ARCHAEOLOGICAL ETHICS

When the public thinks of archaeology, it may have mental images of the fictional character Indiana Jones, who travels to exotic places, overcomes numerous challenges to capture precious antiquities, and brings them back to the United States for display. Life as an archaeologist must be full of adventure. Although images such as these are based loosely on some events in archaeological history, archaeologists more typically "seek knowledge rather than objects that are intrinsically valuable ... to help us understand vanished peoples and cultures" (Stiebing 1993, p. 22).

Anthropology, history, and other fields all attempt to understand the past, but what sets archaeology apart from the other disciplines is the way it achieves understanding, particularly through discovering the physical objects and human remains left behind by ancient and not so ancient peoples. The emergence of archaeology as a science has enhanced the understanding of human history but in the process has given rise to important ethical questions relating to ownership of artifacts and the disturbance of gravesites, among other issues.

History and Development

Archaeological activity of one type or another has existed for millennia, whether in the form of treasure hunting, looting, or appreciating and seeking understanding of the past. The sixth-century b.c.e. kings of Babylon Nebuchadrezzar and Nabonidus excavated and even restored parts of the ancient city of Ur, and local antiquities were collected by a Babylonian princess (Daniel 1981). Many of the tombs of Egyptian pharaohs were looted by treasure hunters despite the elaborate methods employed by the tomb builders to thwart such breaches.

Some of the earlier accounts of archaeological exploration as it is understood in the early twenty-first century began in Europe during the sixteenth century when Henry VIII appointed the King's Antiquary, whose duties were to travel the land "describing things of antiquarian interest" (Daniel 1981, p. 25). Sweden led the rest of Europe in the study, teaching, and collecting of antiquities with an Antiquities College and Museum and an official proclamation protecting "ancient monuments ... and portable antiquities" (Daniel 1981, p. 32). During that time archaeological scholars carried on robust debates about the age of the world; some held to the biblical age of the earth (dating back to about 4000 b.c.e.), and others claimed that it had to be older in light of the types of artifacts being discovered throughout Europe, such as stone axes and knives.

The notion of the technological stages of human cultural evolution—the age of stone, characterized by weapons and tools constructed of wood and stone; the age of bronze, in which tools and weapons were constructed of copper and later bronze; and the age of iron, in which tools and weapons that had been constructed of bronze were replaced by those made of iron—was proposed as early as 1738. The Danish National Museum curator Christian Jurgensen Thomsen (1788–1865), however, is credited with systematizing the three technological stages in archaeology (Daniel 1981).

The ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, which were destroyed in 79 b.c.e. by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, were the subject of the first large-scale excavations in the modern era. The suddenness of the eruption, coupled with rapid burial from ash, mud flows, and lava, preserved both cities until their discovery sixteen centuries later. Initially the purpose of the excavations was not to understand the past but to extract valuables from the ruins, resulting in haphazard and destructive extraction methods. It was not uncommon for small and seemingly worthless artifacts to be destroyed, and systematic identification of the location and position in which the artifacts were found was not practiced.

Partly as a result of the discoveries of Herculaneum and Pompeii European interest in classical antiquity exploded. However, much of the activity was centered on the acquisition of antiquities for collectors and museums (Lynott 2003), not on the production of historical knowledge. To satisfy the desires of collectors, most antiquities were collected hastily without proper cataloging and recording of the context in which they were found, causing the loss of valuable historical information forever. Even though many of those antiquities have been preserved in European museums, the debate over the ownership of the antiquities and the unscientific methods of excavation continues, constituting one of the earliest ethical conflicts in the field (Lynott 2003).

Archaeologists' interests grew spatially during the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with excavations occurring in Asia, India, the Near East, and the Americas. After Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt in 1798, his scholars conducted excavations and recorded a substantial amount of information. Most impressive was the 1799 discovery of the Rosetta Stone, which, after it was deciphered in 1822, provided the key to understanding Egyptian hieroglyphics. Other activities in that century included the founding of the American Antiquarian Society in 1812, extensive explorations and recording of Central American civilizations in the 1830s and 1840s, the first excavations of Mesopotamia in 1843 at Nineveh, and excavations in India throughout the first half of the nineteenth century (Daniel 1981).

Emergence as a Science

Early archaeological method was mostly descriptive, based on the objects that were found. Basic mapping and drawing of the artifacts was the common practice. Thomas Jefferson, who excavated burial mounds in Virginia, "became the first person ... to have used the principles of stratigraphy to interpret archaeological finds" (Stiebing 1993, p. 173). Stratigraphy, or the study of sedimentary distribution, age, and strata, enables archaeologists to estimate the ages of artifacts. In 1860 Giuseppe Fiorelli (1823–1896) took over the excavations in Pompeii and developed several new methodological approaches. Fiorelli pioneered the approach of using plaster to cast the remains of humans and animals, initiated a top-down approach to excavating buildings to reduce the frequency of their collapse, and left large objects "in situ" (Stiebing 1993, Daniel 1981). General Augustus Pitt Rivers (1827–1900) is credited with systematizing modern excavation methods, including the careful recording of the site and location of all objects found, the reproduction of all notes and drawings in publications, and the practice of recording even small and seemingly worthless artifacts (Stiebing 1993, Daniel 1981).

