging in illegal money transactions will be immediately arrested and jailed pending a hearing before a magistrate court.

Travelers to Zimbabwe should carefully consider the method of payment used for lodging and other expenses. Due to high rates of inflation, prices may fluctuate dramatically. Internationally convertible currency such as U.S. dollars or British pounds may be required for certain travel-related expenses such as hotel bills and air-fare, but is illegal to use for most other expenses. Even in instances where use of foreign exchange is required or permitted, traveler's checks may not be accepted. Similarly, many banks and foreign exchange windows refuse to accept traveler's checks for conversion to local currency, and virtually none will cash them for foreign exchange. There have been recent instances in which Zimbabwean authorities seized foreign currency from tourists/ visitors who were unable to present documentation that they declared these funds when entering the country. Using a credit card could significantly increase the cost of purchases, as credit card companies calculate the U.S. dollar equivalent using the official government rate, which may be significantly lower than that used by local shopkeepers and vendors. Visitors are encouraged to assess the currency situation in Zimbabwe at the actual time of travel.

Zimbabwe offers opportunities for observation of wildlife in its natural habitat and many tour operators still offer structured, safe excursions into parks and other wildlife viewing areas for close observation of flora and fauna. However, standards and training have declined markedly and it is a good idea to ascertain whether operators are trained and licensed. Even animals marketed as “tame” should be respected as wild and extremely dangerous. Two foreign visitors were killed by an elephant on a “safari walk” in Hwange National Park in March 2007. A foreign tourist died in August 2005 after an attack during a “lion walk” at The Lion and Cheetah Park, a game preserve near Harare. In February 2007 another foreign visitor was seriously injured during a “lion walk” with young lions at the same park. In 2004, an American tourist was killed by a crocodile while in a canoe at Mana Pools on the Zambezi River. U.S. citizens participating in nature excursions in Zimbabwe should be aware that even organized and licensed tour operators may encourage or allow tourists to participate in activities, such as walking or canoe safaris, which could pose great risks to personal safety. Travelers should keep a safe distance from animals at all times, remaining in vehicles or other protected enclosures when venturing into game parks.

There have been a few instances in which tourists have faced last-minute cancellations or have had to leave a game park earlier than planned as a result of labor unrest and/or owner-ship disputes. Visitors to Nyanga should avoid Pungwe Falls, Mterazi Falls, and the Honde Falls, as there have been numerous incidents of armed robbery, theft, assaults, and attempted rapes reported at these sites. Land mines along the Mozambique border, situated beyond the main tourist areas, make travel to that border area potentially hazardous.

Tourists who wish to hunt in Zimbabwe must be accompanied by a licensed operator, who is required to be registered and licensed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Travelers to Zimbabwe should ask for the operator's license number when booking a hunt and should check the authenticity of the license by contacting the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO) at [email protected] or [email protected].

U.S. citizens who are temporarily carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe for purposes of hunting, and who cannot qualify for an exemption under the International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR), may need an approved temporary export license (DSP73) from Department of State's Office of Defense Trade Controls. U.S. citizens should also contact the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. to find out what permits are required by the government of Zimbabwe for importing weapons into the country. Travelers are advised to make sure that all of the necessary documentation is in order before departing the United States. The weapons also must be cleared through U.S. Customs when leaving the United States and upon reentry at the conclusion of one's trip.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Zimbabwe's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Zimbabwe are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Registration and Embassy Locations: Americans living or traveling in Zimbabwe are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration web site so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Zimbabwe. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare, telephone (263-4) 250-593/4, after-hours telephone (263-4) 250-595; fax (263-4) 250-343. American citizen service hours are from 1:30 pm to 3:30 pm Monday through Thursday and from 8:00 am to 11:30 am on Fridays, except U.S. and Zim-babwean holidays. The mailing address is PO Box 3340, Harare. The e-mail address is ConsularHarare@ state.gov.

International Adoption

June 2006

The information in this section has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Intercountry adoption is rare in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare has a stated preference to place Zimbabwean children with parents of the same race. Inter-racial adoptions require the approval of the Minister of Social Welfare.

The Government of Zimbabwe occasionally has discouraged adoption of Zimbabwean children by foreigners and may make additional demands on the prospective adoptive parents before the adoption can be finalized. These demands include but are not limited to counseling of children, additional referrals and home study visits.

Interested U.S. citizens are strongly encouraged to contact U.S. consular officials in Harare before formalizing an adoption agreement to ensure that appropriate procedures have been followed that will make it possible for the Embassy to issue a U.S. immigrant visa for the child.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority:
Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare
Harare Central District
Social Welfare Office
PO Box CY 562
Causeway
Harare, Zimbabwe
011-263-4-703-711

If the Ministry approves a request to adopt, the case is submitted to the Juvenile Courts to review the adoption application. If approved, the Court will issue an Adoption Order and release the child for immigration.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Prospective adoptive parents who meet the residency requirements must be married and over the age of 25.

Single women 25 or older who are at least 21 years older than the prospective adoptive child may be approved by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare. Single men may only adopt family members and must be approved by the Minister. All prospective adoptive parents must have a clean criminal record.

Residency Requirements: Pro-spective adoptive parents must be either citizens or legal residents of Zimbabwe. This requirement may be waived by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare.

Time Frame: Adoptions in Zimbabwe take approximately three months once the Application to Adopt has been approved and the child has been identified. It is important to note the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare has a stated preference to place Zimbabwean children with parents of the same race. Wait times for Caucasian and mixed-race children can be significantly longer than for indigenous children. Inter-racial adoptions require the approval of the Minister.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Adoptions in Zimbabwe can only be facilitated through the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare. A court order without the recommendation of the Ministry is not considered a legal adoption and will not be considered valid for U.S. immigration purposes. All prospective adoptive parents should begin the adoption process with the Ministry or their district Social Welfare Office and in coordination with consular officers at the U.S. Embassy in Harare.

Currently, there are no licensed attorneys and/or facilitators authorized to handle adoption cases or issues in Zimbabwe. However, Zimbabwean law recently changed and in the coming months social work will be privatized to allow the Social Workers Agency Council to license private social workers to facilitate adoptions.

Adoption Fees: There are no fees from the Government of Zimbabwe and no court fees.

Adoptive parents have to obtain birth certificates for adopted children from the Registrar Generals Office of Births & Deaths in Harare or Bula-wayo, for a nominal fee.

Adoption Procedures: There are two tracks to adoption in Zimbabwe:

• If the prospective adoptive parents have not yet identified a child, they may first file a general application to adopt in the district where they live; once the application is approved, the Ministry will work with them to identify an appropriate child. The Ministry may recommend a particular child for adoption.
• If the prospective adoptive parents have identified the child/children they wish to adopt, they must visit the Social Welfare Office in their district to open a case file by filing an application to adopt the child. Note: Not every child in a Zimbabwean orphanage is eligible for adoption and there is no central registry for identifying eligible children.

Once the Application to Adopt has been approved, the Ministry of Social Welfare will refer the case to the Juvenile Court for consideration and, if approved, the court will issue an Adoption Order and release the child for immigration. If the prospective adoptive parents are not domiciled in Zimbabwe, they must request a waiver of the residency requirement from the Ministry of Social Welfare before their application can be approved.

The U.S. Embassy is aware only of isolated cases where the residency requirement has been waived. “Nominated” or “directed” adoption, in which a birth parent(s) give up a child directly to prospective adoptive parents, is legal in Zimbabwe; however, such adoptions may not meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law. American citizens interested in a directed adoption should contact the U.S. Embassy in Harare before initiating legal action.

Required Documents: Identity documents (such as a passport), birth and marriage certificates, police clearances from both the U.S. and Zimbabwe, supporting documents attesting to one's eligibility, and three or four references from individuals not related to the potential adoptive parents. There are additional documentary requirements for the prospective adoptive child. A current list of these documents can be obtained by contacting the Zimbabwean Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.

Embassy in the United States
1608 New Hampshire Avenue, NW
Washington D.C. 20009
Telephone (202) 3327100, (301) 2639826

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adopting parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at http://travel.state.gov/family.

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Zimbabwe may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe ([email protected]). General questions regarding international adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children's Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

Zimbabwe

Compiled from the November 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Zimbabwe

PROFILE

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

FOREIGN RELATIONS

GOVERNMENT

ECONOMY

DEFENSE

U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS

TRAVEL

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.), slightly larger than Montana.

Cities: Capital—Harare (pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other to wns—Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.

Terrain: Desert and savanna.

Climate: Mostly subtropical.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Zimbabwean (sing.), Zimbabweans (pl.).

Population: (2003 est.) 12.5 million.

Annual growth rate: (2003 est.) 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to above 20% and a high level of net emigration.)

Ethnic groups: Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.

Religions: Christianity 75%, off-shoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

Education: Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—90.7% (2003 est.).

Health: Infant mortality rate—51.7/1,000 (2006 est.). Life expectancy—men 40 (2006 est.), women 38 (2006 est.)

Work force: (2006 est.) 900,000 in formal sector.

Government

Type: Parliamentary.

Constitution: December 21, 1979.

Independence: April 18, 1980.

Government branches: Executive—President (chief of state and head of government), Cabinet. Legislative—In the 150-seat House of Assembly, 120 seats are popularly elected and 30 are directly appointed by the president or selected through a process strongly influenced by him. In the 66 seat Senate, 50 seats are popularly elected, 6 are directly appointed by the president, 8 chiefs are elected from the 8 rural provinces (excluding the metropolitan provinces), and 2 are the president and vice president of the Council of Chiefs. Judicial—High Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary courts.

Political subdivisions: Town Councils and District Councils.

Political parties: Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF); Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); United People’s Party (UPP); Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), Zimbabwe African National Union-Ndonga (ZANU-Ndonga).

Economy

GDP: (2005 est.) U.S. $3.2 billion.

Growth rate: (2005) -6.5%.

Real per capita GDP: (2005) U.S. $520.

Avg. inflation rate: 1,204% (year-to-year, August 2006).

Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

Agriculture: (15% of GDP) Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugar-cane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

Industry: manufacturing, public administration, commerce, mining, transport and communication.

Trade: (2005) U.S. exports—U.S. $44.5 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $95.2 million. Partners (2000 est.)—South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports (2004)—U.S. $1,989 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Primarily of the Bantu group of south and central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are divided into two major language groups, which are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about 75% of the population, have lived in the area the longest and are the majority language group. The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing about 20% of the population and centered in the southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African Zulu group, they maintained control over the Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia in 1890.

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population. The literacy rate is estimated at 90.7%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system had been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, fourteen teacher-training colleges, and twelve polytechnical institutes and industrial training centers, are being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.

Early History

Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites is the “Great Zimbabwe” ruins, after which the country is named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous Africans who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa’s southeastern coast.

In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonization of south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders some 300 years later. Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples took place. Successive waves of more highly developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions supplanted the original inhabitants and are the ancestors of the region’s Africans today.

British Settlement and Administration

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under the British South Africa Company’s administration. Following the abrogation of the company’s charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia’s white settlements were given the choice of being incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.

After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on developing Rhode-sia’s rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The settlers’ demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for Europeans.

In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. Although the federation flourished economically, the African population, who feared they would not be able to achieve self-government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed it. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after much crisis and turmoil, and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasa-land became the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.

Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)

The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little willingness to accede to African demands for increased political participation and progressively replaced more moderate

party leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the more moderate European opposition.

Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep their dominant position, the white Rhode-sians refused to give such assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom.

Post-UDI Event

The British Government considered the UDI unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that it would not use force to oppose it. On November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime.

The British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other nations to do the same.

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in this history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia’s primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory. In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the “Patriotic Front” and combined their military forces, at least nominally.

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith’s inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.

On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith administration signed the “internal settlement” agreement in Salisbury with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming “Zimbabwe-Rhodesia’s” first black prime minister. However, the installation of the new black majority government did not end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 1972.

Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher’s conservative government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of consultations that culminated in an agreement among the Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and independence. The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979. On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British authority to officially recognized independence, the “Zimbabwe-Rhodesia” reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the Rhode-sian rebellion and the “internal settlement,” as well as the beginning of Zimbabwe’s transition to independence. The United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country’s name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe’s ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe’s first government.

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.

Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African guerillas.

The British Government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following independence. The United States was the first nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare) on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.

In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe’s first cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.

Zimbabwe Since Independence

Prime Minister Mugabe’s policy of reconciliation was generally successful during the country’s first two years of independence, as the former political and military opponents began to work together. Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe’s rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.

Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several MPs from Smith’s party left to sit as “independents,” signifying that they did not automatically accept his anti-government posture. More importantly, government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe’s government. Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.

As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as “Father Zimbabwe”) and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU’s main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members. Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other properties seized from PF-ZAPU.

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and the continuing anti-government dissidence, the government kept in force a “state of emergency,” which was first declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread powers under the “Law and Order Maintenance Act,” including the right to detain persons without charge.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political tension rose in the country as a result. The pacification campaign, known as the “Gukuruhundi,” or strong wind, resulted in as many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PF-ZAPU agreed to unite in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.

In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and to replace the whites whose reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 whites in the Senate and House of Assembly. Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the campaign was not free and fair although the actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency was lifted in July 1990.

After the remaining restrictions of the Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18, 1990, the government embarked on a campaign of amending the existing constitution. Both the judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticized some of the first amendments, which were enacted in April 1991, because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government.

During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in October 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992, when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers were also vocal critics of the government during this time. In June 1992, police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there was widespread industrial unrest. In August and September 1996, thousands of civil servants demanding salary increases organized a national strike and in October and November of the same year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

In part through its control of the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security forces, the government has managed to keep organized political opposition to a minimum through most of the 1990’s. Beginning in 1999, however, Zimbabwe has experienced a period of considerable political and economic upheaval. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government has grown in recent years, in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions. The opposition is currently led by the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which was established in September 1999.

The MDC’s first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorized government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organized group of war veterans, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterized by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe’s victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the mid-term suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe’s fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Since the presidential election, the political climate has remained tense and intensely polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to rural council elections in September 2002 and various parliamentary by-elections that year. Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana, Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were marred by widespread intimidation and beatings. The government also passed legislation that curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube and Gasela were subsequently dropped and in October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. In August 2005, the government dropped a second charge of treason against Tsvangirai.

The government subscribed to the electoral principles of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2004 but failed to implement key elements of the principles in advance of the 2005 parliamentary elections. The campaign period and election day were largely non-violent, but the elections were not free and fair. The election process was marred by repressive legislation that limits freedom of speech and assembly; millions of expatriate Zimbabweans were not permitted to vote; the government used food distributions to influence an increasingly hungry population; an astonishingly high 10% (as high as 30% in some areas) of would-be voters were turned away; and discrepancies in officially announced results and the govern-ment’s refusal to release key voting data have led to questions about the possibility of fraud. In May 2005, the government began Operation Murambatsvina (also known as Operation Restore Order), ostensibly to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities.

The International Organization of Migration estimated that at least 300,000 people were displaced nationwide, as the operation moved from urban areas into rural areas and included apparently legal structures. Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government’s statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe’s winter. The government interfered with nongovernmental organization (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances. Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. The operation continued into July 2005, when the government began a program to provide housing for the newly displaced. As of September 2006, housing construction fell far short of demand, and there were reports that beneficiaries were mostly civil servants and ruling party loyalists, not those displaced.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of “active nonalignment.” In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe usually adhered to positions established by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or, until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth. Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for Namibia (SouthWest Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as chairman of the front-line states in southern Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of the non-permanent seats in the UN Security Council for the following two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and gave it much-needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and responsibility.

Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, Botswana, Serbia and Montenegro, Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six countries are represented in Harare as are several international organizations including UN institutions, the European Union, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF); African Development Bank; The World Trade Organization; Southern African Development Community (SADC); Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM; African Union (AU); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The IMF Executive Board in July 2004 postponed until January 2005 deliberations on a recommendation for Zimbabwe’s compulsory withdrawal from the institution. The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October 2004 in a decision not linked to the country’s considerable arrears. Shortly after the March 2002 presidential election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from leadership councils for one year after the Commonwealth’s election observer team found the conduct of the election seriously flawed. After this suspension was upheld in December 2003, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Historically, Zimbabwe’s closest links have been with the U.K.; however, in the past six years, this relationship has been very strained. The government has demonized Britain in the press, blaming the country for Zimbabwe’s problems, and claiming that Britain reneged on promises made at Lancaster House to provide money for land reform. As with the U.S., thousands of Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private links remain close; however, official relations are strained.

Other West European countries have ties with Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share certain philosophical affinities and have provided much assistance, as have France, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Portugal and Greece maintain links partly because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek communities in the country. Similar historical ties have led to the establishment of relations with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh. The government’s “look east” policy has led to closer diplomatic relations with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and China.

Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with virtually every African country, although some ties are closer than others. African nations with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, D.R.C., Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia. Ruled continuously by a liberation party, Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with a number of revolutionary states and organizations. Among these are the People’s Republic of China, Cuba, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the Palestine Liberation Organization.

GOVERNMENT

According to Zimbabwe’s constitution, the president is head of state and head of government, and is elected for a 6-year term by popular majority vote. Parliament is bicameral and sits for up to a 5-year term. The 150-member house of assembly consists of 120 elected seats, 10 chiefs elected by their peers but influenced by the president, eight provincial governors and 12 non-constituency MPs appointed by the president. The parliament elects a speaker from outside its membership and a deputy speaker from among its members.

In September 2005 the government used its two-thirds majority in parliament to pass a constitutional amendment that established a 66-member Senate. The Senate consists of 50 elected seats, 6 seats directly appointed by the president, 8 chiefs elected from the 8 rural provinces (excluding the metropolitan provinces), and the president and vice president of the Council of Chiefs.

