The Importance of the Eclipse in Ancient Society

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The Importance of the Eclipse in Ancient Society

Overview

Humans have always sought to bring order and stability to their lives. From the earliest times, ancient people were drawn to the majesty and permanence of the heavens. Over time, early societies attached religious and spiritual significance to the regular motions of the celestial realm. When an astronomical event such as an eclipse took place, most ancient people believed it was the action of a divine being. When the rays of the Sun or the glow of the Moon were extinguished, early societies believed this was a terrible omen and that some type of disaster was imminent.

Background

Life for early man was short and traumatic, and he longed for permanence in a world that was governed by change. Humans were able to succeed in this highly competitive environment because they had important advantages over animals. Specifically, their large brains allowed them to develop the critical thinking skills that eventually evolved into their most powerful tool. This reasoning capacity was expanded into methods of practical application because their hands were free from the task of locomotion and their opposable thumbs gave them the dexterity to create and use tools and weapons.

Early survival of humans was linked to this very powerful combination of reason and physical skill. Most importantly, human ancestors developed the intellectual skill of recognizing cause and effect relationships. For instance, this powerful habit of mind allowed them to make the connection between water holes, animal herds, and successful hunting. In time, the perception that all reality revolved around this cause and effect intellectual model stimulated them to inquire into the ultimate cause of all natural phenomena. Eventually, they gave spiritual significance to the forces they could not control. Wind, rain, thunder, drought—indeed, severe natural occurrences of any kind—were believed to be the actions of very powerful spiritual beings. These ideas eventually evolved into a primitive theology that gave these powerful entities control over every aspect of existence.

The belief that gods controlled the forces of nature also compelled these early ancestors to attempt to develop techniques of divination. This intellectual heritage drove them to interpret natural phenomena as a sign of the will and intention of divine beings.

This quest for understanding eventually was focused toward the heavens. Because change, sometimes in violent form, was a constant in the lives of Paleolithic societies, they were moved to find some stability in their existence. Close observation of the heavens gave them the vision of a celestial realm of consistency and permanence. Coupled with the observation that most dramatic natural events originated in the sky above them, Paleolithic society reasoned that the heavens were the domain of these powerful beings that had such a profound impact on their daily lives. This naturally increased the importance of astronomical events, and from the very beginning of the systematic observation, these celestial occurrences took on great religious significance.

The intellectual capacity of humankind increased with the onset of the Neolithic Revolution. Sedentary agriculture and urbanization dramatically restructured human society and accelerated the invention of new skills. The most important individual advance of the Neolithic period was the invention of writing. This revolutionary tool evolved from early attempts to keep track of food surpluses to the eventual creation of a system of self-expression where everything from listing basic statistical data to the discussion of complex ideas could be recorded, transmitted, and preserved.

This created the greatest increase in knowledge and creativity in human history, because writing permitted a more elaborate intellectual life. In the area of scientific inquiry, it proved to be a revolutionary skill. The ability to keep extensive data increased the accuracy of scientific investigation. This was especially true in the collection of astronomical data, which was so important in the creation of the first calendars. Neolithic society relied heavily on the accuracy of these calendars for the construction and operation of their irrigation systems, which were the basis of the Neolithic agricultural revolution. This coincided with the development of more abstract religious thought and the creation of early epic literature, which was used to convey new value systems.

An intellectual connection developed between the newly organized religious beliefs and the science of astronomy. The Paleolithic concept of a heavenly realm continued into the Neolithic Revolution. The importance of this connection grew as the necessity of accurate astronomical data increased. Celestial events took on added importance because they connected the actions of the gods with the success of the great agricultural enterprise of the Neolithic Revolution. Events such as eclipses portrayed the disruption of both the natural and religious order of the universe.

Very few astronomical events have the impact of a solar or lunar eclipse. The darkening of the sky, whether it is day or night, was looked upon by these societies as a sign that the natural order of the cosmos was disrupted.

