Witchcraft in Europe

Long before religions based on a belief in one god, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, became the dominant religions of the world, most cultures believed in more than one god, or were polytheistic. At the center of this ancient belief system was the idea that the world is controlled by powers that are both visible and invisible, and people relied on magic—the use of means believed to have supernatural power over natural forces—to understand and control their environment. Archaeologists, scientists who study the remains of ancient cultures, and scholars have discovered cave drawings dating back as far as 17,000 years that depict the practice of magic. In an ancient community one or two people possessed the wisdom and skill to work magic, which involved making potions and casting spells to bring about certain effects or events. They predicted the future, gave advice, and interpreted the will of unknown spiritual forces. They concocted herb remedies for pain and disease, assisted in the birthing of children, and were relied upon for success in hunting and growing crops.

People with these special skills, which were considered sacred, were granted a high moral and social status. Most were women, but many men also possessed the knowledge to alter events through supernatural and natural means. Nevertheless women were believed to have a direct connection with unseen forces through their ability to bear children and thus influence the continuity of life. Many modern historians consider this era to have been a life–affirming time in human history, when

Words to Know

charm:

words, actions, or objects that are supposed to have magical powers

Christianity:

religion based on the teachings of Jesus Christ

deity:

a god or goddess

druid:

a group of pagan priests originally in ancient Britain

eradication:

destruction

famine:

state when there is not enough for everyone to eat

fertility:

ability to have children

heathen:

non-Christians

heresy:

a belief that strays from the common teachings of a religion

hysteria:

panic often brought on by fear

Islam:

a religion that believes in one God, and believes that the last prophet of that God was Muhammad

Judaism:

a religion whose followers believe in one God and do not follow the teachings of Jesus, but rather the Old Testament of the Bible and the Talmud

magic:

the use of means believed to have supernatural power over natural forces

midwife:

a woman trained to help a woman during childbirth

misogyny:

an unfounded fear or hate of women

monotheism:

the belief in one god

pagan:

a person without religion

polytheism:

the belief in many gods

potion:

a mixture of liquid ingredients that has medicinal or magical powers

relic:

an object with religious or historical significance

shaman:

a member of an organized society who acts as a spiritual leader or link between the physical world and the spiritual world

sorcerer:

a wizard

spell:

a word or phrase that is believed to have magical powers

supernatural:

other worldly

superstition:

belief in something with no factual basis

totem:

an object, usually an animal or plant, that serves as the symbol of a certain family or clan

witch:

a woman who is believed to be able to perform magic

women held a special place in the community. Eventually people with magical skills came to be known as witches. The term "witch" has been traced to Old Teutonic (Germanic) words like wik (meaning to bend) or Old English words such as wiccian (to cast spells) and witan (wise person). The use of magic for beneficial purposes was even encouraged by the Old Testament

Magic, Witchcraft, and Sorcery

Whether magic is used for productive or destructive purposes, it consists of four elements. The first is the use of symbolic gestures and ritualized behavior, which could involve dancing, singing, or any number of motions believed to bring about a desired outcome. Every culture on Earth contains some aspect of symbolic gestures or ritualized behavior performed either by an entire group or by a select few individuals. Another element is the use of particular objects and/or substances that produce magical effects. Among them are totems (emblems), powders, charms, and herbal mixtures. Contemporary scientists have actually conducted research with substances commonly used by ancient practitioners of magic. The scientists found that the substances could induce intense feelings of power and transformation. In one case, ingredients for a "flight potion" from the thirteenth century were mixed by two scientists who independently reported that they felt they had flown to the top of a high mountain and spoken with spirits. A third part of magic is a special utterance or series of words that are believed to carry significant power. The final element involves the qualities possessed by the performer of rituals. Each culture had its own definition of the person who was capable of performing magic, whether it be the shaman, village midwife, or council of druids. Only a select few were trusted—and even feared—for their ability to enter the unique mental and physical state necessary to perform magic.

During ancient times a distinction was made between sorcerers and witches. Both were considered to have the power to influence events through the use of magic, but sorcerers were feared more than witches. Acting in malevolent and spiteful ways, sorcerers performed what was called "black magic." On the other hand, witches used "white magic" for the benefit of their communities. They were regarded as valuable and necessary members of society up until the beginning of the Middle Ages. The distinction between sorcerers and witches was finally erased by the Christian movement, which equated any form of magical practice with Satanism and evil.

