LARKS: Alaudidae

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Although there are numerous species of larks, most of them have in common what is known as a "larkspur," a long, straight claw on the hind toe. These roughly sparrow-sized birds are known for their elaborate, melodious songs and their flamboyant song-display flights during mating season. Because they nest on the ground, larks have evolved into fairly dull-looking birds as protection against predators, animals that hunt them for food. They generally vary in color from brown to pinkish-buff to gray, although some sport more distinguished markings and colors. Usually their upper bodies are heavily streaked or unmarked with a grayish brownish color that closely matches the soil in their specific habitats. Their breasts and underparts are often lighter in color and unmarked. Larks range widely in size from 3.9 to 9 inches (10 to 23 centimeters) and can weigh from just under half an ounce to 2.6 ounces (12 to 73 grams). In most species both sexes look very similar, although the males are often larger than the females.

Some types of larks, most notably the crested lark, have tiny crown feathers that they can raise into a crest, while others, like the horned lark, have small tufts that stand out on the sides of their heads, giving them a horned appearance. In addition, there are almost as many different kinds of bills among larks as there are species. They range in shape from long, thin, and pointed to cone-shaped, short, and thick, depending on the main food source and feeding methods to which a local species has adapted. Most larks have short legs and strong feet for scratching in the dirt, along with a hind toe that is much longer than the front ones. However, some larks, depending on whether they are fast runners or live on hard-packed dirt, have shorter spurs.

After they hatch, baby larks are covered with a thin, fine down. As they mature, they develop a uniformly spotted plumage that conceals them from predators. Unlike other similar birds species, larks grow their mature plumage as soon as they leave the nest and are able to live on their own.

GEOGRAPHIC RANGE

Larks occur all over the world, but many of the species are extremely localized and are either rare or endangered. Most larks live in Africa, but many types also inhabit Asia, Australia, North America, South America, and all of Europe.

HABITAT

All species of lark prefer the open, sparsely vegetated landscapes of grasslands, heaths (shrubby lands), rocky plains, and steppes, but some like more vegetation than others. For instance, the flapped lark and the woodlark rely on the presence of mixed vegetation types such as small bushes and trees for perching and grasses for building nests. Many larks use plowed fields and even wastelands in North America for their breeding grounds, while others find homes on arctic steppes, on high mountain slopes (even up to 15,100 feet [4,600 meters] in the Himalayas), or in the desert.

DIET

Larks eat almost any sort of insect, including venomous spiders, snails, beetles, stink bugs, millipedes, and (rarely) winged bugs taken during flight, as well as seeds, buds, fruits, and green vegetation. All nestlings receive insects to eat. Most larks swallow whole seeds, which are then pulverized by grit in the birds' stomachs. Others use their strong, thick beaks to dehusk seeds or smash them on the ground. Some larks have been observed breaking snail shells on rocks or dropping them from the air. Since water is often unavailable in their environments, many lark species drink dew off leaves or grass, even drinking salty or brackish water when necessary.

BEHAVIOR AND REPRODUCTION

Despite their generally lackluster appearance, larks are energetic and charismatic birds. They are particularly known for their long, beautiful songs, which can last from a few minutes to an hour. Several of the species, especially the Mongolian lark, the crested lark, and the melodious or Lakatoo lark, are capable of imitating dozens of different birds and even human whistling. Most singing comes from male larks during mating season, when they use aerial song-displays to attract mates and defend their territories. Typically the males will ascend from a perch vertically before descending while singing, either gliding back down or closing his wings to plummet in a dive that he stops only by opening his wings at the last moment. Some species of lark, including the Dupont's lark, make rattling sounds with their flight feathers during their ascent, while others, namely the black lark, clap their wings over their back during their song-displays. The flapped lark uses wing sounds exclusively, and some species sing only from perches at the tops of trees, bushes, and rocks instead of during aerial song-displays.

Desert-dwelling species such as the sparrow-lark never settle in one place, their nomadic movements depending on food supply and rainfall. Both migratory and nomadic lark species tend to gather in flocks, and sometimes form male- or female-only flocks in the winter. Many of the seed-eating larks join together in large flocks.

With the exception of mating season, when some species occasionally sing at night, larks are active during the daytime (diurnal) and sleep at night in shallow depressions they carve into the ground with their claws. Like many birds, they bathe in dust or sand rather than water, although they have been seen deliberately letting rain soak their feathers. Larks prefer to scratch their heads on pointed objects such as branches and rocks, rather than using their claws. Strong fliers, they can often be identified by their undulating flight pattern during which they periodically close their wings. However, many species of these birds can walk and run so quickly that they often need not fly. Larks that live in hot, dry climates perch on raised stones and bushes to stay off the hot ground, taking shelter during the heat of the day in lizard burrows or the shade of rocks or plants. Parents shade their nestlings by standing over them with spread wings.