Impact

The first Neolithic societies to develop the scientific foundation of astronomy were the early people of Mesopotamia. Because the weather in that area was so harsh and unpredictable, it was paramount that accurate predictions concerning the onset of heavy rains be made. This concern focused many Mesopotamian intellectuals on the science of astronomy. These early sky watchers kept very detailed records, and the first account of an eclipse in this region occurred in 1375 b.c. Beginning at least with the reign of King Nabonassar (r. 747-734 b.c.), ancient Babylonian society kept a detailed log of astronomical events, including both solar and lunar eclipses. Eventually, Babylonian astronomers were able to determine the intervals between such eclipses, intervals that broadly repeat every 18 years—a cycle called the saros. Among the early Babylonian astronomers who made important discoveries regarding eclipses were Nabu-rimanni (fl. c. 490 b.c.) and Kiddinu (fl. c. 350 b.c.).

The Sumerians and Babylonians both developed religions based upon a pantheon of anthropomorphic gods. These powerful beings were given exaggerated human characteristics. It was widely accepted by both societies that these deities controlled natural phenomena. History's first great intellectual class was the priests of ancient Mesopotamia, who were both scientists and theologians. They had the important assignment of performing the rituals necessary to placate the gods and at the same time make the astronomical calculations needed to run their irrigation systems. Eventually, religion and astronomy merged, and an important celestial event such as an eclipse was perceived to have a potential impact on everyone in Mesopotamia.

Ancient China was another example of the merging of the science and culture. In this case, it was the relationship among government, political philosophy, and science. By the time of the Shang Dynasty (1600-1050 b.c.), professional astronomy would be part of the government bureaucracy. These intellectuals were charged with keeping track of the movement of the Sun and Moon in relation to Earth. The earliest record of a solar eclipse occurs in Shang literature in 2134 b.c. It was during the rule of this dynasty that it became widely accepted that all astronomical events reflected the will of the gods.

The importance of astronomy, and in particular an eclipse, rose to unprecedented heights following the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1027-221 b.c.). The Duke of Zhou led a successful military campaign against the Shang Dynasty. The new emperor declared his cause was just because of the corruption of the Shang Dynasty, and he set about creating an entirely new social and political paradigm. China's major deity was now referred to as "Heaven." The new ruler was now considered to be the son of Heaven and his divine right to rule was referred to as the Mandate of Heaven. This new political philosophy was based upon a hierarchical structure with the power flowing from God to the monarch. The emperor only maintained his power as long as he was in the good graces of the chief deity. The ruler maintained his positive relationship with Heaven as long as Chinese society was economically and politically stable. As soon as he forgot about or violated this responsibility, he would lose the mandate and another contender had the right to overthrow his government. The astronomical bureaucracy now took on added importance, because it played an important role in the enforcement of the Mandate of Heaven. Unscheduled important celestial events were regarded as a sign of Heaven's displeasure. If the government made an accurate announcement about an eclipse, this would be accepted as the affirmation of the emperor's performance. When in fact the astronomical bureau missed an eclipse, the political and social consequences were perceived to be so grave that the leader of the bureau would be executed by decapitation.

The importance of an eclipse changed radically with the development of ancient Greek culture. The classical Greeks were the first people to separate science from religion. This was the result of their rejection of the traditional religious explanation for natural phenomena. The Greeks believed that the natural world was governed by universal laws and not by the whim of supernatural beings. Through the development and use of reason, the Greeks believed that these natural laws could be discovered, understood, and used for the benefit of the human community. Their natural philosophers were the first to develop the astronomical subdiscipline of cosmology, which sought to discover the origin, foundation, and laws of the universe. Through their investigations, the Greeks tried to ascertain the relationship between these natural laws and the natural order of the universe. By discarding the theological implications of natural events, the Greeks were able to focus strictly on the basic results of their observations and data. From observing the interaction of the Sun, Moon, and Earth, these early scientists began to develop the first natural models of the universe. By observing an eclipse from a purely natural vantage point, the Greeks correctly described Earth as a sphere and the cause of an eclipse as the interaction of the movements of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. They debated whether the Sun or Earth was at the center of this system and eventually—incorrectly—chose Earth. Nevertheless, the Greeks were perhaps the first people to ask purely scientific questions and then to seek to answer these inquiries through scientific observation. This movement away from theological speculation toward scientific observation would set the stage for the great scientific discoveries of both the Islamic and Western civilizations.

RICHARD D. FITZGERALD