The Zimbabwean constitution institutionalizes majority rule and protection of minority rights. The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service, including the military and police, and the independent Public Service Commission is charged with making appointments at lower levels on an equitable basis.

The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court who, like the other justices, is appointed by the president on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The constitution has a bill of rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The bill of rights could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by unanimous vote of the parliament.

Zimbabwe is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a provincial governor appointed by the president. The provincial administrator and representatives of several service ministries assist the provincial governor. In 2004, the Mugabe government declared Bulawayo and Harare to be provinces with their own respective provincial governors even though there is no constitutional provision for these newly created positions. Zimbabwe is governed by President Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwean African National Union—Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), which has dominated the legislative and executive branches since independence in 1980.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 4/26/2005

President: Robert MUGABE

Vice President: Joseph MSIKA

Vice President: Joyce MUJURU

Min. of Agriculture: Joseph MADE

Min. of Defense: Sidney SEKERAMAYI

Min. of Economic Development: Rugare GUMBO

Min. of Education, Sport, & Culture: Anneas CHIGWEDERE

Min. of Energy & Power Development: Michael NYAMBUYA

Min. of Finance: Herbert MURERWA

Min. of Foreign Affairs: Simbarashe MUMBENGEGWI

Min. of Health: David PARIRENYATWA

Min. of Higher & Tertiary Education: Stanislaus MUDENGE

Min. of Home Affairs: Kembo MOHADI

Min. of Indigenization & Empowerment: Josiah TUNGAMIRAI

Min. of Industry & Trade: Obert MPOFU

Min. of Information & Publicity: Tichaona JOKONYA

Min. of Legal & Parliamentary Affairs: Patrick CHINAMASA

Min. of Local Govt.: Ignatius CHOMBO

Min. of Mines: Amos MIDZI

Min. of National Security: Didymus MUTASA

Min. of Policy Implementation: Webster SHAMU

Min. of Public Services: Nicholas GOCHE

Min. of Rural Housing & Social Amenities: Emmerson MNANGAGWA

Min. of Science & Technology: Olivia MUCHENA

Min. of Small- & Medium-Scale Enterprises: Sithembiso NYONI

Min. of State Affairs Responsible for Land & Resettlement Programs: Flora BHUKA

Min. of State Enterprises, Anti-Monopolies, & Anti-Corruption: Paul MANGWANA

Min. of Tourism: Francis NHEMA

Min. of Transport & Communications: Chris MUSHOWE

Min. of Water Resources & Infrastructural Development: Munacho MUTEZO

Min. of Women’s Affairs, Gender, & Community Development: Oppah MUCHINGURI

Min. of Youth Development & Employment: Ambrose MUTIHIRI

Min. Without Portfolio: Elliot MANYIKA Governor, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe: Gideon GONO

Ambassador to the US: Simbi Veke MUBAKO

Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Boniface Guwa CHIDYAUSIKU

Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.

ECONOMY

Properly managed, Zimbabwe’s wide range of resources should enable it to support sustained economic growth. The country has an important percentage of the world’s known reserves of metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include coal, platinum, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore.

In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks and whites reached record highs, although the disparity in incomes between blacks and whites remained, with blacks earning only about one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975, however, Rhodesia’s economy was undermined by the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining earnings from commodity exports, worsening guerilla conflict, and increasing white emigration. When Mozambique severed economic ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on South Africa for access to the outside world. Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per year) was allocated to defense, and a large budget deficit raised the public debt burden substantially.

Following the Lancaster House settlement in December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the strongest and most complete industrial infrastructures in subSaharan Africa, as well as rich mineral resources and a strong agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country’s mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3% contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to drought and foreign exchange crisis. Growth in 1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardship. The Government of Zimbabwe’s chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 2000, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; inflation vaulted over 1200% (YOY) in August 2006; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, local currency, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated.

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. Large scale commercial farming has been effectively destroyed over the course of the last five years under the government’s controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco had traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco production in 2006, however, slumped to its lowest level—about 50 million kg—since independence, off from a peak in 2000 of 237 million kg. Cotton has now surpassed tobacco in export earnings. Gold production, another former key foreign currency source, slid by about one third in the first seven months of 2006 compared to the comparable period in 2005. Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests caused by drought and floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls beginning in 2001. Although the government forecast harvests in 2005-06 sufficient to meet the country’s food needs, most independent exports agreed there would be considerable shortfalls that would require imports or aid to make up the difference.

Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, but the condition of urban roads and the unpaved rural road network has deteriorated significantly since 1995. Rail lines connect with an extensive central African railroad network, although railway track condition has also worsened in recent years, along with locomotive availability and utilization. The electric power supply has become erratic and blackouts are common due to low generator availability at the Kariba hydroelectric power plant and unreliable or nonexistent coal supplies to the country’s large thermal plants. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.

The largest industries are metal products, food processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing, furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers have sharply scaled back operations. Zimbabwe is not a member of the African Growth and Opportunity Act and a number of textile businesses have migrated to other African countries. Zimbabwean producers still export lumber products, certain textiles, chrome alloys and automobile wind-screens to the U.S.

Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources. Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal, platinum, nickel, and copper could lead an economic recovery one day. No commercial deposits of petroleum have been discovered, although the country is richly endowed with coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be exploited.

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted sharply since 1999, however, due to the country’s declining international image. The U.S. Government has a travel warning in effect.

Energy Resources

With considerable hydroelectric power potential and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an energy source than most other comparably industrialized countries, but it still imports 40% of its electric power needs. Only about 15% of Zimbabwe’s total energy consumption is accounted for by oil, all of which is imported. Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil per year. Dependence on petroleum is managed through the price controls for vehicle fuels, the use of gasohol, and the substitution of diesel-electric locomotives on the railway system. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal reserves that are utilized for power generation, and recently discovered in Matabeleland province are coalbed methane deposits greater than any known natural gas field in Southern or Eastern Africa. In recent years, however, poor economic management and low foreign currency reserves have led to serious fuel shortages.

DEFENSE

At independence, then-Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe’s then three armed forces would be one of his government’s top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PF-ZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). As of late 2004, the ZNA had an active duty strength of 33,000 and the air force about 4,000 men. In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.

U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS

After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence was issued in November 1965, the United States recalled its Consul General from Salisbury, closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS) library, and withdrew its Agency for International Development (USAID) and trade promotion officials. After 1965, the small remaining American consular staff continued to operate under authority of exequaturs issued by Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a republic, the United States closed its Consulate General on March 17, 1970.

In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the United States to import strategic materials, such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation, which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy, and the United States continued to support the balance of the sanctions program. After the legislation was repealed in March 1977, the United States once again enforced all sanctions.

The United States supported the United Nations and the United Kingdom consistently in their efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to accept the principles of majority rule. Beginning in 1976, the United States began to take a more active role in the search for a settlement in cooperation with the British. The Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent the weight of the United States to the search for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to increase their influence in southern Africa. The United States supported British efforts to bring about and implement the settlement signed at Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and extended official diplomatic recognition to the new government immediately after independence. A resident Embassy was established in Harare on Zimbabwe’s Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in 1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington, Zimbabwe’s relations with the U.S. were handled by its Ambassador to the United Nations (U.N.) in New York.

At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period toward the government’s goals of postwar reconstruction, distribution and development of land, and the development of skilled manpower. By the end of FY 1986, the United States had contributed $380 million, the majority in grants, with some loans and loan guarantees. However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously agreed upon were not affected by the decision, nor were regional development programs that might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was restored in 1988.

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance to Zimbabwe since the 1990s has focused on agriculture/food security, education, family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, private sector development, low-income housing, micro-enterprise funding and democracy and governance programs, and emergency food aid. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance program in August 2000. CDC’s program consists of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveil-lance, monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and health sector infrastructure support.

Since 2000, the United States has taken a leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean Government’s increasing assault on human rights and the rule of law, and has joined much of the world community in calling for the Government of Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States imposed targeted measures on the Government of Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions against selected individuals, a ban on transfers of defense items and services, and a suspension of non-humanitarian government-to-government assistance. Despite strained political relations, the United States continues as a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $300 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002–2004, most of which was food aid.

President Mugabe visited Washington informally in September 1980, and on official working visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in 1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led the Zimbabwean delegation to the U.N. on several occasions, including most recently in 2006. Vice President George Bush visited Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several African countries.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

HARARE (E) Address: 172 Herbert Chitepo Ave., Harare, Zimbabwe; APO/FPO: No APO/FPO; Phone: 263-4-250593/4/5; Fax: 263-4-796488; INMARSAT Tel: 00-873-683-142-869; Workweek: Mo-Th: 8:00-5:30;Fri: 8:00-13:00; Website: usembassy.state.gov/Zimbabwe.

Last Updated: 10/3/2006

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet : November 15, 2006

Country Description: Zimbabwe is a developing landlocked country in southern Africa. Tourist facilities are available in Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe, major cities, and selected game parks.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport, visa, return ticket, and adequate funds are required. U.S. citizens traveling to Zimbabwe for tourism, business, or transit can obtain a visa at the airports and border ports-of-entry, or in advance by contacting the Embassy of Zimbabwe at 1608 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 332-7100. American citizens considering travel to Zimbabwe to visit tourist destinations, including eco-tourist sites or hunting safaris, or for business purposes, are advised that the Government of Zimbabwe has declared that American visitors with proper documentation will be allowed entry without difficulty. However, the Government of Zimbabwe has also signaled an intention to refuse entry to Americans who are believed to have a bias against the Zimbabwean government. In some instances, Zimbabwean immigration officials have used materials found in searches of travelers and their luggage as an explanation to refuse entry. Travelers should obtain the latest travel and visa information from the Embassy of Zimbabwe.

Upon arrival in Zimbabwe, travelers should keep all travel documents readily available, as well as a list of residences or hotels where they will stay while in Zimbabwe. Travelers to Zimbabwe must carry some form of identification at all times.

U.S. citizens who intend to work in Zimbabwe as journalists must apply for accreditation with the Zimbabwean Embassy at least one month in advance of planned travel. It is no longer possible to seek accreditation within Zimbabwe at the Ministry of Information. Journalists attempting to enter Zimbabwe without proper advance accreditation may be denied admission or deported. Journalists seeking to file stories from Zimbabwe must comply with the requirements of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act, which requires that journalists seek accreditation by paying a $100 (U.S.) application fee and, if accredited, a $500 (U.S.) accreditation fee.

U.S. citizen students and faculty at educational and other institutions who wish to do research in Zimbabwe should contact a host educational or research institution for affiliation prior to applying for a visa. Despite fulfilling all such requirements and receiving appropriate permission, legitimate researchers have been detained in the past by the police because the subject of their research was believed to be sensitive.

While there is no set legal limit on the amount of foreign currency that a person can carry into Zimbabwe, it is illegal to take more than $1,000 U.S. dollars or more than $5,000 Zimbabwean dollars out of the country, whether departing by road or air. Travelers seeking to depart with greater amounts of local currency risk having the money confiscated and/or being prevented from leaving pending a court appearance.

Safety and Security: The political, social, economic, and security situation in Zimbabwe remains fluid. Crime, especially burglary, robbery, and carjacking, is a serious problem. There are also ongoing incidents of land seizures, police roadblocks, political violence, intimidation in urban and rural areas and business closures. U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware that they are taking a risk in visiting any commercial farms, or straying outside normal tourist areas. The behavior of police or military personnel is not always predictable or rational in politically sensitive situations. In November 2002, Zimbabwean police outside of Mutare killed an American citizen at a roadblock.

Tourists may also be subject to harassment or arrest for photographing police, roadblocks, occupied commercial farms, and government buildings or installations. American visitors have also been detained under suspicion of operating as journalists without a license for photographing cultural sites and areas that may not immediately appear to be sensitive. Resident and visiting Americans have been arrested, detained, or threatened with expulsion for activities that would not be considered crimes in the U.S., including the expression of opinions regarding the current political regime in Zimbabwe. The streets around State House, the official residence of the President, and the Botanical Gardens are particularly sensitive and a number of pedestrians and motorists, including Americans, have been assaulted by local security forces when walking in that area.

Victoria Falls is a major tourist destination and visitors are urged to use the same security precautions they would exercise in any urban area of the developing world. Two American citizens were robbed in their hotel room in Victoria Falls in 2004. A number of American visitors have been assaulted or robbed walking in Victoria Falls town. While Harare is a clean and pleasant city, street crime is a serious problem, particularly in tourist areas. Harare has experienced a significant rise in the number of serious crimes committed during the past year. Although the majority of these crimes were non-violent, there has been an increase in the use of firearms. The downtown sector of Harare is a particularly high-crime area.

U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware of continuing conditions that could affect their safety, including the outbreak of sporadic demonstrations driven by deteriorating economic conditions. Demonstrations, which occur in both urban and rural areas, have sometimes resulted in injuries to demonstrators. Political activity can also result in violence, and U.S. citizens are urged to avoid all political rallies and demonstrations.

Other ongoing conditions that could affect the safety of tourists in Zimbabwe include the occupation of commercial farms by members of the National War Veterans’ Association and others. The so-called war veterans have not targeted resident U.S. citizens for violence, but American tourists and residents should avoid areas where war veterans are active.

Zimbabwe periodically experiences a significant nationwide fuel shortage. In the past, drivers have spent days parked in lines at gas stations waiting for fuel. Emotions in these lines can run quite high and have sparked isolated protests. Certain gas stations are authorized to accept foreign currency for fuel and these stations often have more fuel available with shorter lines. Travelers should carefully assess their fuel situation, keep their tanks full, and consider carrying extra fuel in sealed containers specifically designed for such purpose before making any long-distance journeys.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department’s Internet web site, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime: Carjacking, street crime, and credit card fraud are on the rise. Much of the increase in crime is due to high rates of unemployment and deteriorating economic conditions. Americans and other foreigners are perceived to be wealthy and could be targeted by criminals who operate in the vicinity of hotels, restaurants, and shopping malls in Harare and in major tourist areas such as Victoria Falls.

Travelers should watch their luggage at airports, railway and bus stations, and when making calls from public telephones. Travelers are advised to avoid displaying or carrying unnecessary valuables in public. Items such as passports, money, jewelry, and credit cards should be placed in hotel safety deposit boxes when not being used. Incidents have occurred, however, in which valuables left in room safes have been taken. Visitors should not carry large sums of money. Use of credit cards, except at major hotels and at automatic teller machines, is not recommended.

Teams of thieves frequently prey on victims in the downtown area of Harare. Purse-snatchers will often work in teams of two, with one person acting as a diversion. A typical mugging involves a group of young males who surround and overwhelm their victim in a public area. Tourists and out-of-town shoppers continue to be considered lucrative targets. Use caution when leaving banks. Cell phones are of particular interest to local thieves.

Travelers should avoid driving at night outside the low-density suburban areas. Drivers should be alert to “smash and grabs,” where thieves break the windows of cars stopped at intersections and take items from inside the car. Car doors should be locked and windows rolled up. Handbags, wallets, and other items should be placed out of sight under car seats or in the trunk of the car. While stopped in traffic, drivers should always be aware and look around to identify potential trouble. Drivers should always leave sufficient maneuver room between their vehicle and the one in front. Travelers who suspect that their vehicle is being followed should drive to the nearest police station or some other public area for assistance. Reducing idle times at traffic lights by slowing in advance to anticipate the changing of the light is an effective deterrent. Drivers should also be cautious of people using ploys to lure them out of their cars. In one ploy, an assailant will slash a tire and then offer to help with the flat, particularly on the road to Harare International Airport. Beware of drivers in vehicles without license plates who stop to render aid or who cause minor accidents. Always drive to a well-lit and populated area before making repairs or exchanging information.

Travelers are encouraged to make two photocopies of the biographic/identification page of their passport. They should leave one copy at home with friends or relatives and carry the second copy with them for identification purposes.

Information for Victims of Crime: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information: Medical facilities, particularly outside of Harare and Bulawayo, are extremely limited. Many illnesses or accidents require medical evacuation to South Africa. All travelers are strongly urged to obtain medical evacuation insurance coverage prior to arriving in Zimbabwe. Doctors, hospitals and air ambulance medical evacuation services often expect immediate cash payment for health services. Travelers are urged to carry an ample supply of prescription and other medications, as they will not likely be available in Zimbabwe. Provincial hospitals in rural areas have rudimentary staffing, equipment, and supplies, and are not equipped to provide medical care in case of a serious accident. The fuel shortage further diminishes emergency response capabilities. Emergency patients have sometimes had to arrange their own transportation to the hospital.

The water supply is not always potable; use bottled or distilled water for drinking.

Malaria is prevalent throughout Zimbabwe, except in Harare, due to the capital’s high altitude. The CDC strongly recommends that malaria prophylaxis and preventive measures are taken when traveling outside of Harare.

In early 2006, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed a limited outbreak of cholera in Harare, Chikomba and Buhera districts.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Zimbabwe is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The main roads throughout Zimbabwe are generally in fair but deteriorating condition, though most lack passing lanes, shoulders, breakdown lanes, lighting, reflectors, and similar safety features.

Service stations frequently lack fuel or repair parts. Inter-city commuter bus travel, except by “luxury coaches,” is dangerous due to overcrowding, inadequate maintenance, and drivers who are fatigued and who fail to adhere to local speed limits and to obey traffic rules or regulations. Travelers are advised to avoid driving at night due to pedestrians (in dark clothing) and animals walking in the poorly lit roads. Motor vehicles often have no headlights or taillights and are difficult to see at night. Traffic moves on the left and many people drive over the speed limit.