Rainfall, even very erratic precipitation, will trigger breeding behavior in nomadic species of lark. Otherwise, the regular breeding season occurs from March through July or whenever the rainy season begins. As a family, larks are monogamous (muh-NAH-guh-mus) for at least one breeding season and may raise one to three broods together. Males attract a mate on the ground by hopping and prancing around an interested female in an upright posture; presenting an upright tail; drooping, slightly spreading, and sometimes quivering the wings; and raising the feathers on top of the head. Throughout this display, males sing fragments of their characteristic songs, and sometimes offer small pieces of food prior to mounting the female.

The majority of larks build their grass-lined nests in shallow, cup-shaped indentations that they scratch into the ground. If this is impossible for some reason, many larks will surround a small area with pebbles or other small items to delineate the space. Several species build a dome over their nests using plant materials and supported by close-by vegetation. Usually females build their nests alone, but the male of such species as the calandra lark and the Oriental skylark typically assists. Males of other species, including the chestnut-backed sparrow-lark, present ritual gifts of such useful items as spider webs, pebbles, and other nesting material.

Lark eggs are generally light yellow or cream-colored, with an even covering of spots. Females lay one egg per day in the early morning, and in years of abundant rainfall and other beneficial factors will lay a clutch of two to five eggs. Larks that live in harsher climates often have smaller clutches. Once the female has laid all her eggs, she begins to incubate, sit on to warm, them. In some species, including the sparrow-lark, the male might help incubate the clutch as well. However, both sexes of all lark species feed and care for the chicks. While still unable to fly, the young eat food provided by the parents. The male will care for a second brood alone, if it occurs.

LARKS AND PEOPLE

Larks have been a favorite bird of humans because of their long, melodious song (especially that of the skylark), which often evokes thoughts of good fortune and fresh beginnings. The birds' extravagant aerial song-displays no doubt led to the description of a group of larks as an "exaltation," and literature is full of references to the birds as harbingers of spring and bringers of good harvests. Trapping and hunting larks (particularly skylarks) remains a popular pastime in France and the Mediterranean region, where up to ten million are killed annually.

CONSERVATION STATUS

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) has determined that eleven lark species now require special protection. The raso and Rudd's larks of the Cape Verde Islands are Critically Endangered, facing an extremely high risk of extinction; Ash's lark in Somalia and Botha's lark in South Africa are Endangered, facing a very high risk of extinction; and the red lark, Archer's lark, Degodi lark, and Sidamo bushlark are Vulnerable, facing a high risk of extinction. Sclater's lark, the latakoo, or melodius, lark, and Agulhas long-billed lark are Near Threatened, in danger of becoming threatened with extinction.

Many other lark species, but especially those with restricted ranges, small population sizes, or unprotected habitat, are having trouble maintaining their populations due to habitat loss and fragmentation, introduced predators, and illegal hunting.

AUSTRALASIAN LARK (Mirafra javanica): SPECIES ACCOUNTS

Physical characteristics: With seventeen subspecies, subgroups of a species in a particular location, the Australasian lark comes in a variety of colors and sizes depending upon its local habitat, although generally the bird weighs about 0.7 ounces (20 grams) and is 4.7 to 5.9 inches (12 to 15 centimeters) long. The Australasian lark has reddish wing patches and inconspicuous coloring. Both sexes of Australasian larks look the same.

Geographic range: As its name indicates, the Australasian lark occupies Australia and nearby Asian countries. It is found in Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Java, Lesser Sunda Islands, Bali), New Guinea, and all areas of Australia except the southwest.

Habitat: Australasian larks prefer to live in salty marshes, among scattered bushes in open grassland, and at the edges of plowed fields.

Diet: Like all larks, this species eats seeds and insects.

Behavior and reproduction: Australasian larks are one of the many lark species that regularly perch on wires and trees rather than remaining on or near the ground. The males' song-displays, which can last forty minutes, usually weave in the songs of other birds. This species flocks in small groups outside mating season and is migratory in southern Australia. During mating season, which lasts from November through January, the birds form monogamous pairs and together construct domed nests among low clumps of grass. The female generally lays a clutch of two to four eggs.

Australasian larks and people: The Australasian lark has no special significance to humans.

Conservation status: This species is not threatened. ∎

GREATER HOOPOE-LARK (Alaemon alaudipes): SPECIES ACCOUNTS

Physical characteristics: One of the world's largest larks, the greater hoopoe-lark was so named because of its resemblance to the hoopoe (HUU-puu) bird. In fact, its scientific name means "hoopoe with legs of a lark." They typically measure 7.1 to 7.9 inches (18 to 20 centimeters) long. Males weigh 1.4 to 1.8 ounces (39 to 51 grams), while females, whose bills are also roughly 30 percent shorter, weigh between 1.1 to 1.6 ounces (30 to 47 grams). The hoopoe-lark has a long, slender bill that curves downward slightly. In both sexes, underparts are whitish, upperparts are sand-colored, and breast and throat are black-spotted. The bird has long, broad wings with a bold black-and-white pattern.

Geographic range: The greater hoopoe-lark is an African and Asian bird, occupying patches of habitat in the Cape Verde Islands, in North Africa from Mauritania to Egypt and Sudan, and across the Middle East to India's northwest region.