One of the most important contributions to the field of archaeology was the discovery of carbon-14 by Willard Libby (1908–1980) in 1949. Carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon, is used to date living and formerly living things (Stiebing 1993, Daniel 1981). Progress in the field of geology and dating rocks through a similar process also expanded methods to establish the archaeological record. Other ways to date artifacts include dendrochronology (counting tree rings) and paleomagnetic dating, which compares the magnetic orientation of earthenware with the past orientation of the magnetic poles. Other technologies in use to locate, describe, and record artifacts include x-ray technology, aerial photography, geographical information systems (GISs), computer software programs, ground-penetrating radar, and miniature cameras (Stiebing 1993, Daniel 1981).

The invention of the Aqua-Lung and scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) technology revolutionized maritime archaeology and allowed the exploration of thousands of previously untouched archaeological sites around the world. More recently the development of deep-sea submersibles, both manned and unmanned, extended exploratory reach further. In 1985 one of the most famous shipwrecks was discovered through the use of such technology: the SS Titanic, which sank in 12,500 feet of water on its maiden voyage in 1912, killing about 1,500 people (Ballard and McConnell 1995).

The contemporary archaeological process includes more than just anthropologists and archaeologists. The study of ancient peoples and cultures requires scientists from diverse fields such as botany, geology, medicine, computer science, and art, among others.

Legal Activities

The first national law in the modern era to address concerns about preserving archaeological sites was the Antiquities Act of 1906, which protected sites on government lands (Messenger 1999). The National Historical Preservation Act of 1966 established various institutions for dealing with historical preservation. Although those laws provided needed protection to valuable archaeological sites, they did not address the concerns of the Native Americans whose ancestors and their gravesites were the focus of research and excavation. In 1990 Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). That law clearly delegates ownership of artifacts to the Native American tribes that descend from the ancient people who are the subject of archaeological studies (Messenger 1999). Some archaeologists were surprised by passage of NAGPRA and "viewed the new law as antiscience and a threat to their access to the archaeological record" (Lynott 2003, p. 23).

The debate over "Kennewick Man" illustrates the ongoing ethical issues with regard to the ownership of artifacts and remains. In 1996 skeletal remains were discovered near Kennewick, Washington, and through the use of radio carbon dating were estimated to be about 9,000 years old (Smith and Burke 2003). Five local Native American Indian tribes claimed the remains under the provisions of NAGPRA, seeking to rebury the artifacts after proving their "cultural affiliation" with the remains, thus removing Kennewick Man from scientific investigation.

A group of scientists challenged the claim on two grounds. First, they argued that the characteristics of Kennewick Man's skull indicated that he may have been white and not Native American. Second, they argued that it was unlikely that the present-day Native Americans actually were descended from Kennewick Man in light of the passage of 9,000 years and the likelihood that there was much movement of the tribes in the intervening years. In 2002 a U.S. district court ruled in favor of the scientists, although the tribal coalition appealed the ruling. The findings of the court raise important questions about Native American connections to ancient remains and the conflict between Native American values and the desire to conduct scientific research (Smith and Burke 2003).

Archaeological discoveries also spur debates centered on economic issues, as in the case of Ötzi, also known as the Iceman, who was discovered by a hiker in the Alps in 1991. Ötzi's body, clothing, and tools were particularly well preserved after having been encased in ice for almost 5,300 years. Both Austria and Italy claimed ownership of Ötzi in a bitter custody battled until it was determined that Ötzi had been found in Italian territory. With the expectation that tourists would flock to see Ötzi, Italy constructed a museum to display him and expected to earn millions of dollars in museum entrance fees. The hiker who discovered Ötzi also demanded compensation, but it took twelve years before he was legally declared Ötzi's discoverer. The hiker is entitled to 25 percent of Ötzi's value, but determining that value is a difficult endeavor.

One of the more famous cases of ownership disputes centered on the Elgin Marbles, so called because Thomas Bruce, the seventh earl of Elgin, was responsible for transporting the marbles from Greece to England in 1806. Also called the Parthenon Marbles, the collection includes much of the surviving frieze and sculptures from the Parthenon and other Greek sites. Bruce later sold the marbles to the British government, which put them on display. Many people and organizations, particularly the Greek government, have called for the return of the marbles to Greece, but as of 2005 none has been returned.