The passing lanes are not always clearly marked, and road visibility at times can be restricted. In urban areas, lane markers are often faded and traffic and streetlights often inoperable. It is illegal to operate a cellular telephone while driving in Zimbabwe. Drivers are required to wear seat belts or helmets if driving motorcycles. Car seats are not legally required for small children. Travelers should pack several pairs of latex gloves in the event of a road accident involving serious injuries or bleeding, as Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in southern Africa.

A nationwide fuel shortage makes internal travel difficult and unreliable, and severely restricts the response capability of police and other emergency services.

The Ministry of Transport is the government authority responsible for road safety in Zimbabwe. There is no national established network of roadside emergency service. However, the Automobile Association of Zimbabwe, similar to the American Automobile Association, is willing to provide roadside emergency service to non-members for a fee. Travelers interested in contacting the service during their stay in Zimbabwe may contact AA Zimbabwe at 263-4-752-779. AA Zimbabwe’s 24-hour emergency roadside helpline is 263-4-707-959.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed Zimbabwe’s Civil Aviation Authority as not being in compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards for the oversight of Zimbabwe’s air carrier operations. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s Internet website at http://www.faa.gov.

Special Circumstances: Under Executive Order 13288 of March 7, 2003, the United States placed sanctions on the property and economic assets of certain Zimbabwean government officials deemed most responsible for undermining Zimbabwe’s democratic institutions. Under U.S. law, it is illegal for American citizens or residents to engage in any transaction or dealing with the targeted individuals or other entities designated by the Secretary of the Treasury under this sanctions program. It is not otherwise illegal for American citizens to transact business with Zimbabwean firms. U.S. citizens intending to engage in business or financial transactions in Zimbabwe are advised to consult the Department of Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control website at http://www.treas.gov/ofac for up-to-date information on these sanctions.

It is illegal to exchange foreign currency for local currency with anyone other than an authorized currency dealer affiliated with the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. Authorized currency dealers include the major banks, such as Standard Chartered and Barclays. Street vendors and private individuals may also offer this service, but they should be avoided. Travelers observed by the police engaging in illegal money transactions will be immediately arrested and jailed pending a hearing before a magistrate court.

Travelers to Zimbabwe should carefully consider the method of payment used for lodging and other expenses. Due to high rates of inflation, prices may fluctuate dramatically. Internationally convertible currency such as U.S. dollars or British pounds may be required for certain travel-related expenses such as hotel bills and airfare, but is illegal to use for most other expenses. Even in instances where use of foreign exchange is required or permitted, traveler’s checks may not be accepted. Similarly, many banks and foreign exchange windows refuse to accept traveler’s checks for conversion to local currency, and virtually none will cash them for foreign exchange. There have been recent instances in which Zimbabwean authorities seized foreign currency from tourists/visitors who were unable to present documentation that they declared these funds when entering the country. Using a credit card could significantly increase the cost of purchases, as credit card companies calculate the U.S. dollar equivalent using the official government rate, which may be significantly lower than that used by local shopkeepers and vendors. Visitors are encouraged to assess the currency situation in Zimbabwe at the actual time of travel.

Zimbabwean authorities are extremely sensitive about the photographing of police and military personnel, as well as certain locations and buildings, including government offices, airports, military installations, official residences and embassies. Tourists have been arrested and incarcerated for several days for taking photos or videos of government buildings, including the president’s palace. Prior written permission must be obtained from the appropriate government office before taking such photographs.

The U.S. Embassy does not always receive timely notification of the arrest of American citizens by the Zimbabwean police. U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. If arrested, American citizens should ask to contact the American Embassy.

Zimbabwe offers opportunities for observation of wildlife in its natural habitat. Many tour operators offer structured, safe excursions into parks and other wildlife viewing areas for close observation of flora and fauna. However, even animals marketed as “tame” should be respected as wild animals and travelers should keep a safe distance from animals at all times, remaining in vehicles or other protected enclosures when venturing into game parks. A foreign tourist died in August 2005 after an attack during a “lion walk” at a game preserve near Harare. In 2004, an American tourist was killed by a crocodile while in a canoe at Mana Pools on the Zambezi River. It is a good idea to ascertain whether operators are trained and licensed. However, U.S. citizens participating in nature excursions in Zimbabwe should be aware that even organized and licensed tour operators may encourage or allow tourists to participate in activities that could pose great risks to personal safety.

There have been a few instances in which tourists have faced last-minute cancellations or have had to leave a game park earlier than planned as a result of labor unrest and/or ownership disputes. Visitors to Nyanga should avoid Pungwe Falls, Mterazi Falls, and the Honde Falls, as there have been numerous incidents of armed robbery, theft, assaults, and attempted rapes reported at these sites. Land mines along the Mozambique border, situated beyond the main tourist areas, make travel to that border area potentially hazardous. Tourists who wish to hunt in Zimbabwe must be accompanied by a licensed operator, who is required to be registered and licensed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Travelers to Zimbabwe should ask for the operator’s license number when booking a hunt and should check the authenticity of the license by contacting the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO) at: [email protected] or [email protected]. See the section below on firearms and penalties for information on carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe.

U.S. citizens who are temporarily carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe for purposes of hunting may need an approved temporary export license (DSP73) from Department of State’s Office of Defense Trade Controls. U.S. citizens should also contact the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. to find out what permits are required by the government of Zimbabwe for importing weapons into the country. Travelers are advised to make sure that all of the necessary documentation is in order before departing the United States. The weapons also must be cleared through U.S. Customs when leaving the United States and upon reentry at the conclusion of one’s trip.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country’s laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Zimbabwean laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Zimbabwe are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

It is against the law to make any gesture or statement that might be construed as offensive to the president of Zimbabwe, a member of his government, or the Zimbabwean government itself; anyone who engages in speech or activities deemed offensive by the government may be detained, arrested and/or imprisoned.

Children’s Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children’s Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living or traveling in Zimbabwe are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Zimbabwe. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare, telephone (263-4) 250-593/4, after-hours telephone (263-4) 250-595; fax (263-4) 250-343. American citizen service hours are from 1:30 pm to 3:30 pm Monday through Thursday and from 8:00 am to 11:30 am on Fridays, except U.S. and Zimbabwean holidays. The mailing address is P.O. Box 3340, Harare. The e-mail address is [email protected].

International Adoption : June 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Please Note: Intercountry adoption is rare in Zimbabwe. The Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare has a stated preference to place Zimbabwean children with parents of the same race. Inter-racial adoptions require the approval of the Minister of Social Welfare. The Government of Zimbabwe occasionally has discouraged adoption of Zimbabwean children by foreigners and may make additional demands on the prospective adoptive parents before the adoption can be finalized. These demands include but are not limited to counseling of children, additional referrals and home study visits.

Interested U.S. citizens are strongly encouraged to contact U.S. consular officials in Harare before formalizing an adoption agreement to ensure that appropriate procedures have been followed that will make it possible for the Embassy to issue a U.S. immigrant visa for the child.

Patterns of Immigration: Please review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Adoption Authority:
Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare
Harare Central District
Social Welfare Office
PO Box CY 562
Causeway
Harare, Zimbabwe
011-263-4-703-711

If the Ministry approves a request to adopt, the case is submitted to the Juvenile Courts to review the adoption application. If approved, the Court will issue an Adoption Order and release the child for immigration.

Eligibility Requirements for Adoptive Parents: Prospective adoptive parents who meet the residency requirements must be married and over the age of 25. Single women 25 or older who are at least 21 years older than the prospective adoptive child may be approved by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare. Single men may only adopt family members and must be approved by the Minister. All prospective adoptive parents must have a clean criminal record.

Residency Requirements: Prospective adoptive parents must be either citizens or legal residents of Zimbabwe. This requirement may be waived by the Minister of Labor and Social Welfare.

Time Frame: Adoptions in Zimbabwe take approximately three months once the Application to Adopt has been approved and the child has been identified. It is important to note the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare has a stated preference to place Zimbabwean children with parents of the same race. Wait times for Caucasian and mixed-race children can be significantly longer than for indigenous children. Inter-racial adoptions require the approval of the Minister.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: Adoptions in Zimbabwe can only be facilitated through the Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare. A court order without the recommendation of the Ministry is not considered a legal adoption and will not be considered valid for U.S. immigration purposes. All prospective adoptive parents should begin the adoption process with the Ministry or their district Social Welfare Office and in coordination with consular officers at the U.S. Embassy in Harare.

Currently, there are no licensed attorneys and/or facilitators authorized to handle adoption cases or issues in Zimbabwe. However, Zimbabwean law recently changed and in the coming months social work will be privatized to allow the Social Workers Agency Council to license private social workers to facilitate adoptions. The U.S. Department of State will update this flyer once these changes come into effect.

Adoption Fees: There are no fees from the Government of Zimbabwe and no court fees. Adoptive parents have to obtain birth certificates for adopted children from the Registrar Generals Office of Births & Deaths in Harare or Bulawayo, for a nominal fee.

Adoption Procedures: There are two tracks to adoption in Zimbabwe:

(1) If the prospective adoptive parents have not yet identified a child, they may first file a general application to adopt in the district where they live; once the application is approved, the Ministry will work with them to identify an appropriate child. The Ministry may recommend a particular child for adoption.

(2) If the prospective adoptive parents have identified the child/children they wish to adopt, they must visit the Social Welfare Office in their district to open a case file by filing an application to adopt the child. Note: Not every child in a Zimbabwean orphanage is eligible for adoption and there is no central registry for identifying eligible children.

Once the Application to Adopt has been approved, the Ministry of Social Welfare will refer the case to the Juvenile Court for consideration and, if approved, the court will issue an Adoption Order and release the child for immigration. If the prospective adoptive parents are not domiciled in Zimbabwe, they must request a waiver of the residency requirement from the Ministry of Social Welfare before their application can be approved. The U.S. Embassy is aware only of isolated cases where the residency requirement has been waived.

“Nominated” or “directed” adoption, in which a birth parent(s) give up a child directly to prospective adoptive parents, is legal in Zimbabwe; however, such adoptions may not meet the requirements of U.S. immigration law. American citizens interested in a directed adoption should contact the U.S. Embassy in Harare before initiating legal action.

Documentary Requirements: Identity documents (such as a passport), birth and marriage certificates, police clearances from both the U.S. and Zimbabwe, supporting documents attesting to one’s eligibility, and three or four references from individuals not related to the potential adoptive parents. There are additional documentary requirements for the prospective adoptive child. A current list of these documents can be obtained by contacting the Zimbabwean Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare.

Embassy in the United States:
1608 New Hampshire Avenue, NW
Washington D.C. 20009
Telephone (202) 3327100, (301) 2639826

U.S. Immigration Requirements: Prospective adopting parents are strongly encouraged to consult USCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adopting Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

U.S. Embassy in Harare:
172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue
Harare, Zimbabwe.
Tel: 263-4-250593/4.
After hours: 250593, 250595
Fax: 263- 4-722618 or 796488
Email: [email protected]
(Only for U.S. Citizens)

Additional Information: Specific questions about adoption in Zimbabwe may be addressed to the U.S. Embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe ([email protected]). General questions regarding international adoption may be addressed to the Office of Children’s Issues, U.S. Department of State, CA/OCS/CI, SA-29, 4th Floor, 2201 C Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20520-4818, toll-free Tel: 1-888-407-4747.

ZIMBABWE

Compiled from the January 2005 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Zimbabwe

PROFILE

Geography

Area: 390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.), slightly larger than Montana.

Cities: Capital—Harare (pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other towns—Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.

Terrain: Desert and savanna.

Climate: Mostly subtropical.

People

Nationality: Noun and adjective—Zimbabwean (sing.), Zimbabweans (pl.).

Population: (2003 est.) 12.5 million.

Annual growth rate: (2003 est.) 0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be nearly 25% and a high level of net emigration.)

Ethnic groups: Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.

Religions: Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

Languages: English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

Education: Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—76% (2003 est.).

Health: Infant mortality rate—66/1,000 (2003 est.). Life expectancy—men 40 (2003 est.), women 38 (2003 est.)

Work force: (2003 est.) 1.33 million in formal sector.

Government

Type: Parliamentary.

Constitution: December 21, 1979.

Independence: April 18, 1980.

Branches: Executive—President (chief of state and head of government), Cabinet. Legislative—In the 150-seat House of Assembly, 120 seats are popularly elected and 30 are directly appointed by the President or selected through a process strongly influenced by him. Judicial—High Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary courts.

Administrative subdivisions: Town Councils and District Councils.

Political parties: Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF); Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); National Alliance for Good Governance (NAGG), Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), Zimbabwe African National Union-Ndonga (ZANU-Ndonga).

Economy

GDP: (2003 est.) US $3.6 billion.

Growth rate: (2004 est.) −5%.

Per capita GDP: (2003 est.) US $327.

Avg. inflation rate: 252% (year-to-year, Sept. 2004).

Natural resources: Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

Agriculture: (20% of GDP) Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugar cane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

Industry: Manufacturing (25% of GDP), public administration (9% of GDP), commerce (9% of GDP), mining (8% of GDP), transport and communication (6% of GDP).

Trade: (2003) U.S. exports—U.S. $42 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $67 million. Partners (2000 est.)—South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports—U.S. $1,886 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Primarily of the Bantu group of south and central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are divided into two major language groups, which are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about 75% of the population, have lived in the area the longest and are the majority language group. The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing about 20% of the population and centered in the southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African Zulu group, they maintained control over the Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia in 1890.

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.

The literacy rate is estimated at 76%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system had been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, several teacher-training colleges, and three technical institutes, are being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.

Early History

Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites is the "Great Zimbabwe" ruins, after which the country is named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous Africans who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern coast.

In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonization of south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders some 300 years later. Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples took place. Successive waves of more highly developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions supplanted the original inhabitants and are the ancestors of the region's Africans today.

British Settlement and Administration

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under the British South Africa Company's administration.

Following the abrogation of the company's charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia's white settlements were given the choice of being incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.

After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on developing Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The settlers' demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for Europeans.

In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. Although the federation flourished economically, the African population, who feared they would not be able to achieve self-government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed it. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after much crisis and turmoil, and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.

Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)

The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little willingness to accede to African demands for increased political participation and progressively replaced more moderate party leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster

Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the more moderate European opposition.

Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep their dominant position, the white Rhodesians refused to give such assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom.

Post-UDI Events

The British Government considered the UDI unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that it would not use force to oppose it. On November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other nations to do the same.

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in this history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the "Patriotic Front" and combined their military forces, at least nominally.

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.

On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith administration signed the "internal settlement" agreement in Salisbury with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's" first black prime minister. However, the installation of the new black majority government did not end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 1972.

Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's conservative government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of consultations that culminated in an agreement among the Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and independence.

The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979. On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British authority to officially recognized independence, the "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia" reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the Rhodesian rebellion and the "internal settlement," as well as the beginning of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new Constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.

Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African guerillas.

The British Government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following independence. The United States was to first nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare) on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.

In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe's first cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.

Zimbabwe Since Independence

Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation was generally successful during the country's first two years of independence, as the former political and military opponents began to work together. Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.

Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several MPs from Smith's party left to sit as "independents," signifying that they did not automatically accept his anti-government posture. More importantly, government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe's government. Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.

As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as "Father Zimbabwe") and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members.

Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other properties seized from PF-ZAPU.

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and the continuing anti-government dissidence, the government kept in force a "state of emergency," which was first declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political tension rose in the country as a result.

The pacification campaign, known as the "Gukuruhundi," or strong wind, resulted in as many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PFZAPU agreed to unite in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.

In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the Constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and to replace the whites whose reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 whites in the Senate and House of Assembly.

Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the campaign was not free and fair although the actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure oneparty state in September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency was lifted in July 1990.

After the remaining restrictions of the Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18, 1990, the Government embarked on a campaign of amending the existing Constitution. Both the judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticized some of the first amendments, which were enacted in April 1991, because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the Government.

During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the Government. Students protested in October 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992, when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers were also vocal critics of the Government during this time. In June 1992, police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there was widespread industrial unrest. In August and September 1996, thousands of civil servants demanding salary increases organized a national strike and in October and November of the same year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

In part through its control of the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security forces, the government has managed to keep organized political opposition to a minimum through most of the 1990s. Beginning in 1999, however, Zimbabwe has experienced a period of considerable political and economic upheaval. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government has grown in recent years, in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions. The opposition is currently led by the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which was established in September 1999.

The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft Constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new Constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorized government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organized group of war veterans, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterized by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the midterm suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Since the presidential election, the political climate has remained tense and intensely polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to rural council elections in September 2002 and various Parliamentary by-elections that year. Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana, Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were marred by widespread intimidation and beatings. The Government also passed legislation that curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube and Gasela were subsequently dropped and in October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. As of January 2005, Tsvangirai faced an additional charge of treason.

The Government subscribed to the electoral principles of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2004, but had failed to implement key elements of the principles by the end of the year. The MDC announced in late 2004 that it would not participate in parliamentary elections scheduled for March 2005 until fundamental flaws in the election environment were remedied.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of "active nonalignment." In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe usually adhered to positions established by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or, until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth. Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for Namibia (South-West Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as chairman of the front line states in southern Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of the non-permanent seats in the UN Security Council for the following two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and gave it much-needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and responsibility.

Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, Botswana, the F.R.Y., Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six countries are represented in Harare as are several international organizations including UN institutions, the European Union, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF); African Development Bank; The World Trade Organization; Southern African Development Community (SADC); Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM; OAU (African Union); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The IMF Executive Board in July 2004 postponed until January 2005 deliberations on a recommendation for Zimbabwe's compulsory withdrawal from the institution. The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October 2004 in a decision not linked to the country's considerable arrears. Shortly after the March 2002 presidential election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from leadership councils for one year after the Commonwealth's election observer team found the conduct of the election seriously flawed. After this suspension was upheld in December 2003, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Historically, Zimbabwe's closest links have been with the U.K.; however, in the past four years, this relationship has been very strained. The Government has demonized Britain in the press, blaming the country for Zimbabwe's problems, and claiming that Britain reneged on promises made at Lancaster House to provide money for land reform. As with the U.S., thousands of Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private links remain close; however, official relations are strained.

Other West European countries have ties with Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share certain philosophical affinities and have provided much assistance, as have France, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Portugal and Greece maintain links partly because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek communities in the country. Similar historical ties have led to the establishment of relations with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh. The Government's "look east" policy has led to closer diplomatic relations with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and China.

Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with virtually every African country, although some ties are closer than others. African nations with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, DRC, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, the Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia.

Ruled continuously by a liberation party, Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with a number of revolutionary states and organizations. Among these are the People's Republic of China, Cuba, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization.

GOVERNMENT

According to Zimbabwe's Constitution, the president is head of state and head of government, and is elected for a 6-year term by popular majority vote. Parliament is unicameral and sits for up to a 5-year term. The 150-member Parliament consists of 120 elected seats, 10 chiefs elected by their peers but influenced by the president, eight provincial governors and 12 non-constituency MPs appointed by the president. The Parliament elects a Speaker from outside its membership and a Deputy Speaker from among its members.

The Zimbabwean Constitution institutionalizes majority rule and protection of minority rights. The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service, including the military and police, and the independent Public Service Commission is charged with making appointments at lower levels on an equitable basis.

The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court who, like the other justices, is appointed by the President on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The Constitution has a bill of rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The bill of rights could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by unanimous vote of the Parliament.

Zimbabwe is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a provincial governor appointed by the President. The provincial administrator and representatives of several service ministries assist the provincial governor. In 2004, the Mugabe government declared Bulawayo and Harare to be provinces with their own respective provincial governors even though there is no constitutional provision for these newly created positions.

Zimbabwe is governed by President Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwean African National Union—Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), which has dominated the legislative and executive branches since independence in 1980.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 12/14/04

President: Mugabe , Robert
Vice President: Msika , Joseph
Vice President: Mujuru , Joyce
Min. of Defense: Sekeramayi , Sidney
Min. of Education, Sports, & Culture: Chigwedere , Anneas
Min. of Energy & Power Development: Moyo , July
Min. of Environment & Tourism: Nhema , Francis
Min. of Finance & Economic Development (Acting): Murerwa , Herbert
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Mudenge , Stanislaus
Min. of Health & Child Welfare: Parirenyatwa , David
Min. of Higher & Tertiary Education: Murerwa , Herbert
Min. of Home Affairs: Mohadi , Kembo
Min. of Industry & International Trade: Mumbengegwi , Samuel
Min. of Justice, Legal, & Parliamentary Affairs: Chinamasa , Patrick
Min. of Lands, Agriculture, & Rural Resettlement: Made , Joseph
Min. of Local Govt., Public Works, & National Housing: Chombo , Ignatius
Min. of Mines & Mining Development: Midzi , Amos
Min. of Public Service, Labor, & Social Welfare: Mangwana , Paul
Min. of Water Resources & Infrastructural Development: Mujuru , Joyce
Min. of Small & Medium Enterprise Development: Nyoni , Sitembiso
Min. of Transport & Communications: Mushowe , Chris
Min. of Youth Development, Gender, & Employment Creation: Mutinhiri , Ambrose
Min. of State for Information & Publicity: Moyo , Jonathan
Min. of State for Security: Goche , Nicholas
Min. of State for Science & Technology: Muchena , Olivia
Min. of State for State Enterprises & Parastatals:
Min. of State for the Land Reform Program: Bhuka , Flora
Governor, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe: Gono , Gideon
Ambassador to the US: Mubako , Simbi Veke
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Chidyausiku , Boniface Guwa

Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.

ECONOMY

Properly managed, Zimbabwe's wide range of resources should enable it to support sustained economic growth. The country has an important percentage of the world's known reserves of metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include coal, platinum, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore.

In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks and whites reached record highs, although the disparity in incomes between blacks and whites remained, with blacks earning only about one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975, however, Rhodesia's economy was undermined by the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining earnings from commodity exports, worsening guerilla conflict, and increasing white emigration. When Mozambique severed economic ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on South Africa for access to the outside world. Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per year) was allocated to defense, and a large budget deficit raised the public debt burden substantially.

Following the Lancaster House settlement in December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the strongest and most complete industrial infrastructures in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as rich mineral resources and a strong agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3% contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to drought and foreign exchange crisis. Growth in 1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardship. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 2000, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; inflation vaulted over 600% (YOY) in early 2004 before subscribing to about 300% later in the year; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, local currency, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated.

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. The government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000 have disrupted a significant portion of the commercial farm economy, leading to a sharp drop in tobacco and corn production. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco has traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco exports in 2004 were down about three-quarters from 2000 while both gold and cotton have now surpassed it in export earnings, the first time this has happened in the history of Zimbabwe.

Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests caused by drought and floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls beginning in 2001. Although the Government forecasted harvests in 2004-05 sufficient to meet the country's food needs, most independent exports agreed there would be considerable shortfalls that would require imports or aid to make up the difference.

Zimbabwe has adequate internal transportation and electrical power networks. Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, and rail lines tie it into an extensive central African railroad network with all its neighbors, although internal rail lines are in a state of growing. In non-drought years, it has adequate electrical power, mainly generated by the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River but augmented since 1983 by large thermal plants adjacent to the Wankie coalfield. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.

The largest industries are iron, steel, metal products, food processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing, furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers have scaled back operations. Zimbabwe is not a member of the African Growth and Opportunity Act and a number of textile businesses have migrated to other African countries. Zimbabwean producers still export lumber products, certain textiles, chrome alloys and automobile windscreens to the U.S.

Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources. Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal, platinum, nickel, and copper could lead an economic recovery one day. No commercial deposits of petroleum have been discovered, although the country is richly endowed with coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be exploited.

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted considerably since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image. The U.S. Government has a travel warning in effect.

Energy Resources

With considerable hydroelectric power and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an energy source than most other comparably industrialized countries. Only about 15% of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is accounted for by oil, all of which is imported. Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil per year. Dependence on petroleum is managed through the price controls for vehicle fuels, the use of gasohol, and the substitution of diesel-electric locomotives on the railway system. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal reserves that are utilized for power generation, and recently discovered in Matabeleland province are coalbed methane deposits greater than any known natural gas field in Southern or Eastern Africa. In recent years, poor economic management and low foreign currency reserves have led to serious fuel shortages.

DEFENSE

At independence, then Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his governments top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PFZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). As of late 2004, the ZNA had an active duty strength of 33,000and the air force about 4,000 men. In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.

U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS

After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence was issued in November 1965, the United States recalled its Consul General from Salisbury, closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS) library, and withdrew its Agency for International Development (USAID) and trade promotion officials. After 1965, the small remaining American consular staff continued to operate under authority of exequaturs issued by Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a republic, the United States closed its Consulate General on March 17, 1970.

In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the United States to import strategic materials, such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation, which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy, and the United States continued to support the balance of the sanctions program. After the legislation was repealed in March 1977, the United States once again enforced all sanctions.

The United States supported the United Nations and the United Kingdom consistently in their efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to accept the principles of majority rule. Beginning in 1976, the United States began to take a more active role in the search for a settlement in cooperation with the British. The Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent the weight of the United States to the search for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to increase their influence in southern Africa. The United States supported British efforts to bring about and implement the settlement signed at Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and extended official diplomatic recognition to the new government immediately after independence. A resident Embassy was established in Harare on Zimbabwe's Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in 1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington, Zimbabwe's relations with the U.S. were handled by its Ambassador to the United Nations (U.N.) in New York.

At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period toward the government's goals of postwar reconstruction, distribution and development of land, and the development of skilled manpower. By the end of FY 1986, the United States had contributed $380 million, the majority in grants, with some loans and loan guarantees. However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously agreed upon were not affected by the decision, nor were regional development programs that might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was restored in 1988.

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance to Zimbabwe since the 1990s has focused on agriculture/food security, education, family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, private sector development, low-income housing, micro-enterprise funding and democracy and governance programs, and emergency food aid. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance program in August 2000. CDC's program consists of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and health sector infrastructure support.

Since 2000, the United States has taken a leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean Government's increasing assault on human rights and the rule of law, and has joined much of the world community in calling for the Government of Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States imposed targeted measures on the Government of Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions against selected individuals, a ban on transfers of defense items and services, and a suspension of non-humanitarian government-to-government assistance. Despite strained political relations, the United States continues as a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $300 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2004, most of which was food aid.

President Mugabe visited Washington informally in September 1980, and on official working visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in 1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led the Zimbabwean delegation to the U.N. on several occasions, including most recently in 2004. Vice President George Bush visited Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several African countries.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

HARARE (E) Address: 172 Herbert Chitepo Ave., Harare, Zimbabwe; APO/FPO: No APO/FPO; Phone: 263-4-250593/4/5; Fax: 263-4-796488; INMARSAT Tel: 011-881631437730; Workweek: Mo-Th: 8:-5:30; Fri: 8:00-13:00; Website: usembassy.state.gov/zimbabwe

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

July 2, 2004

Country Description: Zimbabwe is a developing landlocked country in southern Africa. Tourist facilities are available in Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe, major cities, and selected game parks. The capital city is Harare.

Entry/Exit Requirements: A passport, visa, return ticket, and adequate funds are required. U.S. citizens traveling to Zimbabwe for tourism, business, or transit can obtain a visa at the airports and border ports-of-entry, or in advance by contacting the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. American citizens considering travel to Zimbabwe to visit tourist destinations, including eco-tourist sites or hunting safaris, or for business purposes, are advised that the Government of Zimbabwe has declared that American visitors with proper documentation will be allowed entry without difficulty. However, the Government of Zimbabwe has also signaled an intention to refuse entry to Americans who are believed to have a bias against the Zimbabwean government. In some instances, Zimbabwean immigration officials have used materials found in searches of travelers and their luggage as an explanation to refuse entry.

U.S. citizens who intend to work in Zimbabwe as journalists must apply for accreditation with the Zimbabwean Embassy at least one month in advance of planned travel. It is no longer possible to seek accreditation within Zimbabwe at the Ministry of Information. Journalists attempting to enter Zimbabwe without proper advance accreditation may be denied admission or deported. Journalists seeking to file stories from Zimbabwe must comply with the requirements of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act, which requires that journalists seek accreditation by paying a $100 (U.S.) application fee and, if accredited, a $500 (U.S.) accreditation fee.

Travelers should obtain the latest travel and visa information from the Embassy of Zimbabwe, 1608 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 332-7100. Overseas, inquiries should be made at the nearest Zimbabwean Embassy or Consulate. Upon arrival in Zimbabwe, travelers should keep all travel documents readily available, as well as a list of residences or hotels where they will stay while in Zimbabwe. Travelers to Zimbabwe must carry some form of identification at all times.

In an effort to prevent international child abduction, many governments have initiated procedures at entry/exit points. These often include requiring documentary evidence of relationship and permission for the child's travel from the parent(s) or legal guardian not present. Having such documentation on hand, even if not required, may facilitate entry/departure.

Safety and Security: The political, social, economic, and security situation in Zimbabwe remains fluid. Crime, especially burglaries and carjackings, is a serious problem. There are also ongoing incidents of land seizures, police roadblocks, political violence, intimidation in urban and rural areas, and business closures. U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware that they are taking a risk in visiting any commercial farms, or straying outside normal tourist areas. The behavior of police or military personnel is not always predictable or rational. In November 2002, Zimbabwean police outside of Mutare killed an American citizen at a roadblock. Tourists may also be subject to harassment or arrest for photographing roadblocks, occupied commercial farms, and government buildings or installations. Resident or visiting Americans have been arrested, detained or threatened with expulsion for activities that would not be considered crimes in the U.S., including the expression of opinions regarding the current political regime in Zimbabwe.

Victoria Falls is a major tourist destination and is considered relatively safe, but visitors are urged to use the same security precautions they would exercise in any urban area of the developing world. While Harare is a clean and pleasant city, street crime is a serious problem, particularly in tourist areas. Harare has experienced a significant rise in the number of serious crimes committed during the past year. Although the vast majority of these crimes were nonviolent, there has been an increase in the use of firearms. The downtown sector of Harare is a particularly high crime area.

U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware of continuing conditions that could affect their safety, including the outbreak of sporadic demonstrations driven by deteriorating economic conditions. Demonstrations occur in both urban and rural areas. Clashes between police and demonstrators have sometimes resulted in injuries to demonstrators as well as innocent bystanders. Political activity can also result in serious violence, and U.S. citizens are urged to avoid all political rallies and demonstrations.

Other ongoing conditions that could affect the safety of tourists in Zimbabwe include the occupation of commercial farms by the National War Veterans' Association and others. The war veterans have not targeted resident U.S. citizens for violence, but American tourists and residents should avoid areas where war veterans are active. In May 2002, an American was assaulted on an occupied farm by so-called war veterans.

Zimbabwe has experienced serious nationwide fuel shortages since January 2003. Since spot shortages occur intermittently, fuel supplies are not consistently available, and gas stations around the country may not have sufficient provisions at any given time. Travelers should carefully assess the fuel situation, keep their tanks full, and carry extra fuel before making any long-distance journeys.

U.S. citizens participating in nature and rafting excursions in Zimbabwe should be aware that even with an organized tour group, tourists are often allowed to participate in activities that may pose great risks to personal safety. Tragic attacks involving wildlife have occurred at M a na Pools. Visitors to Nyanga should avoid Pungwe Falls, Mterazi Falls, and Honde Falls. There have been numerous incidents of armed robbery, theft, assaults, and attempted rapes reported at these sites. Land mines along the Mozambique border, situated beyond the main tourist areas, make travel to that border area potentially hazardous.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov, where the current Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, Travel Warnings and Public Announcements can be found. Up to date information on security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or, for callers outside the United States and Canada, a regular toll line at 1-317-472-2328. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Standard time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays.)

Crime: Carjacking, street crime, rape, and credit card fraud are on the rise. Much of the increase in crime is due to high rates of unemployment and deteriorating economic conditions. Americans and other foreigners are perceived to be wealthy and could be targeted by criminals who operate in the vicinity of hotels, restaurants, and shopping malls in Harare and in major tourist areas such as Victoria Falls.

Travelers should watch their luggage at airports, railway and bus stations, and when making calls from public telephones. Travelers are advised to avoid displaying or carrying unnecessary valuables in public. Items such as passports, money, jewelry, and credit cards should be placed in hotel safety deposit boxes when not being used. Incidents have occurred, however, in which valuables left in room safes have been taken. Visitors should not carry large sums of money or multiple credit cards while shopping and should be cautious when leaving banks and automatic teller machines.

Teams of thieves frequently prey on victims in the downtown area of Harare. Purse-snatchers will often work in teams of two with one person acting as a diversion. A typical mugging involves a group of young males who surround and overwhelm their victim in a public area. Tourists and out of town shoppers continue to be considered lucrative targets. Cell phones are of particular interest to local thieves.

Travelers should avoid driving at night outside the low-density suburban areas. Car doors should be locked and windows rolled up. Handbags, wallets, and other items should be placed under car seats or in the trunk of the car. While stopped in traffic, drivers should look around to identify potential trouble and should leave sufficient maneuver room between their vehicle and the one in front. Travelers who suspect that their vehicle is being followed should drive to the nearest police station or some other public area for assistance. Drivers should be alert to "smash and grabs," where thieves break the windows of cars stopped at stop lights and take items from inside the car. Drivers should also be cautious of persons offering assistance in the event of a flat tire.

Travelers are encouraged to make two photocopies of the biographic/identification page of their passport. They should leave one copy at home with friends or relatives and carry the second copy with them for identification purposes.

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends, and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

U.S. citizens may refer to the Department of State's pamphlet, A Safe Trip Abroad, for ways to promote a trouble-free journey. The pamphlet is available by mail from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402, via the Internet at http://www.gpoaccess.gov, or via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov.

Currency Regulations: Travelers to Zimbabwe should carefully consider the method of payment used for lodging and other expenses. Due to high rates of inflation, prices may fluctuate dramatically and internationally convertible currency such as U.S. dollars or British pounds may be preferred. Zimbabwean currency, even if obtained by exchanging foreign cash or travelers checks in Zimbabwe, may not be accepted for payment of hotel bills or tour packages. There have been recent instances in which Zimbabwean authorities seized foreign currency from tourists/visitors who were unable to present documentation that they declared these funds when entering the country. Using a credit card could significantly increase the cost of purchases, as credit card companies calculate the U.S. dollar equivalent using the official government rate, which may be significantly lower than that used by local shopkeepers and vendors.

Visitors are encouraged to assess the currency situation in Zimbabwe at the time of travel.

It is illegal to exchange foreign currency for local currency with anyone other than an authorized currency dealer affiliated with the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. Authorized currency dealers include the major banks, such as Standard Chartered and Barclays. Street vendors and private individuals may also offer this service, but they should be avoided. Travelers engaged in illegal money transactions and observed by the police will be immediately arrested and jailed pending a hearing before a magistrate court.

Game Parks: Zimbabwe offers opportunities for observation of wildlife in its natural habitat. Many tour operators offer structured, safe excursions into parks and other wildlife viewing areas for close observation of flora and fauna. However, travelers should keep a safe distance from animals and remain in vehicles or other protected enclosures when venturing into game parks. There have been a few instances in which tourists have faced last-minute cancellations or have had to leave a game park earlier than planned as a result of labor unrest and/or ownership disputes.