(the first part of the Bible, the Christian holy book), which demanded the death penalty for practitioners of malevolent (evil) magic but acknowledged the positive virtues of "white" (beneficial and healing) magic.

Christianity slowly takes over

As Christianity (a religion founded by Jesus of Nazareth, also called the Christ) became the prevalent religion in Europe, ancient traditions were increasingly pushed toward the fringes of society. At the beginning of the transition period, however, there was minimal conflict between Christians and those who continued traditional practices. In fact, traditional practices were often combined with Christian rituals (religious ceremonies). The first converts to Christianity were people who belonged to the upper classes and the nobility. Thus being a Christian became a sign of high social and political status. Peasants and members of the lower class, known as "pagans" (from the ancient Latin word for peasant or country dweller), were generally left to practice their versions of the old religion as long as they posed no threat to the church and ruling class. Over time non–Christian beliefs came to be called "paganism" by the Christians. Although Christians built churches directly on top of significant pagan worship sites, in the early years they did not devote significant money or energy to converting inhabitants in rural regions. Often craftsmen hired to build the new churches were non–Christians who incorporated aspects of the old religion into the new. For instance, they left carvings of horned gods and fertility goddesses (pagan images of life–giving forces) inside these new monuments.

Paganism and Christianity were blended in other ways. Two altars (worship centers) were erected side by side in some Christian churches so that worshipers could make offerings to both Christ and various pagan gods simultaneously. As late as the thirteenth century many Christian priests continued leading their congregations in fertility dances (to influence success in conceiving children) and practicing magic in private. Early laws discouraged the practice of pagan religions throughout Europe. Yet these were relatively lenient attempts to gradually wean the people from their so–called superstitions rather than a calculated campaign to eliminate paganism. In a.d. 600 the Christian pope (the supreme head of the church), Gregory the Great (540–604), proclaimed that "all the gods of the heathens are demons" and should be punished. That message did not take root until several hundred years later.

Setting the stage for "The Burning Times"

Between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries Christians came to see paganism as a major threat to the church. By this time the positive and honorable aspects of the old religions had been redefined to appear both destructive and evil. Ironically, witches who were once instrumental in guaranteeing continued fertility, good health, and plentiful harvests were suddenly held responsible for sterility, disease, infant mortality, famine, and blight. One reason for this shift was that the monotheism (belief in one god) of Christianity was in direct opposition to the old notion of multiple gods and natural forces at work in a mysterious universe (polytheism). The nature–based pagan approach to life was displaced by rigid allegiance to the one all–knowing God and the one "true" religion, Christianity. Now the focus was on life after death—the Christian concept of heaven (paradise) and hell (eternal suffering)—rather than human existence on Earth. Church leaders declared that any form of worship or spiritual power other than Christianity was related to the devil. This narrow view allowed little room for pagan beliefs and the mysterious healing practices of witches. Since the church could not dismiss the fact that healers held some authentic power in pagan communities, Christian officials simply declared that witches were doing the devil's work. In other words, the Christians reasoned that if healers were not receiving their power from the church, they must be getting it from the devil, who used them to commit evil. This was also a time in history when people believed that humans were on Earth to suffer for God. Anyone who could relieve suffering was thought to be working against the will of God and collaborating with evil forces. Witches were thus anti–Christian and therefore needed to be destroyed.

New systems replace old ways

The witch craze was also fueled by serious social, economic, and political changes taking place across Europe. For instance, the bubonic plague, a widespread contagious disease that raged for about twenty years beginning in 1334, killed nearly three-fourths of the populations of Europe and Asia. In addition, a large percentage of men had died in wars, leaving more women than men in many European countries. There was also a high infant death rate. At the same time, women were increasingly being viewed with suspicion for their role in childbearing and for the mysterious functions of their bodies. Many rural healers and witches were unmarried women or widows who did not seem to fit into society, and church leaders became suspicious of the power they wielded in their communities. Some historians believe that misogyny (hatred of women) quickly replaced the old pagan respect for female qualities, as Christians came to associate women's sexuality and freedom with the work of the devil.