Habitat: The greater hoopoe-lark lives in deserts or semideserts and has evolved the ability to survive with little water.

Diet: Hoopoe-larks eat mostly insects and snails, from which they take nutrition as well as water. The birds use their down-curved bills to dig their prey out of hiding places and sandy spots, and have been observed smashing snails on rocks or dropping them from the air to crack their shells.

Behavior and reproduction: Usually seen alone or in pairs, the hoopoe-lark often allows birdwatchers to come within several feet (meters) before it flees. Males of the species defend their territories with a spread-winged posture, and their songs are piercing and loud. The male hoopoe-lark's song-flight, which he may perform continuously for up to an hour, consists of jumping up from a perch as he starts to sing and then flapping vertically to 33 feet (10 meters). He may then perform somersaults to show off his contrasting tail and wing plumage before plummeting to Earth, opening his wings only as he pulls out of the dive and lands.

Greater hoopoe-larks and people: The greater hoopoe-lark has no special significance to humans.

Conservation status: This species is not threatened in general, although in some locations its populations are declining due to conversion of suitable breeding grounds to agricultural, military, or recreational use. ∎

HORNED LARK (Eremophila alpestris): SPECIES ACCOUNTS

Physical characteristics: The horned lark gets its name from the tiny, protruding black feathers on each side of its head, which give the bird a horned appearance. The birds have a softly tawny color on their backs, while their underparts are lighter. They have black bibs, broad black stripes under the eye, and a buttery-yellow or white throat. Tails are mostly black with white outer feathers. Females' "horns" are less apparent and their plumage is more muted overall. Horned larks are generally 5.9 to 6.7 inches (15 to 17 centimeters) long. Males weigh from 1.1 to 1.7 ounces (30 to 48 grams) and females weigh 0.9 to 1.5 ounces (26 to 42 ounces). Wingspan ranges from 12.25 to 14 inches (31 to 35.5 centimeters).

Geographic range: The only member of the lark family native to North America, horned larks nest from Alaska and Canada down to West Virginia, Missouri, North Carolina, coastal Texas, and Kansas, wintering along the Gulf Coast. It also appears throughout northern and southern Europe, where it winters around the North Sea, and in northern and southern Asia. Sightings have also been reported in Morocco, Colombia, Lebanon, and northern Israel.

Habitat: Horned larks prefer to live in large fields and open areas of grassland (including those at airports and in farmland), but also occupy habitats such as arctic tundra and shoreline beaches.

Diet: Horned larks eat mainly insects (especially wasps, ants, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and spiders) during the mating season, but concentrate on seeds in wintertime.

Behavior and reproduction: During its song-display, the male horned lark ascends without singing to heights of 300 to 800 feet (91 to 244 meters), where it begins to circle and sing a high-pitched, tinkling song. When it completes the song, the bird closes it wings and drops headfirst, opening its wings and pulling out of the dive at the last possible second. The male also perches on fence posts, rocks, or bushes to sing its mating song. Horned larks are monogamous for at least one mating season (March through July) and prefer to make their cup-shaped nests on the ground in barren, sandy, or stony areas. Females often surround the nest with a ring of pebbles and line it with down, fine grass, and hair. They commonly lay three to five smooth, glossy, pale greenish white and brown-speckled eggs in a clutch at a rate of one per day. Females begin incubating the eggs once the entire clutch has been laid, sitting on the nest for ten to fourteen days. Nestlings, who receive care from both parents, have brown skin and long, whitish down. They typically leave the nest after nine to twelve days.

The horned lark is particularly known for its preference for walking sedately to travel small distances instead of the more usual hopping, and may often be heard singing its characteristic "tsee-ee" song from any slight elevation. Birders generally regard the species as tough and intrepid because of its tolerance of seemingly inhospitable climates and conditions.

Horned larks and people: The horned lark's jaunty appearance makes it a favorite among birdwatchers.

Conservation status: This species is not officially threatened, although its habitat in a number of areas is jeopardized by development and reforestation of grasslands. As a ground-nester, the horned lark is also heavily preyed upon by cats, skunks, raccoons, coyotes, and other predators. ∎

FOR MORE INFORMATION

Books:

Erlich, P., et al. The Birder's Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.

Keith, S., et al., eds. The Birds of Africa. Vol. 4. London: Academic Press, 1992.

Sibley, Charles G., and Burt L. Monroe. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.

Web sites:

"Australasian Lark." Avibase: The World Bird Database. http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase.jsp?pg=summary&lang=EN (accessed on May 17, 2004).

"Hoopoe-Lark." Birding Israel. http://www.birding-israel.com/bird/News/inFocus/hoopoeLark/ (accessed on May 17, 2004).

"An Animal of the High Desert: The Horned Lark." Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory: Environmental Surveillance, Education, and Research Program. http://www.stoller-eser.com/hornedlark.htm (accessed on May 17, 2004).

"Horned Lark Fact Sheet." State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection. http://dep.state.ct.us/burnatr/wildlife/factshts/hlark.htm (accessed on May 17, 2004).

"Lark." Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaudidae (accessed on May 17, 2004).