Hunting Safaris: Tourists who wish to hunt in Zimbabwe must be accompanied by a licensed operator, who is required to be registered and licensed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Travelers to Zimbabwe should ask for the operator's license number when booking a hunt and should check the authenticity of the license by contacting the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO) at: [email protected] or [email protected]. See the section on Firearms and Penalties below for information on carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe.

Medical Facilities: Medical facilities outside of Harare and Bulawayo are limited. Travelers are urged to carry an ample supply of their prescription medications because they will not likely be available in Zimbabwe. Provincial hospitals in rural areas are not equipped to provide medical care in case of a serious accident. Doctors, hospitals and air ambulance medical evacuation services often expect immediate cash payment for health services.

Medical Insurance: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and if it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation. U.S. medical insurance plans seldom cover health costs incurred outside the United States unless supplemental coverage is purchased. Further, U.S. Medicare and Medicaid programs do not provide payment for medical services outside the United States. However, many travel agents and private companies offer insurance plans that will cover health care expenses incurred overseas, including emergency services such as medical evacuations.

When making a decision regarding health insurance, Americans should consider that many foreign doctors and hospitals require payment in cash prior to providing service and that a medical evacuation to the United States may cost well in excess of 50,000 U.S. dollars. Uninsured travelers who require medical care overseas often face extreme difficulties, whereas travelers who have purchased overseas medical insurance have found it to be lifesaving when a medical emergency has occurred. When consulting with your insurer prior to your trip, please ascertain whether payment will be made to the overseas healthcare provider or if you will be reimbursed later for expenses that you incur. Some insurance policies also include coverage for psychiatric treatment and for disposition of remains in the event of death.

Useful information on medical emergencies abroad, including overseas insurance programs, is provided in the Department of State's Bureau of Consular Affairs brochure, Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad, available via the Bureau of Consular Affairs home page.

Other Health Information: Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747); fax 1-888-CDC-FAXX (1-888-232-3299), or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization's website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Because malaria is prevalent throughout Zimbabwe, except in Harare, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advise that travelers should take one of the following antimalarial drugs: mefloquine (Lariam – tm), doxycycline, or atovaquone/proguanil (Malarone – tm). The CDC has determined that a traveler who is on appropriate anti-malaria prophylaxis has a greatly reduced chance of contracting malaria. Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking. For additional information on malaria, protection from insect bites and antimalarials, please visit the CDC Travelers' Health website at http://www.cdc.gov/travel/malinfo.htm.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Zimbabwe is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance:

Safety of public transportation: Poor
Urban road conditions/maintenance: Good
Rural road conditions/maintenance: Fair
Availability of roadside assistance: Fair

The main roads throughout Zimbabwe are generally well maintained and access to service stations is available. Inter-city commuter bus travel, except by "luxury coaches," is dangerous due to overcrowding, inadequate maintenance, and drivers who fail to adhere to local speed limits and to obey traffic rules or regulations. The drivers are frequently fatigued, after driving for long periods of time without mandatory rest stops. Travelers should exercise extra caution when driving at night due to pedestrians (in dark clothing) and animals walking in the poorly lit roads. Motor vehicles on the road at night often have no headlights or tail lights. Traffic moves on the left and many people drive over the speed limit. The passing lanes are not always clearly marked, and road visibility at times can be restricted. Few roads outside the urban areas have shoulders or a breakdown lane.

It is illegal to operate a cellular telephone while driving in Zimbabwe. Drivers are required to wear seat belts or helmets if driving motorcycles but car seats are not required for small children. Travelers should pack several pairs of latex gloves in the event of a road accident involving serious injuries or bleeding, as Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in southern Africa.

The Ministry of Transport is the government authority responsible for road safety in Zimbabwe. There is no national established network of roadside emergency service. However, the Automobile Association of Zimbabwe, similar to the American Automobile Association, is willing to provide roadside emergency service to nonmembers for a fee. Travelers interested in contacting the service during their stay in Zimbabwe may contact AA Zimbabwe at 263-4-752-779. AA Zimbabwe's 24-hour emergency roadside helpline is 263-4-707-959.

For additional general information about road safety, including links to foreign government sites, see the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs home page at http://travel.state.gov/road_safety.html.

Aviation Safety Oversight: The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has assessed the government of Zimbabwe's civil aviation authority as category 2—not in compliance with international aviation safety standards for oversight of Zimbabwe's air carrier operations. At this time there is no direct commercial air service by local carriers, nor economic authority to operate such service, between the U.S. and Zimbabwe. For further information, travelers may contact the department of transportation within the U.S. at 1-800-322-7873, or visit the FAA's Internet website at http://www.faa.gov/avr/iasa/index.cfm.

Firearms and Penalties: U.S. citizens who are temporarily carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe for purposes of hunting must register these items with the U.S. Bureau of Customs and Border Protection, using Customs Form 4457, when leaving the United States and upon reentry. U.S. citizens must also comply with the temporary export exemptions at 22 CFR 123.17(c), posted on the Directorate of Defense Trade Control's website at www.pmdtc.org (see Reference Library). U.S. citizens should also contact the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. to find out what permits are required. Travelers are advised to make sure that all of the necessary documentation is in order before departing the United States.

Photography Restrictions: Zimbabwean authorities are extremely sensitive about the photographing of certain locations and buildings, including government offices, airports, military installations, official residences and embassies. Tourists have been arrested and incarcerated for several days for taking photos or videos of government buildings, including the president's palace. Prior written permission must be obtained from the appropriate government office before taking such photographs.

Criminal Penalties: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Zimbabwean law, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Zimbabwe are strict, and convicted offenders can expect jail sentences and heavy fines.

It is against the law to make any gesture or statements that might be construed as offensive to the president of Zimbabwe, a member of his government, or the Zimbabwean government itself.

Under the PROTECT Act of April 2003, it is a crime, prosecutable in the United States, for U.S. citizens or permanent resident aliens to exploit children sexually via pornography, the Internet or other means or to engage in illicit sexual conduct with a person under the age of 18 in a foreign country, regardless of whether there was intent. Under the Protection of Children from Sexual Predators Act of 1998, it is a crime to use the mail or any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transmit information about a minor under the age of 16 for criminal sexual purposes that include, among other things, the production of child pornography. This same law makes it a crime to use any facility of interstate or foreign commerce, including the Internet, to transport obscene materials to minors under the age of 16.

Sanctions: Under Executive Order 13288 of March 7, 2003, the United States placed sanctions on the property and economic assets of certain Zimbabwean government officials deemed most responsible for undermining Zimbabwe's democratic institutions. Under U.S. law, it is illegal for American citizens or residents to engage in any transaction or dealing with the targeted individuals or other entities designated by the Secretary of the Treasury under this sanctions program. U.S. citizens intending to engage in business or financial transactions in Zimbabwe are advised to consult the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control website at http://www.treas.gov/ofac for up-to-date information on these sanctions.

Consular Access: The U.S. Embassy does not always receive timely notification of the arrest of American citizens by the Zimbabwean police. U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times, so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. If arrested, American citizens should ask to be allowed to contact the American Embassy.

Children's Issues: For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, please refer to our Internet site at http://travel.state.gov/children's_issues.html or telephone Overseas Citizens Services at 1-888-407-4747. This number is available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m., Eastern Standard Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. Federal holidays). Callers who are unable to use toll-free numbers, such as those calling from overseas, may obtain information and assistance during these hours by calling 1-317-472-2328.

Registration/Embassy Location: Americans living in or visiting Zimbabwe are encouraged to register at the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe and obtain updated information on travel and security within Zimbabwe. Americans may register online by accessing our website at http://harare.usembassy.gov. The U.S. Embassy is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare, telephone (2634) 250-593/4, after-hours telephone (2634) 250-595; fax (2634) 722-618 and 796-488. The mailing address is P.O. Box 3340, Harare. The e-mail address is [email protected]. American citizen service hours are from 1:30pm to 3:30pm Monday through Thursday and from 8:00am to 11:30am on Fridays, except U.S. and Zimbabwean holidays.

Travel Warning

July 2, 2004

This Travel Warning is being issued to remind Americans of the political, economic and humanitarian crises in Zimbabwe. This supersedes the Travel Warning of January 22, 2004.

The Department of State warns U.S. citizens of the risks of travel to Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe continues to be in the midst of political, economic and humanitarian crises with serious implications for the security situation in the country. All U.S. citizens in Zimbabwe are urged to take those measures they deem appropriate to ensure their well-being.

The Zimbabwean economy is in precipitous decline, with extremely high rates of unemployment and inflation. The economic crisis has led to a serious increase in crime. Zimbabwe is still experiencing spot fuel shortages that can hinder in-country travel.

Zimbabwe's food shortages are expected to continue, although, it is difficult to assess the severity of the situation given government secrecy surrounding agricultural production. The humanitarian crisis is expected to worsen in coming months and may lead to possible large-scale migration of Zimbabweans to urban or border areas, with further disruption and an increase in crime and instability.

Commercial farms should be avoided at all times, especially those occupied by settlers or so-called "war veterans," who are typically young government supporters acting with impunity outside the law. In 2002, U.S. Embassy staff members were detained and one was beaten by war veterans on a farm near Harare.

American citizens visiting or resident in Zimbabwe are urged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Harare, located at 172 Herbert Chipeto Ave., telephone: (263) 4-250-593/4/5.

U.S. citizens who remain in Zimbabwe despite this Travel Warning should consult the Department of State's Consular Information Sheet for Zimbabwe, and the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, which are available via the Internet at http://travel.state.gov. American citizens may obtain up-to-date information on security conditions by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll-free in the United States or 317-472-2328 from overseas.

International Adoption

January 2005

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer: The information in this circular relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is provided for general information only. Questions involving interpretation of specific foreign laws should be addressed to foreign legal counsel.

Availability of Children for Adoption: In the past eight years, a U.S. citizen has adopted one Zimbabwean child.

Zimbabwean Adoption Authority: The government office responsible for adoptions in Zimbabwe is the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare. If the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare approves a request to adopt, the case is submitted to the Juvenile Courts for review of the adoption application. If this is approved, an adoption order is issued. Both the prospective adoptive parent and the child must be a resident of and domiciled in Zimbabwe at the time that the Juvenile Courts issue an adoption order.

Zimbabwean Adoption Procedures: Not every child in a Zimbabwean orphanage is available for adoption. There is no central registry for identifying available children. As soon as the prospective adoptive parent has identified a child, the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare should be contacted to determine if the child is available for adoption. Prospective adoptive parents should also be aware that the adoption process could take from several months to over a year to conclude.

Age and Civil Status Requirements: Zimbabwean adoption law states that the prospective adoptive parent(s) must be 25 years old and at least 21 years older than the adoptive child. The Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare may grant exceptions.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys: There are no adoption agencies operating in Zimbabwe. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy maintains a list of numerous attorneys practicing throughout Zimbabwe who may be able to assist prospective adoptive parents with adoptions. Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to research thoroughly the practices of any attorney prior to committing funds for an adoption.

Doctors: The U.S. Embassy (Consular Section) maintains current lists of doctors and sources for medicines, should either you or your child experience health problems while in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwean Documentary Requirements: The following are the documentary requirements for the adoption of children in Zimbabwe:

• A signed consent form before the Juvenile Courts by the biological parent or legal guardian of the child, consenting to the adoption. This signed consent form should contain the address and name(s) of the adopting parent(s).
• A certificate endorsed by the Juvenile Courts stating that the biological parent or the legal guardian understands the nature and effect of the adoption order applied for. If granted, the parent or the legal guardian will be permanently deprived of his or her rights in respect of the child.
• The child had been medically examined and the medical report is on file with the Juvenile Courts.
• The birth certificate of the child is on file with the Juvenile Courts.

U.S. Immigration Requirements: A Zimbabwean child, even if adopted by an American citizen, must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

Zimbabwean Embassy in the United States: Embassy of the Republic of Zimbabwe; 1608 New Hampshire Avenue, NW; Washington, DC 20009; Tel: (202) 332-7100.

U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe: Embassy of the United States of America; 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue; Harare, Zimbabwe; Tel: 263-4-250-593/4; Consular Fax: 263-4-722-618.

Questions: Specific questions regarding adoption in Zimbabwe may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, telephone (202) 735-7000 with specific questions.

ZIMBABWE

Compiled from the January 2006 Background Note and supplemented with additional information from the State Department and the editors of this volume. See the introduction to this set for explanatory notes.

Official Name:
Republic of Zimbabwe

PROFILE

Geography

Area:

390,580 sq. km. (150,760 sq. mi.), slightly larger than Montana.

Cities:

Capital—Harare (pronounced Ha-RAR-e), pop. 1.5 million. Other towns—Bulawayo, Chitungwiza, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe, Masvingo, Marondera.

Terrain:

Desert and savanna.

Climate:

Mostly subtropical.

People

Nationality:

Noun and adjective—Zimbabwean (sing.), Zimbabweans (pl.).

Population (2003 est.):

12.5 million.

Annual growth rate (2003 est.):

0.83%. (Note: the population growth rate is depressed by an HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate estimated to be nearly 25% and a high level of net emigration.)

Ethnic groups:

Shona 71%, Ndebele 16%, other African 11%, white 1%, mixed and Asian 1%.

Religion:

Christianity 75%, offshoot Christian sects, animist, and Muslim.

Language:

English (official), Shona, Sindebele.

Education:

Attendance—mandatory for primary level. Adult literacy—76% (2003 est.).

Health:

Infant mortality rate—66/1,000 (2003 est.). Life expectancy—men 40 (2003 est.), women 38 (2003 est.)

Work force (2003 est.):

1.33 million in formal sector.

Government

Type:

Parliamentary.

Constitution:

December 21, 1979.

Independence:

April 18, 1980.

Branches:

Executive—President (chief of state and head of government), Cabinet. Legislative—In the 150-seat House of Assembly, 120 seats are popularly elected and 30 are directly appointed by the president or selected through a process strongly influenced by him. Judicial—High Court, Court of Appeal, local and customary courts.

Administrative subdivisions:

Town Councils and District Councils.

Main political parties:

Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF); Movement for Democratic Change (MDC); National Alliance for Good Governance (NAGG), Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), Zimbabwe African National Union-Ndonga (ZANU-Ndonga).

Economy

GDP (2003 est.):

U.S. $3.6 billion.

Growth rate (2004 est.):

−5%.

Per capita GDP (2003 est.):

U.S. $327.

Avg. inflation rate:

252% (year-to-year, Sept. 2004).

Natural resources:

Deposits of more than 40 minerals including ferrochrome, gold, silver, platinum, copper, asbestos; 19 million hectares of forest (2000).

Agriculture (20% of GDP):

Types of crops and livestock—corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, tea, sugarcane, peanuts, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs.

Industry:

Manufacturing (25% of GDP), public administration (9% of GDP), commerce (9% of GDP), mining (8% of GDP), transport and communication (6% of GDP).

Trade (2003):

U.S. exports—U.S. $42 million. U.S. imports—U.S. $67 million. Partners (2000 est.)—South Africa 22%, U.K. 10%, Germany 9%, U.S. 8%. Total imports—U.S. $1,886 million: most of these imports were construction and agricultural machinery, transportation equipment, data processing equipment and software, industrial machinery, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, and general manufactured products. Major suppliers—South Africa 34%, U.K. 10.8%, Germany 7.3%, U.S. 6%.

PEOPLE AND HISTORY

Primarily of the Bantu group of south and central Africa, the black Zimbabweans are divided into two major language groups, which are subdivided into several ethnic groups. The Mashona (Shona speakers), who constitute about 75% of the population, have lived in the area the longest and are the majority language group. The Matabele (Sindebele speakers), representing about 20% of the population and centered in the southwest around Bulawayo, arrived within the last 150 years. An offshoot of the South African Zulu group, they maintained control over the Mashona until the white occupation of Rhodesia in 1890.

More than half of white Zimbabweans, primarily of English origin, arrived in Zimbabwe after World War II. Afrikaners from South Africa and other European minorities, including Portuguese from Mozambique, also are present. Until the mid-1970s, there were about 1,000 white immigrants per year, but from 1976 to 1985 a steady emigration resulted in a loss of more than 150,000, leaving about 100,000 in 1992. Renewed white emigration in the late 1990s and early 2000s reduced the white population to less than 50,000. English, the official language, is spoken by the white population and understood, if not always used, by more than half of the black population.

The literacy rate is estimated at 76%. Primary and secondary schools were segregated until 1979 when racial restrictions were removed. Since independence, the educational system had been systematically enlarged by the Zimbabwean Government, which is committed to providing free public education to all citizens on an equal basis. As of the late 1970s, some 50% of the African children (5-19 years old) were listed officially as attending rural schools. Today, most African children attend primary school. Primary through post-secondary enrollment has expanded from 1 million to about 2.9 million since independence. About 40% of the rural primary schools were destroyed during the Rhodesian conflict, which delayed improvement of the rural education system. Higher education, offered at the University of Zimbabwe in Harare, the new National University of Science and Technology in Bulawayo, the new Africa (Methodist) University in Mutare, several teacher-training colleges, and three technical institutes, are being expanded with assistance from several donor countries.

Early History

Archaeologists have found Stone-Age implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of human habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites is the "Great Zimbabwe" ruins, after which the country is named, located near Masvingo. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the 9th and 13th centuries A.D. by indigenous Africans who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern coast.

In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonization of south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders some 300 years later. Meanwhile, mass migrations of indigenous peoples took place. Successive waves of more highly developed Bantu peoples from equatorial regions supplanted the original inhabitants and are the ancestors of the region's Africans today.