Ethical Issues

Ethical standards in archaeology developed simultaneously with the maturation of the field. With the exception of the seventeenth-century decree to protect antiquities in Sweden, little was done with regard to ethics until the second half of the nineteenth century. During that period many of those who called themselves archaeologists and conducted excavations were not formally trained in the field. Poor excavation practices damaged and occasionally destroyed artifacts. According to Lynott (2003), ethical concerns in archaeology originally were focused on the need to preserve sites from destruction through vandalism, looting, and poor excavation practices. In the early twenty-first century many archaeologists view ruins as nonrenewable resources that should be protected accordingly (Warren 1999).

Professionalization of the field began in earnest in 1879 with the creation of the Archaeological Institute of America (AIA), followed by the Society for American Archaeology (SAA) in 1934. Concerns about professionalism and technique continued, resulting in the creation in 1976 of the Society of Professional Archaeologists (SOPA), which established a professional registry.

The first major effort to codify professional practices occurred in 1960 with the SAA's "Four Statements for Archaeology" (Lynott 2003), which defined the field, established guidelines for record keeping, suggested standards for training, and established ethical standards that focused primarily on professional practices related to the larger archaeological community. SOPA also established a grievance procedure and enforced its ethical standards (Lynott 2003).

Attitudes toward cultural artifacts changed during the 1980s, when indigenous people worldwide developed greater concern over the treatment and ownership of their ancestors' remains and artifacts (Lynott 2003). Ethical codes changed in response to those concerns, but there still is no single set of ethical standards that defines the field of archaeology. For example, the World Archaeological Congress (WAC) developed "eight principles to abide by and seven rules to adhere to" (Lynott 2003, p. 23). The AIA established its "Code of Ethics" in 1990, and the SAA developed its new "Eight Principles of Archaeological Ethics," which it approved in 1996 (Messenger 1999). The SAA's principles address archaeologists' responsibility to affected peoples, stewardship and accountability to society, rejection of the commercialization of archaeology, public education and outreach, intellectual property, public reporting and publication standards, records and preservation of collections and artifacts, and training standards for archaeological professionals (Messenger 1999, Society for American Archaeology 2004).

Other ethical concerns in archaeology relate to occasional incidents of fraud or unscientific analyses. In 2000 Shinichi Fujimura, one of Japan's most respected archaeologists, was photographed planting stone tools at a site he claimed to be 600,000 years old. He later admitted to having planted dozens of items at several sites, raising questions of legitimacy with most of his work. Both the Tohoku Institute and the Japanese Archaeological Association expelled Fujimura, although the institute's reputation was "irreparably damaged" by the event (Romey 2001).

As in any field, establishing codes of ethics and practicing them are two different issues. However, the archaeological community seems to understand the important responsibility it has not only to further the understanding of the past but to do so in cooperation with and with respect for people who have vested cultural and ancestral interests in archaeological research. Not only is there a healthy and lively discussion within the community regarding ethics, modern students of archaeology are likely to take a course on ethics as part of their preparation to become professional archaeologists.

ELIZABETH C. MCNIE

SEE ALSO Misconduct in Science;Museums of Science and Technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ballard, Robert D., with Malcolm McConnell. (1995). Explorations: My Quest for Adventure and Discovery under the Sea. New York: Hyperion.

Daniel, Glyn. (1981). A Short History of Archaeology. London: Thames and Hudson. This book, although somewhat dated, provides an excellent overview of the history of archaeology and the people behind the story.

Delgado, James. (2001). Lost Warships. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.

Lynott, Mark. (2003). "The Development of Ethics in Archaeology." In Ethical Issues in Archaeology, ed. Larry J. Zimmerman, Karen D. Vitelli, and Julie Hollowell-Zimmer. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.

Messenger, Phyllis Mautch, ed. (1999). The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property, 2nd edition. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Smith, Clarie, and Heather Burke. (2003). "In the Spirit of the Code." In Ethical Issues in Archaeology, ed. Larry J. Zimmerman, Karen D. Vitelli, and Julie Hollowell-Zimmer. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.

Stiebing Jr., William H. (1993). Uncovering the Past: A History of Archaeology. Buffalo NY: Prometheus Press. An excellent historical account of archeology.

Vitelli, Karen D., ed. (1996). Archaeological Ethics. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.

Warren, Karen J. (1999). "A Philosophical Perspective on the Ethics and Resolution of Cultural Property Issues." In The Ethics of Collecting Cultural Property, 2nd edition, ed. Phyllis Mautch Messenger. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Zimmerman, Larry J.; Karen D. Vitelli; and Julie Hollowell-Zimmer, eds. (2003). Ethical Issues in Archaeology. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira. Excellent resource on current ethical issues in archaeology.

INTERNET RESOURCES

Romey, Kristin M. (2001)." 'God's Hands' Did the Devil's Work." Archaeology: A Publication of the Archaeological Institute of America, vol. 54, no. 1. Available at http://www.archaeology.org/0101/newsbriefs/godshands.html.

Society for American Archaeology. (2004). Available at http://www.saa.org. Provides a complete list of the ethical standards required of all members.