British Settlement and Administration

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes obtained a concession for mineral rights from local chiefs. Later that year, the area that became Southern and Northern Rhodesia was proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The British South Africa Company was chartered in 1889, and the settlement of Salisbury (now Harare, the capital) was established in 1890. In 1895, the territory was formally named Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes under the British South Africa Company's administration.

Following the abrogation of the company's charter in 1923, Southern Rhodesia's white settlements were given the choice of being incorporated into the Union of South Africa or becoming a separate entity within the British Empire. The settlers rejected incorporation, and Southern Rhodesia was formally annexed by the United Kingdom that year. Until 1980, Rhodesia was an internally self-governing colony with its own legislature, civil service, armed forces, and police. Although Rhodesia was never administered directly from London, the United Kingdom always retained the right to intervene in the affairs of the colony, particularly in matters affecting Africans.

After 1923, European immigrants concentrated on developing Rhodesia's rich mineral resources and agricultural potential. The settlers' demand for more land led in 1934 to the passage of the first of a series of land apportionment acts that reserved certain areas for Europeans.

In September 1953, Southern Rhodesia was joined in a multiracial Central African Federation with the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in an effort to pool resources and markets. Although the federation flourished economically, the African population, who feared they would not be able to achieve self-government with the federal structure dominated by White Southern Rhodesians, opposed it. The federation was dissolved at the end of 1963 after much crisis and turmoil, and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the independent states of Zambia and Malawi in 1964.

Unilateral Declaration Of Independence (UDI)

The European electorate in Rhodesia, however, showed little willingness to accede to African demands for

increased political participation and progressively replaced more moderate party leaders. In April 1964, Prime Minister Winston Field, accused of not moving rapidly enough to obtain independence from the United Kingdom, was replaced by his deputy, Ian Smith. Prime Minster Smith led his Rhodesian Front Party to an overwhelming victory in the 1965 elections, winning all 50 of the first roll seats and demoralizing the more moderate European opposition.

Although prepared to grant independence to Rhodesia, the United Kingdom insisted that the authorities at Salisbury first demonstrate their intention to move toward eventual majority rule. Desiring to keep their dominant position, the white Rhodesians refused to give such assurances. On November 11, 1965, after lengthy and unsuccessful negotiations with the British Government, Prime Minister Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom.

Post-UDI Events

The British Government considered the UDI unconstitutional and illegal but made clear that it would not use force to oppose it. On November 12, 1965, the United Nations also determined the Rhodesian Government and UDI to be illegal and called on member states to refrain from assisting or recognizing the Smith regime. The British Government imposed sanctions on Rhodesia and requested other nations to do the same.

On December 16, 1966, the UN Security Council, for the first time in this history, imposed mandatory economic sanctions on a state. Rhodesia's primary exports including ferrochrome and tobacco, were placed on the selective sanctions list, as were shipments of arms, aircraft, motor vehicles, petroleum, and petroleum products to Rhodesia. On May 29, 1968, the Security Council unanimously voted to broaden the sanctions by imposing an almost total embargo on all trade with, investments in, or transfers of funds to Rhodesia and imposed restrictions on air transport to the territory.

In the early 1970s, informal attempts at settlement were renewed between the United Kingdom and the Rhodesian administration. Following the April 1974 coup in Portugal and the resulting shifts of power in Mozambique and Angola, pressure on the Smith regime to negotiate a peaceful settlement increased. In addition, sporadic antigovernment guerilla activity, which began in the late 1960s, increased dramatically after 1972, causing destruction, economic dislocation, casualties, and a slump in white morale. In 1974, the major African nationalists groups—the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), which split away from ZAPU in 1963—were united into the "Patriotic Front" and combined their military forces, at least nominally.

In 1976, because of a combination of embargo-related economic hardships, the pressure of guerilla activity, independence and majority rule in the neighboring former Portuguese territories, and a U.K.-U.S. diplomatic initiative, the Smith government agreed in principle to majority rule and to a meeting in Geneva with black nationalist leaders to negotiate a final settlement of the conflict. Blacks represented at the Geneva meeting included ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo, ZANU leader Robert Mugabe, UANC chairman bishop Abel Muzorewa, and former ZANU leader Rev. Nadabaningi Sithole. The meeting failed to find a basis for agreement because of Smith's inflexibility and the inability of the black leaders to form a common political front.

On September 1, 1977 a detailed Anglo-American plan was put forward with proposals for majority rule, neutrally administered with pre-independence elections, a democratic constitution and the formation of an integrated army. Reactions were mixed, but no party rejected them. In the interim, on March 3, 1978, the Smith administration signed the "internal settlement" agreement in Salisbury with Bishop Muzorewa, Rev. Sithole, and Chief Jeremiah Chirau. The agreement provided for qualified majority rule and elections with universal suffrage. Following elections in April 1979, in which his UANC party won a majority, Bishop Muzorewa assumed office on June 1, becoming "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia's" first black prime minister. However, the installation of the new black majority government did not end the guerilla conflict that had claimed more than 20,000 lives since 1972.

Shortly after British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's conservative government took power in May 1979, the British began a new round of consultations that culminated in an agreement among the Commonwealth countries as the basis for fresh negotiations among the parties and the British involving a new constitution, free elections and independence.

The British and the African parties began deliberations on a Rhodesian settlement at Lancaster House in London on September 10, 1979. On December 10, 1979, in preparation for the transition under British authority to officially recognized independence, the "Zimbabwe-Rhodesia" reverted de facto to colonial status. On December 12, British Governor Lord Christopher Soames arrived in Salisbury to reassert British authority over the colony. His arrival signaled the end of the Rhodesian rebellion and the "internal settlement," as well as the beginning of Zimbabwe's transition to independence. The United Kingdom lifted all remaining sanctions against Zimbabwe that day. The United States lifted sanctions effective December 16.

On December 21, after 3 months of hard bargaining, the parties signed an agreement at Lancaster House calling for a cease-fire, new elections, a transition period under British rule, and a new constitution implementing majority rule while protecting minority rights. The agreement specified that upon the granting of independence, the country's name would be Zimbabwe. The same day, the UN Security Council endorsed the settlement agreement and formally voted unanimously to call on member nations to remove sanctions.

During the transition period, nine political parties campaigned for the February 27-29 pre-independence elections. The elections were supervised by the British Government and monitored by hundreds of observers, most of whom concluded that, under the prevailing circumstances, the elections were free and fair and reflected the will of the people. Robert Mugabe's ZANU (PF) party won an absolute majority and was asked to form Zimbabwe's first government.

In a series of public statements during the transition period, Prime Minister Mugabe indicated that he was committed to a process of national reconciliation and reconstruction as well as moderate socioeconomic change. His priorities were to integrate the various armed forces, reestablish social services and education in rural areas, and resettle the estimated one million refugees and displaced persons. Mugabe also announced that his government would begin investigating ways of reversing past discriminatory policies in land distribution, education, employment, and wages.

Mugabe stated that Zimbabwe would follow a nonaligned foreign policy and would pursue a pragmatic relationship with South Africa. He noted that while Zimbabwe opposed apartheid and would support democratic change in South Africa, it would not provide bases for anti-South African guerillas.

The British Government formally granted independence to Zimbabwe on April 18, 1980. Most nations recognized Zimbabwe following independence. The United States was to first nation to open an embassy in Salisbury (Harare) on that day. Parliament convened for the first time on May 13, 1980. Zimbabwe became a member of the United Nations on August 25, 1980.

In seeking national reconciliation, Prime Minister Mugabe's first cabinet comprised members of ZANU-PF, PF-ZAPU, and independent white members of parliament (MPs) and senators. The government embarked on an ambitious reconstruction and development program and instituted increases in minimum wages. Land redistribution proceeded under four experimental models on land that the government had purchased at market rates from willing sellers.

Zimbabwe Since Independence

Prime Minister Mugabe's policy of reconciliation was generally successful during the country's first two years of independence, as the former political and military opponents began to work together. Although additional blacks were hired to fill new places in the civil service, there was no retribution for those whites who had worked for the Smith regime. Smith and many of his associates held seats in the parliament where they participated freely in debates. Likewise, Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe's rival as leader of the nationalist forces, was included in the first cabinet along with several other members of PF-ZAPU.

Splits soon developed, however. In 1981, several MPs from Smith's party left to sit as "independents," signifying that they did not automatically accept his anti-government posture. More importantly, government security officials discovered large caches of arms and ammunition on properties owned by ZAPU, and Nkomo and his followers were accused of plotting to overthrow Mugabe's government. Nkomo and his closest aides were expelled from the cabinet.

As a result of what they perceived as persecution of Nkomo (known as "Father Zimbabwe") and of his party, PF-ZAPU supporters, some of them deserters from the army, began a loosely organized and ill-defined campaign of dissidence against the government. Centering primarily in Matabeleland, home of the Ndebeles who were PF-ZAPU's main followers, this dissidence continued through 1987 and involved attacks on government personnel and installations, armed banditry aimed at disrupting security and economic life in the rural areas, and harassment of ZANU-PF members. Occasionally, some demanded that Nkomo and his colleagues be reinstated in the cabinet. More frequently, however, dissidents called for the return of farms and other properties seized from PFZAPU.

Because of the unsettled security situation immediately after independence and the continuing anti-government dissidence, the government kept in force a "state of emergency," which was first declared before UDI. This gave government authorities widespread powers under the "Law and Order Maintenance Act," including the right to detain persons without charge.

In 1983-84, the government declared a curfew in areas of Matabeleland and sent in the army in an attempt to suppress dissidents. Credible reports surfaced of widespread violence and disregard for human rights by the security forces during these operations, and the level of political tension rose in the country as a result. The pacification campaign, known as the "Gukuruhundi," or strong wind, resulted in as many as 20,000 civilian deaths. Nkomo and his lieutenants repeatedly denied any connection with the dissidents and called for an all-party conference to discuss the political problems facing the country. In the 1985 elections, ZANU-PF increased its majority, holding 67 of the 100 seats. ZANU-PF and PFZAPU agreed to unite in December 1987, and the parties formally merged in December 1989.

In October 1987, in accordance with the Lancaster House Accords, the constitution was amended to end the separate roll for white voters and to replace the whites whose reserved seats had been abolished; among the new members were 15 whites in the Senate and House of Assembly. Elections in March 1990 resulted in another overwhelming victory for Mugabe and his party, which won 117 of the 120 election seats. However, voter turnout was only 54%, and the campaign was not free and fair although the actual balloting was. Not satisfied with a de facto one-party state, Mugabe called on the ZANU-PF Central Committee to support the creation of a de jure one-party state in September 1990 and lost. The state of emergency was lifted in July 1990.

After the remaining restrictions of the Lancaster House agreement expired on April 18, 1990, the government embarked on a campaign of amending the existing constitution. Both the judiciary and human rights advocates fiercely criticized some of the first amendments, which were enacted in April 1991, because they restored corporal and capital punishment and denied recourse to the courts in cases of compulsory purchase of land by the government.

During the 1990s students, trade unionists and workers often demonstrated to express their discontent with the government. Students protested in October 1990 against proposals for an increase in government control of universities and again in May 1991 and May 1992, when they clashed with police. Trade unionists and workers were also vocal critics of the government during this time. In June 1992, police prevented trade unionists from holding anti-government demonstrations. In 1994, there was widespread industrial unrest. In August and September 1996, thousands of civil servants demanding salary increases organized a national strike and in October and November of the same year, nurses and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.

In part through its control of the media, the huge parastatal sector of the economy, and the security forces, the government has managed to keep organized political opposition to a minimum through most of the 1990's. Beginning in 1999, however, Zimbabwe has experienced a period of considerable political and economic upheaval. Opposition to President Mugabe and the ZANU-PF government has grown in recent years, in part due to worsening economic and human rights conditions. The opposition is currently led by the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), which was established in September 1999.

The MDC's first opportunity to test opposition to the Mugabe government came in February 2000, when a referendum was held on a draft constitution proposed by the government. Among its elements, the new constitution would have permitted President Mugabe to seek two additional terms in office, granted government officials immunity from prosecution, and authorized government seizure of white-owned land. The referendum was handily defeated. Shortly thereafter, the government, through a loosely organized group of war veterans, sanctioned an aggressive land redistribution program often characterized by forced expulsion of white farmers and violence against both farmers and farm employees.

Parliamentary elections held in June 2000 were marred by localized violence, and claims of electoral irregularities and government intimidation of opposition supporters. Nonetheless, the MDC succeeded in capturing 57 of 120 seats in the National Assembly.

The March 2002 presidential election was preceded by months of intensive violence and intimidation against MDC supporters, and more than 50 people, mostly opposition supporters, were killed. President Mugabe was declared the winner over challenger Morgan Tsvangirai by a 56-to-42 percent margin. Most international observers condemned the election as seriously flawed—the pre-election environment was neither free nor fair, and the election itself was marred by significant fraud and rigging—but regional opinions were mixed. Soon after the election, the MDC filed a petition challenging Mugabe's victory, citing flaws in electoral laws, electoral irregularities and pre-election violence. As of the end of 2004, the case had not yet been decided.

As a result of this election, the United States, the EU, and other European countries imposed travel restrictions against senior Zimbabwean officials and embargoed the sale of arms to Zimbabwe. The U.S. and the EU also froze the financial assets of selected ruling party officials. The Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from council meetings for one year after its election observer team found the election neither free nor fair. At the midterm suspension review in March 2003, the three-country committee charged with deciding Zimbabwe's fate decided to continue the suspension until the next Commonwealth meeting in December 2003. At this meeting, despite vigorous campaigning by South Africa, Zimbabwe was not invited to attend the meeting and the Commonwealth decided to continue with the suspension. Immediately after this, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Since the presidential election, the political climate has remained tense and intensely polarized. Violence escalated in the run up to rural council elections in September 2002 and various parliamentary by-elections that year. Parliamentary by-elections in Kuwadzana, Highfield, Zengeza, and Lupane in 2003 were marred by widespread intimidation and beatings. The government also passed legislation that curtailed free speech, free press, and rights of assembly. In March 2003, MDC leaders Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube, and Renson Gasela went on trial for treason. Charges against Ncube and Gasela were subsequently dropped and in October 2004 Tsvangirai was found not guilty. In August 2005, the government dropped a second charge of treason against Tsvangirai.

The government subscribed to the electoral principles of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) in 2004 but failed to implement key elements of the principles in advance of the 2005 parliamentary elections. The campaign period and election day were largely non-violent, but the elections were not free and fair. The election process was marred by repressive legislation that limits freedom of speech and assembly; millions of expatriate Zimbabweans were not permitted to vote; the government used food distributions to influence an increasingly hungry population; an astonishingly high 10% (as high as 30% in some areas) of would-be voters were turned away; and discrepancies in officially announced results and the government's refusal to release key voting data have led to questions about the possibility of fraud.

In May 2005, the government began Operation Restore Order and Murambatsvina, ostensibly to rid urban areas of illegal structures, illegal business enterprises, and criminal activities. The International Organization of Migration estimated that at least 300,000 people were displaced nationwide, as the operation moved from urban areas into rural areas and included apparently legal structures. Families and traders, especially at the beginning of the operation, were often given no notice before police destroyed their homes and businesses. Others were able to salvage some possessions and building materials but often had nowhere to go, despite the government's statement that people should be returning to their rural homes. Thousands of families were left unprotected in the open in the middle of Zimbabwe's winter. The government interfered with non-governmental organization (NGO) efforts to provide emergency assistance to the displaced in many instances. Some families were removed to transit camps, where they had no shelter or cooking facilities and minimal food, supplies, and sanitary facilities. As of July 2005, the operation was continuing and spreading to new areas of the country.

FOREIGN RELATIONS

Since independence, Zimbabwe has enunciated and follows a policy of "active nonalignment." In practice, this has meant that Zimbabwe usually adhered to positions established by the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM); the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union; or, until it withdrew in 2003, the Commonwealth. Zimbabwe took a particular interest in the search for independence for Namibia (South-West Africa) from South Africa. In addition, as chairman of the frontline states in southern Africa, Zimbabwe spoke out vigorously against the policies of apartheid in South African and frequently called for the imposition of economic sanctions against Pretoria. In November 1982, Zimbabwe was chosen by the OAU to hold one of the non-permanent seats in the UN Security Council for the following two years, which brought it onto the center stage of world events and gave it much-needed experience in international affairs. In 1986, Zimbabwe was the site of the NAM summit meeting; Prime Minister Mugabe became chairman of that organization, giving both Mugabe and Zimbabwe added international visibility and responsibility.

Zimbabwe maintains embassies in the United States, United Kingdom, Egypt, Angola, Kenya, Senegal, Nigeria, India, Sweden, France, China, Malaysia, Ethiopia, Namibia, Swaziland, Belgium, Tanzania, Botswana, the F.R.Y., Mozambique, Switzerland, Cuba, Canada, Japan, Australia, Germany, India, Italy, Russia, and South Africa. Sixty-six countries are represented in Harare as are several international organizations including UN institutions, the European Union, and the World Bank. Zimbabwe is a member of many international organizations, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF); African Development Bank; The World Trade Organization; Southern African Development Community (SADC); Preferential Trade Area for Eastern and Southern Africa (PTA); African Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP, in association with the EU); Group of 77 (G-77); Group of 15 (G-15); NAM; OAU (African Union); Customs Cooperation Council (CCC); and the World Federation of Trade Unions. The IMF Executive Board in July 2004 postponed until January 2005 deliberations on a recommendation for Zimbabwe's compulsory withdrawal from the institution. The IMF closed its Zimbabwe office in October 2004 in a decision not linked to the country's considerable arrears. Shortly after the March 2002 presidential election, the Commonwealth suspended Zimbabwe from leadership councils for one year after the Commonwealth's election observer team found the conduct of the election seriously flawed. After this suspension was upheld in December 2003, Mugabe withdrew Zimbabwe from the Commonwealth.

Historically, Zimbabwe's closest links have been with the U.K.; however, in the past four years, this relationship has been very strained. The government has demonized Britain in the press, blaming the country for Zimbabwe's problems, and claiming that Britain reneged on promises made at Lancaster House to provide money for land reform. As with the U.S., thousands of Zimbabweans studied in the U.K., and private links remain close; however, official relations are strained.

Other West European countries have ties with Zimbabwe. The Scandinavian countries share certain philosophical affinities and have provided much assistance, as have France, Canada, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Portugal and Greece maintain links partly because of the sizable Portuguese and Greek communities in the country. Similar historical ties have led to the establishment of relations with India and Pakistan, and to a lesser extent, with Bangladesh. The government's "look east" policy has led to closer diplomatic relations with East Asian countries such as Malaysia and China.

Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with virtually every African country, although some ties are closer than others. African nations with embassies in Harare are Algeria, Angola, Botswana, DRC, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, the Sudan, Tanzania, and Zambia.

Ruled continuously by a liberation party, Zimbabwe developed and maintains close ties with a number of revolutionary states and organizations. Among these are the People's Republic of China, Cuba, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, Iran, Libya, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization.

GOVERNMENT

According to Zimbabwe's constitution, the president is head of state and head of government, and is elected for a 6-year term by popular majority vote. Parliament is unicameral and sits for up to a 5-year term. The 150-member parliament consists of 120 elected seats, 10 chiefs elected by their peers but influenced by the president, eight provincial governors and 12 non-constituency MPs appointed by the president. The parliament elects a speaker from outside its membership and a deputy speaker from among its members.

The Zimbabwean constitution institutionalizes majority rule and protection of minority rights. The elected government controls senior appointments in the public service, including the military and police, and the independent Public Service Commission is charged with making appointments at lower levels on an equitable basis.

The judiciary is headed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court who, like the other justices, is appointed by the president on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The constitution has a bill of rights containing extensive protection of human rights. The bill of rights could not be amended for the first 10 years of independence except by unanimous vote of the parliament.

Zimbabwe is divided into eight provinces, each administered by a provincial governor appointed by the president. The provincial administrator and representatives of several service ministries assist the provincial governor. In 2004, the Mugabe government declared Bulawayo and Harare to be provinces with their own respective provincial governors even though there is no constitutional provision for these newly created positions.

Zimbabwe is governed by President Robert Mugabe and his Zimbabwean African National Union - Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), which has dominated the legislative and executive branches since independence in 1980.

Principal Government Officials

Last Updated: 4/26/2005

President: Robert MUGABE
Vice President: Joseph MSIKA
Vice President: Joyce MUJURU
Min. of Agriculture: Joseph MADE
Min. of Defense: Sidney SEKERAMAYI
Min. of Economic Development: Rugare GUMBO
Min. of Education, Sport, & Culture: Anneas CHIGWEDERE
Min. of Energy & Power Development: Michael NYAMBUYA
Min. of Finance: Herbert MURERWA
Min. of Foreign Affairs: Simbarashe MUMBENGEGWI
Min. of Health: David PARIRENYATWA
Min. of Higher & Tertiary Education: Stanislaus MUDENGE
Min. of Home Affairs: Kembo MOHADI
Min. of Indigenization & Empowerment: Josiah TUNGAMIRAI
Min. of Industry & Trade: Obert MPOFU
Min. of Information & Publicity: Tichaona JOKONYA
Min. of Legal & Parliamentary Affairs: Patrick CHINAMASA
Min. of Local Govt.: Ignatius CHOMBO
Min. of Mines: Amos MIDZI
Min. of National Security: Didymus MUTASA
Min. of Policy Implementation: Webster SHAMU
Min. of Public Services: Nicholas GOCHE
Min. of Rural Housing & Social Amenities: Emmerson MNANGAGWA
Min. of Science & Technology: Olivia MUCHENA
Min. of Small- & Medium-Scale Enterprises: Sithembiso NYONI
Min. of State Affairs Responsible for Land & Resettlement Programs: Flora BHUKA
Min. of State Enterprises, Anti-Monopolies, & Anti-Corruption: Paul MANGWANA
Min. of Tourism: Francis NHEMA
Min. of Transport & Communications: Chris MUSHOWE
Min. of Water Resources & Infrastructural Development: Munacho MUTEZO
Min. of Women's Affairs, Gender, & Community Development: Oppah MUCHINGURI
Min. of Youth Development & Employment: Ambrose MUTIHIRI
Min. Without Portfolio: Elliot MANYIKA
Governor, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe: Gideon GONO
Ambassador to the US: Simbi Veke MUBAKO
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York: Boniface Guwa CHIDYAUSIKU

Zimbabwe maintains an embassy in the United States at 1608 New Hampshire Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-332-7100). A Zimbabwean mission to the United Nations is located at 19 East 47th St., New York, NY.

ECONOMY

Properly managed, Zimbabwe's wide range of resources should enable it to support sustained economic growth. The country has an important percentage of the world's known reserves of metallurgical-grade chromite. Other commercial mineral deposits include coal, platinum, asbestos, copper, nickel, gold, and iron ore.

In the early 1970s, the economy experienced a modest boom. Real per capita earnings for blacks and whites reached record highs, although the disparity in incomes between blacks and whites remained, with blacks earning only about one-tenth as much as whites. After 1975, however, Rhodesia's economy was undermined by the cumulative effects of sanctions, declining earnings from commodity exports, worsening guerilla conflict, and increasing white emigration. When Mozambique severed economic ties, the Smith regime was forced to depend on South Africa for access to the outside world. Real gross domestic product (GDP) declined between 1974 and 1979. An increasing proportion of the national budget (an estimated 30%-40% per year) was allocated to defense, and a large budget deficit raised the public debt burden substantially.

Following the Lancaster House settlement in December 1979, Zimbabwe enjoyed a brisk economic recovery. Zimbabwe inherited one of the strongest and most complete industrial infrastructures in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as rich mineral resources and a strong agricultural base. Real growth for 1980-81 exceeded 20%. However, depressed foreign demand for the country's mineral exports and the onset of a drought cut sharply into the growth rate in 1982, 1983, and 1984. In 1985, the economy rebounded strongly due to a 30% jump in agricultural production. However it slumped in 1986 to a zero growth rate and registered a 3% contraction in GDP in 1987 due primarily to drought and foreign exchange crisis. Growth in 1988-90 averaged about 4.5%.

Since the mid-1990s, this infrastructure has been deteriorating rapidly, but remains better than that of most African countries. Poor management of the economy and political turmoil have led to considerable economic hardship. The Government of Zimbabwe's chaotic land reform program, recurrent interference with the judiciary, and maintenance of unrealistic price controls and exchange rates have led to a sharp drop in investor confidence. Since 2000, the national economy has contracted by as much as 35%; inflation vaulted over 600% (YOY) in early 2004 before subscribing to about 300% later in the year; and there have been persistent shortages of foreign exchange, local currency, fuel, and food. Direct foreign investment has all but evaporated.

Agriculture is no longer the backbone of the Zimbabwean economy. The government's controversial land reform efforts starting in 2000 have disrupted a significant portion of the commercial farm economy, leading to a sharp drop in tobacco and corn production. Corn is the largest food crop and tobacco has traditionally been the largest export crop, followed by cotton. Tobacco exports in 2004 were down about three-quarters from 2000 while both gold and cotton have now surpassed it in export earnings, the first time this has happened in the history of Zimbabwe. Poor government management has exacerbated meager corn harvests caused by drought and floods, resulting in significant food shortfalls beginning in 2001. Although the government forecasted harvests in 2004-05 sufficient to meet the country's food needs, most independent exports agreed there would be considerable shortfalls that would require imports or aid to make up the difference.

Zimbabwe has adequate internal transportation and electrical power networks. Paved roads link the major urban and industrial centers, and rail lines tie it into an extensive central African railroad network with all its neighbors, although internal rail lines are in a state of growing. In non-drought years, it has adequate electrical power, mainly generated by the Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River but augmented since 1983 by large thermal plants adjacent to the Wankie coalfield. Telephone service is problematic, and new lines are difficult of obtain.

The largest industries are iron, steel, metal products, food processing, chemicals, textiles, clothing, furniture and plastic goods. Most manufacturers have scaled back operations. Zimbabwe is not a member of the African Growth and Opportunity Act and a number of textile businesses have migrated to other African countries. Zimbabwean producers still export lumber products, certain textiles, chrome alloys and automobile windscreens to the U.S.

Zimbabwe is endowed with rich mineral resources. Exports of gold, asbestos, chrome, coal, platinum, nickel, and copper could lead an economic recovery one day. No commercial deposits of petroleum have been discovered, although the country is richly endowed with coal-bed methane gas that has yet to be exploited.

With international attractions such as Victoria Falls, the Great Zimbabwe stone ruins, Lake Kariba, and extensive wildlife, tourism historically has been a significant segment of the economy and contributor of foreign exchange. The sector has contracted considerably since 1999, however, due to the country's declining international image. The U.S. Government has a travel warning in effect.

Energy Resources

With considerable hydroelectric power and plentiful coal deposits for thermal power station, Zimbabwe is less dependent on oil as an energy source than most other comparably industrialized countries. Only about 15% of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is accounted for by oil, all of which is imported. Zimbabwe imports about 1.2 billion liters of oil per year. Dependence on petroleum is managed through the price controls for vehicle fuels, the use of gasohol, and the substitution of diesel-electric locomotives on the railway system. Zimbabwe also has substantial coal reserves that are utilized for power generation, and recently discovered in Matabeleland province are coalbed methane deposits greater than any known natural gas field in Southern or Eastern Africa. In recent years, poor economic management and low foreign currency reserves have led to serious fuel shortages.

DEFENSE

At independence, then Prime Minister Mugabe declared that integrating Zimbabwe's then three armed forces would be one of his governments top priorities. The existing Rhodesian forces were combined with the two guerilla armies—the 20,000-strong ZANLA forces of ZANU-PF and the 15,000-strong ZIPRA forces of PFZAPU. In July 1994 the combined Zimbabwe Defense Forces Headquarters was created. Currently the armed forces of Zimbabwe are completely integrated and are composed of an army (ZNA) and an air force (AFZ). As of late 2004, the ZNA had an active duty strength of 33,000 and the air force about 4,000 men. In 1999, the Government of Zimbabwe sent a sizeable military force into the Democratic Republic of Congo to support the government of President Laurent Kabila. Those forces were largely withdrawn in 2002.

U.S.-ZIMBABWEAN RELATIONS

After the Unilateral Declaration of Independence was issued in November 1965, the United States recalled its Consul General from Salisbury, closed the U.S. Information Service (USIS) library, and withdrew its Agency for International Development (USAID) and trade promotion officials. After 1965, the small remaining American consular staff continued to operate under authority of exequaturs issued by Queen Elizabeth II. Following declaration of a republic, the United States closed its Consulate General on March 17, 1970.

In 1971, despite Administration opposition, the U.S. Congress passed legislation permitting the United States to import strategic materials, such as chrome, from Rhodesia. The legislation, which took effect January 1, 1972, was of little real economic benefit to the Rhodesian economy, and the United States continued to support the balance of the sanctions program. After the legislation was repealed in March 1977, the United States once again enforced all sanctions.

The United States supported the United Nations and the United Kingdom consistently in their efforts to influence Rhodesian authorities to accept the principles of majority rule. Beginning in 1976, the United States began to take a more active role in the search for a settlement in cooperation with the British. The Anglo-American proposals of late 1977, aimed at bringing a negotiated end to the dispute, lent the weight of the United States to the search for a peaceful settlement and were a counterpart to the Soviet-Cuban use of military power to increase their influence in southern Africa. The United States supported British efforts to bring about and implement the settlement signed at Lancaster House on December 21, 1979 and extended official diplomatic recognition to the new government immediately after independence. A resident Embassy was established in Harare on Zimbabwe's Independence Day, April 18, 1980. The first U.S. Ambassador arrived and presented his credentials in June 1980. Until the arrival in 1983 of a resident Ambassador in Washington, Zimbabwe's relations with the U.S. were handled by its Ambassador to the United Nations (U.N.) in New York.

At the Zimbabwe conference on reconstruction and development (ZIMCORD) in March 1981, the United States pledged $225 million over a 3-year period toward the government's goals of postwar reconstruction, distribution and development of land, and the development of skilled manpower. By the end of FY 1986, the United States had contributed $380 million, the majority in grants, with some loans and loan guarantees. However, in July 1986, the U.S. Government decided to discontinue future bilateral aid to Zimbabwe as a result of a continuing pattern of uncivil and undiplomatic statements and actions by the Government of Zimbabwe in the United Nations and elsewhere. Aid programs previously agreed upon were not affected by the decision, nor were regional development programs that might benefit Zimbabwe. Full programming was restored in 1988.

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) assistance to Zimbabwe since the 1990s has focused on agriculture/food security, education, family planning, HIV/AIDS prevention, private sector development, low-income housing, micro-enterprise funding and democracy and governance programs, and emergency food aid. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) began a direct assistance program in August 2000. CDC's program consists of prevention of HIV transmission; improved care of persons with HIV/AIDS; surveillance, monitoring, and evaluation of the epidemic; and health sector infrastructure support.

Since 2000, the United States has taken a leading role in condemning the Zimbabwean Government's increasing assault on human rights and the rule of law, and has joined much of the world community in calling for the Government of Zimbabwe to embrace a peaceful democratic evolution. In 2002 and 2003, the United States imposed targeted measures on the Government of Zimbabwe, including financial and visa sanctions against selected individuals, a ban on transfers of defense items and services, and a suspension of non-humanitarian government-to-government assistance. Despite strained political relations, the United States continues as a leading provider of humanitarian assistance to the people of Zimbabwe, providing about $300 million in humanitarian assistance from 2002-2004, most of which was food aid.

President Mugabe visited Washington informally in September 1980, and on official working visits in September 1983, July 1991, and in 1995, meeting with Presidents Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton respectively. He has also led the Zimbabwean delegation to the U.N. on several occasions, including most recently in 2004. Vice President George Bush visited Harare in November 1982 on a trip to several African countries.

Principal U.S. Embassy Officials

HARARE (E) Address: 172 Herbert Chitepo Ave., Harare, Zimbabwe; APO/FPO: No APO/FPO; Phone: 263-4-250593/4/5; Fax: 263-4-796488; INMARSAT Tel: 011-881631437730; Workweek: Mo-Th:8:-5:30;Fri:8:00-13:00; Website: usembassy.state.gov/zimbabwe

TRAVEL

Consular Information Sheet

October 12, 2005

Country Description:

Zimbabwe is a developing landlocked country in southern Africa. Tourist facilities are available in Victoria Falls, Great Zimbabwe, major cities, and selected game parks.

Entry/Exit Requirements:

A passport, visa, return ticket, and adequate funds are required. U.S. citizens traveling to Zimbabwe for tourism, business, or transit can obtain a visa at the airports and border ports-of-entry, or in advance by contacting the Embassy of Zimbabwe at 1608 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, D.C. 20009; telephone (202) 332-7100. American citizens considering travel to Zimbabwe to visit tourist destinations, including eco-tourist sites or hunting safaris, or for business purposes, are advised that the Government of Zimbabwe has declared that American visitors with proper documentation will be allowed entry without difficulty. However, the Government of Zimbabwe has also signaled an intention to refuse entry to Americans who are believed to have a bias against the Zimbabwean government. In some instances, Zimbabwean immigration officials have used materials found in searches of travelers and their luggage as an explanation to refuse entry.

Travelers should obtain the latest travel and visa information from the Embassy of Zimbabwe (contact details listed above). Overseas, inquiries should be made at the nearest Zimbabwean Embassy or Consulate.

Upon arrival in Zimbabwe, travelers should keep all travel documents readily available, as well as a list of residences or hotels where they will stay while in Zimbabwe. Travelers to Zimbabwe must carry some form of identification at all times.

U.S. citizens who intend to work in Zimbabwe as journalists must apply for accreditation with the Zimbabwean Embassy at least one month in advance of planned travel. It is no longer possible to seek accreditation within Zimbabwe at the Ministry of Information. Journalists attempting to enter Zimbabwe without proper advance accreditation may be denied admission or deported. Journalists seeking to file stories from Zimbabwe must comply with the requirements of the Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act, which requires that journalists seek accreditation by paying a $100 (U.S.) application fee and, if accredited, a $500 (U.S.) accreditation fee.

It is illegal to take more than $300,000 Zimbabwean dollars out of the country, whether departing by road or air. Travelers seeking to depart with greater amounts of local currency risk having the money confiscated and/or being prevented from leaving pending a court appearance.

Safety and Security:

The political, social, economic, and security situation in Zimbabwe remains fluid. Crime, especially burglaries, robberies, and carjackings, is a serious problem. There are also ongoing incidents of land seizures, police roadblocks, political violence, intimidation in urban and rural areas, and business closures. U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware that they are taking a risk in visiting any commercial farms, or straying outside normal tourist areas. The behavior of police or military personnel is not always predictable or rational in politically sensitive situations. In November 2002, Zimbabwean police outside of Mutare killed an American citizen at a roadblock.

Tourists may also be subject to harassment or arrest for photographing police, roadblocks, occupied commercial farms, and government buildings or installations. American visitors have also been detained under suspicion of operating as journalists without a license for photographing cultural sites and areas that may not immediately appear to be sensitive. Resident and visiting Americans have been arrested, detained, or threatened with expulsion for activities that would not be considered crimes in the U.S., including the expression of opinions regarding the current political regime in Zimbabwe.

Victoria Falls is a major tourist destination and visitors are urged to use the same security precautions they would exercise in any urban area of the developing world. Two American citizens were robbed in their hotel room in Victoria Falls in 2004. While Harare is a clean and pleasant city, street crime is a serious problem, particularly in tourist areas. Harare has experienced a significant rise in the number of serious crimes committed during the past year. Although the majority of these crimes were non-violent, there has been an increase in the use of firearms. The downtown sector of Harare is a particularly high-crime area.

U.S. citizens residing in or traveling to Zimbabwe should be aware of continuing conditions that could affect their safety, including the outbreak of sporadic demonstrations driven by deteriorating economic conditions. Demonstrations, which occur in both urban and rural areas, have sometimes resulted in injuries to demonstrators. Political activity can also result in violence, and U.S. citizens are urged to avoid all political rallies and demonstrations.

Other ongoing conditions that could affect the safety of tourists in Zimbabwe include the occupation of commercial farms by members of the National War Veterans' Association and others. The so-called war veterans have not targeted resident U.S. citizens for violence, but American tourists and residents should avoid areas where war veterans are active.

Zimbabwe is currently experiencing a significant nationwide fuel shortage. Drivers often spend days parked in lines at gas stations waiting for fuel. Emotions in these lines can run quite high and have sparked isolated protests. Certain gas stations are authorized to accept foreign currency for fuel and these stations often have more fuel available with shorter lines. A list of stations authorized to accept foreign currency can be obtained from the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe; however, coupons for these stations may have to be purchased in advance from the Reserve Bank. Travelers should carefully assess their fuel situation, keep their tanks full, and consider carrying extra fuel in sealed containers specifically designed for such purpose before making any long-distance journeys.

For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department's Internet web site at http://travel.state.gov where the current Travel Warnings and Public Announcements, including the Worldwide Caution Public Announcement, can be found. Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S., or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).

Crime:

Carjacking, street crime, and credit card fraud are on the rise. Much of the increase in crime is due to high rates of unemployment and deteriorating economic conditions. Americans and other foreigners are perceived to be wealthy and could be targeted by criminals who operate in the vicinity of hotels, restaurants, and shopping malls in Harare and in major tourist areas such as Victoria Falls.

Travelers should watch their luggage at airports, railway and bus stations, and when making calls from public telephones. Travelers are advised to avoid displaying or carrying unnecessary valuables in public. Items such as passports, money, jewelry, and credit cards should be placed in hotel safety deposit boxes when not being used. Incidents have occurred, however, in which valuables left in room safes have been taken. Visitors should not carry large sums of money. Use of credit cards, except at major hotels and at automatic teller machines, is not recommended.

Teams of thieves frequently prey on victims in the downtown area of Harare. Purse-snatchers will often work in teams of two, with one person acting as a diversion. A typical mugging involves a group of young males who surround and overwhelm their victim in a public area. Tourists and out-of-town shoppers continue to be considered lucrative targets. Use caution when leaving banks. Cell phones are of particular interest to local thieves.

Travelers should avoid driving at night outside the low-density suburban areas. Car doors should be locked and windows rolled up. Handbags, wallets, and other items should be placed out of sight under car seats or in the trunk of the car. While stopped in traffic, drivers should always be aware and look around to identify potential trouble. Drivers should always leave sufficient maneuver room between their vehicle and the one in front. Travelers who suspect that their vehicle is being followed should drive to the nearest police station or some other public area for assistance. Drivers should be alert to "smash and grabs," where thieves break the windows of cars stopped at intersections and take items from inside the car. Reducing idle times at traffic lights by slowing in advance to anticipate the changing of the light is an effective deterrent. Drivers should also be cautious of people using ploys to lure them out of their cars, for example by offering to help with a flat tire. Beware of drivers in vehicles without license plates who stop to render aid or who cause minor accidents. Always drive to a well-lit and populated area before making repairs or exchanging information.

Travelers are encouraged to make two photocopies of the biographic/identification page of their passport. They should leave one copy at home with friends or relatives and carry the second copy with them for identification purposes.

Information for Victims of Crime:

The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.

Medical Facilities and Health Information:

Medical facilities, particularly outside of Harare and Bulawayo, are limited. Travelers are urged to carry an ample supply of prescription and other medications as they will not likely be available in Zimbabwe. Provincial hospitals in rural areas have rudimentary staffing, equipment, and supplies, and are not equipped to provide medical care in case of a serious accident. The fuel shortage further diminishes emergency response capabilities. Emergency patients have sometimes had to arrange their own transportation to the hospital. Doctors, hospitals and air ambulance medical evacuation services often expect immediate cash payment for health services.

The water supply is not always potable so it is recommended that bottled or distilled water be used for drinking.

Malaria is prevalent throughout Zimbabwe, except in Harare. It is strongly recommended that malaria prophylaxis and preventive measures are taken when traveling outside of Harare.

Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC's Internet site at http://www.cdc.gov/travel. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad consult the World Health Organization's (WHO) website at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.

Medical Insurance:

The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation.

Traffic Safety and Road Conditions:

While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Zimbabwe is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.

The main roads throughout Zimbabwe are generally in fair condition, though most lack passing lanes, shoulders, breakdown lanes, lighting, reflectors, and similar safety features.

Service stations frequently lack fuel or repair parts. Inter-city commuter bus travel, except by "luxury coaches," is dangerous due to over-crowding, inadequate maintenance, and drivers who are fatigued and who fail to adhere to local speed limits and to obey traffic rules or regulations. Travelers are advised to avoid driving at night due to pedestrians (in dark clothing) and animals walking in the poorly lit roads. Motor vehicles often have no headlights or tail lights and are difficult to see at night. Traffic moves on the left and many people drive over the speed limit. The passing lanes are not always clearly marked, and road visibility at times can be restricted. In urban areas, lane markers are often faded and traffic and streetlights often inoperable.

It is illegal to operate a cellular telephone while driving in Zimbabwe. Drivers are required to wear seat belts or helmets if driving motorcycles. Car seats are not required for small children. Travelers should pack several pairs of latex gloves in the event of a road accident involving serious injuries or bleeding, as Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV/AIDS infection in southern Africa.

The Ministry of Transport is the government authority responsible for road safety in Zimbabwe. There is no national established network of roadside emergency service. However, the Automobile Association of Zimbabwe, similar to the American Automobile Association, is willing to provide roadside emergency service to nonmembers for a fee. Travelers interested in contacting the service during their stay in Zimbabwe may contact AA Zimbabwe at 263-4-752-779. AA Zimbabwe's 24-hour emergency roadside helpline is 263-4-707-959.

Aviation Safety Oversight:

As there is no direct commercial air service between the United States and Zimbabwe, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Zimbabwe's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with ICAO international aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA's internet web site at http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/oversight/iasa.

Special Circumstances:

It is illegal to exchange foreign currency for local currency with anyone other than an authorized currency dealer affiliated with the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe. Authorized currency dealers include the major banks, such as Standard Chartered and Barclays. Street vendors and private individuals may also offer this service, but they should be avoided. Travelers observed by the police engaging in illegal money transactions will be immediately arrested and jailed pending a hearing before a magistrate court.

Travelers to Zimbabwe should carefully consider the method of payment used for lodging and other expenses. Due to high rates of inflation, prices may fluctuate dramatically. Internationally convertible currency such as U.S. dollars or British pounds may be required for certain travel-related expenses such as hotel bills and airfare, but is illegal to use for most other expenses. Even in instances where use of foreign exchange is required or permitted, traveler's checks may not be accepted. Similarly, many banks and foreign exchange windows refuse to accept traveler's checks for conversion to local currency, and virtually none will cash them for foreign exchange. There have been recent instances in which Zimbabwean authorities seized foreign currency from tourists/visitors who were unable to present documentation that they declared these funds when entering the country. Using a credit card could significantly increase the cost of purchases, as credit card companies calculate the U.S. dollar equivalent using the official government rate, which may be significantly lower than that used by local shopkeepers and vendors. Visitors are encouraged to assess the currency situation in Zimbabwe at the actual time of travel.

Zimbabwean authorities are extremely sensitive about the photographing of police and military personnel, as well as certain locations and buildings, including government offices, airports, military installations, official residences and embassies. Tourists have been arrested and incarcerated for several days for taking photos or videos of government buildings, including the president's palace. Prior written permission must be obtained from the appropriate government office before taking such photographs.

The U.S. Embassy does not always receive timely notification of the arrest of American citizens by the Zimbabwean police. U.S. citizens are encouraged to carry a copy of their U.S. passports with them at all times so that, if questioned by local officials, proof of identity and U.S. citizenship is readily available. If arrested, American citizens should ask to be allowed to contact the American Embassy.

Zimbabwe offers opportunities for observation of wildlife in its natural habitat. Many tour operators offer structured, safe excursions into parks and other wildlife viewing areas for close observation of flora and fauna. However, even animals marketed as "tame" should be respected as wild animals and travelers should keep a safe distance from animals at all times, remaining in vehicles or other protected enclosures when venturing into game parks. A foreign tourist died in August 2005 after an attack during a "lion walk" at a game preserve near Harare. In 2004, an American tourist was killed by a crocodile while in a canoe at Mana Pools on the Zambezi River. It is a good idea to ascertain whether operators are trained and licensed. However, U.S. citizens participating in nature excursions in Zimbabwe should be aware that even organized and licensed tour operators may encourage or allow tourists to participate in activities that could pose great risks to personal safety.

There have been a few instances in which tourists have faced last-minute cancellations or have had to leave a game park earlier than planned as a result of labor unrest and/or ownership disputes. Visitors to Nyanga should avoid Pungwe Falls, Mterazi Falls, and the Honde Falls, as there have been numerous incidents of armed robbery, theft, assaults, and attempted rapes reported at these sites. Land mines along the Mozambique border, situated beyond the main tourist areas, make travel to that border area potentially hazardous.

Tourists who wish to hunt in Zimbabwe must be accompanied by a licensed operator, who is required to be registered and licensed by the Zimbabwe Ministry of Environment and Tourism. Travelers to Zimbabwe should ask for the operator's license number when booking a hunt and should check the authenticity of the license by contacting the Zimbabwe Association of Tour and Safari Operators (ZATSO) at: [email protected] or [email protected]. See the section below on firearms and penalties for information on carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe.

U.S. citizens who are temporarily carrying firearms and ammunition into Zimbabwe for purposes of hunting will need an approved temporary export license (DSP73) from Department of State's Office of Defense Trade Controls. U.S. citizens should also contact the Embassy of Zimbabwe in Washington, D.C. to find out what permits are required by the government of Zimbabwe for importing weapons into the country. Travelers are advised to make sure that all of the necessary documentation is in order before departing the United States. The weapons also must be cleared through U.S. Customs when leaving the United States and upon reentry at the conclusion of one's trip.

Under Executive Order 13288 of March 7, 2003, the United States placed sanctions on the property and economic assets of certain Zimbabwean government officials deemed most responsible for undermining Zimbabwe's democratic institutions. Under U.S. law, it is illegal for American citizens or residents to engage in any transaction or dealing with the targeted individuals or other entities designated by the Secretary of the Treasury under this sanctions program. It is not otherwise illegal for American citizens to transact business with Zimbabwean firms. U.S. citizens intending to engage in business or financial transactions in Zimbabwe are advised to consult the Department of Treasury's Office of Foreign Assets Control website at http://www.treas.gov/ofac for up-to-date information on these sanctions.

Criminal Penalties:

While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Zimbabwe's laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Zimbabwe are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in illicit sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States.

It is against the law to make any gesture or statement that might be construed as offensive to the president of Zimbabwe, a member of his government, or the Zimbabwean government itself; anyone who engages in speech or activities deemed offensive by the government may be detained, arrested and/or imprisoned.

Children's Issues:

For information on international adoption of children and international parental child abduction, see the Office of Children's Issues website at http://travel.state.gov/family/family_1732.html.

Registration/Embassy Location:

Americans living or traveling in Zimbabwe are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department's travel registration website, https://travelregistration.state.gov, and to obtain updated information on travel and security within Zimbabwe. Americans without Internet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency. The U.S. Embassy is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue, Harare, telephone (263-4) 250-593/4, afterhours telephone (263-4) 250-595; fax (263-4) 722-618 or 796-488. The mailing address is P.O. Box 3340, Harare. The e-mail address is [email protected]. American citizen service hours are from 1:30 pm to 3:30 pm Monday through Thursday and from 8:00 am to 11:30 am on Fridays, except U.S. and Zimbabwean holidays.

Travel Warning

November 14, 2005

This Travel Warning is being issued to remind American citizens of the continuing political, economic and humanitarian instability in Zimbabwe. This supersedes the Travel Warning of March 16, 2005.

The Department of State cautions U.S. citizens of the risks of travel to Zimbabwe, a country in the midst of political and economic turmoil. All U.S. citizens in Zimbabwe are advised to take those measures they deem appropriate to ensure their personal safety.

Zimbabwe's economy is in a protracted state of decline, with extremely high rates of unemployment and inflation. Shortages of staple foods are a persistent problem. Deteriorating economic conditions have led to a significant increase in crime, including violent crime. A nationwide fuel shortage makes internal travel difficult and unreliable, and severely restricts the response capability of police and other emergency services.

All Americans who travel to or reside in Zimbabwe are urged to register and obtain updated information on travel and security in Zimbabwe with the U.S. Embassy in Harare or on the State Department's travel registration website at https://travelregistration.state.gov/ibrs/. The U.S. Embassy in Harare is located at 172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue and can be contacted by phone at (263) 4-250-593/4/5.

Updated information on travel and security in Zimbabwe may be obtained from the Department of State by calling 1-888-407-4747, or from overseas 1-202-501-4444. For further information, please consult the Consular Information Sheet for Zimbabwe, and the current World Wide Caution Public Announcement, which are located on the Bureau of Consular Affairs Internet website at http://travel.state.gov.

International Adoption

January 2006

The information below has been edited from a report of the State Department Bureau of Consular Affairs, Office of Overseas Citizens Services. For more information, please read the International Adoption section of this book and review current reports online at www.travel.state.gov/family.

Disclaimer:

The information in this flyer relating to the legal requirements of specific foreign countries is based on public sources and our current understanding. Questions involving foreign and U.S. immigration laws and legal interpretation should be addressed respectively to qualified foreign or U.S. legal counsel.

Availability of Children for Adoption:

In the past eight years, a U.S. citizen has adopted one Zimbabwean child.

Zimbabwean Adoption Authority:

The government office responsible for adoptions in Zimbabwe is the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare. If the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare approves a request to adopt, the case is submitted to the Juvenile Courts for review of the adoption application. If this is approved, an adoption order is issued. Both the prospective adoptive parent and the child must be a resident of and domiciled in Zimbabwe at the time that the Juvenile Courts issue an adoption order.

Zimbabwean Adoption Procedures:

Not every child in a Zimbabwean orphanage is available for adoption. There is no central registry for identifying available children. As soon as the prospective adoptive parent has identified a child, the Ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare should be contacted to determine if the child is available for adoption. Prospective adoptive parents should also be aware that the adoption process could take from several months to over a year to conclude.

Age and Civil Status Requirements:

Zimbabwean adoption law states that the prospective adoptive parent(s) must be 25 years old and at least 21 years older than the adoptive child. The Ministry of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare may grant exceptions.

Adoption Agencies and Attorneys:

There are no adoption agencies operating in Zimbabwe. The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy maintains a list of numerous attorneys practicing throughout Zimbabwe who may be able to assist prospective adoptive parents with adoptions. Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to research thoroughly the practices of any attorney prior to committing funds for an adoption.

Doctors:

The U.S. Embassy (Consular Section) maintains current lists of doctors and sources for medicines, should either you or your child experience health problems while in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwean documentary requirements:

The following are the documentary requirements for the adoption of children in Zimbabwe:

• A signed consent form before the Juvenile Courts by the biological parent or legal guardian of the child, consenting to the adoption. This signed consent form should contain the address and name(s) of the adopting parent(s).
• A certificate endorsed by the Juvenile Courts stating that the biological parent or the legal guardian understands the nature and effect of the adoption order applied for. If granted, the parent or the legal guardian will be permanently deprived of his or her rights in respect of the child.
• The child had been medically examined and the medical report is on file with the Juvenile Courts.
• The birth certificate of the child is on file with the Juvenile Courts.

U.S. Immigration Requirements:

A Zimbabwean child, even if adopted by an American citizen, must obtain an immigrant visa before he or she can enter the U.S. as a lawful permanent resident. Please see the International Adoption section of this book for more details and review current reports online at travel.state.gov/family.

Zimbabwean Embassy in the United States:

Embassy of the Republic of Zimbabwe
1608 New Hampshire Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20009
Tel: (202) 332-7100

U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe: The Consular Section is located at:

Embassy of the United States of America
172 Herbert Chitepo Avenue
Harare, Zimbabwe
Tel: 263-4-250-593/4
Consular Fax: 263-4-722-618

Additional Information:

Prospective adoptive parents are strongly encouraged to consult BCIS publication M-249, The Immigration of Adopted and Prospective Adoptive Children, as well as the Department of State publication, International Adoptions.

Questions:

Specific questions regarding adoption in Zimbabwe may be addressed to the Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy in Zimbabwe. You may also contact the Office of Children's Issues, SA-29, 2201 C Street, NW, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520-2818, telephone (202) 735-7000 with specific questions.