The Pagan Horned God Becomes the Devil

One of the main deities (gods) found throughout the pre–Christian world was the horned god. Known as the god of hunting, fertility, luck, and winter time (when hunting was the primary means of survival), he was referred to by many names, such as Pan, Dionyssus, or Bachus, to name a few. Various cultures worshiped this god through ceremonies in which antlers or horns were worn by participants prior to major hunting expeditions. Relics from and drawings of the ceremonies have been found all over the world, with the common factor always being the existence of horns from the main herding animals of the region. Many historians and archaeologists believe that Christianity took the symbols of the old religion and altered their meaning forever by creating the image of the devil. The replica of the old horned god was given the added characteristic wings of the fallen angel, or the devil, and other elements relating to the Christian belief in heaven and hell. Christianity in essence stole the horned god, who had symbolized positive aspects of humanity's relationship with nature, and made it into the very representation of evil on Earth and the greatest enemy known to God. Contemporary words for the devil have no basis in Christianity itself. In the Old Testament, the Hebrew term Ha–Satan simply means "an enemy." The same is true in the New Testament, in which the Greek word diabolos also means "an adversary." Ironically, witches did not even believe in the devil but they became closely and fatally associated with it through their connection to the old religion.

Simultaneously, the rise of the field of medicine, with its treatment of illness and disease through scientific methods—and which was exclusively upper class, Christian, and male—edged out competition from village healers and other so-called "heathens" (non-Christians), such as Jews. For example,

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Jews, followers of Judaism (a religion whose followers believe in one God and do not follow the teachings of Jesus, but rather the Old Testament of the Bible and the Talmud) were the only surgeons in Europe prior to this new movement. Eventually the medical establishment declared that it was illegal to perform any healing arts without "formal certification," thereby reducing traditional surgeons and healers to the status of criminals. Even village midwives who assisted in the birthing of babies were discredited and placed under deep suspicion.

Another factor was the new judicial system that arose in the twelfth century and considerably weakened the power of individuals and small communities. Prior to that time, the traditional legal system (known as lex talionis) had stated that an accuser must prove his or her accusation to be true or suffer the punishment that the defendant would have received if he were proven guilty. In other words, a person could not simply make an accusation with impunity (freedom from being punished if he were lying) but had to provide serious and concrete proof of a crime. The goal of the old system was community harmony and justice, and it discouraged the abuse of law and the courts. In contrast, the new system (which would play a major role in the witch craze) was based on Roman law and encouraged the use of heavy penalties, fines, punishments, and even death for those accused of major crimes. The goal was to protect the power and unification of the state and church rather than the small community. Depending on the status of the accused, it was sufficient in many cases for someone to be arrested and brought to trial simply on the basis of unproven charges.

Church targets "enemies" for elimination

The increased centralization—and focusing of power—of church and state called for the elimination of all "enemies" of the church, not just pagans and healers. In the thirteenth century the Catholic Church embarked on a judicial (law-oriented) campaign known as the Inquisition, which used both government and church to wipe out or convert heretics (nonbelievers) in western Europe. Before the onset of the witch craze, Jews were especially vulnerable, as were Muslims (followers of Islam), homosexuals, and Gypsies (wandering people who originated in India). Members of these targeted groups were driven to resettle in eastern and southern Europe. Many of the same accusations that later fueled the hysteria against witches were initially aimed at these peoples. Charged with making pacts with the devil, eating children, and murdering Christians, they were often tortured to the point of confessing to crimes they did not commit. The word synagogue (a Jewish place of worship) was actually redefined to describe a time and place of devil worship. The word Sabbath, traditionally associated with the Jewish day of rest, came to symbolize large group meetings between witches and the devil. Even the stereotype of a witch was borrowed from the racist caricature (distorted representation of certain physical features) of Jews and Arabs as having extremely large, crooked noses. These were but a few ways in which differences were transformed into concrete fears.

Though Jews, Muslims, homosexuals, and Gypsies were not actually a political threat, they were used by church and government officials to stir up suspicion and violence during the Inquisition. Thus Christian leaders gained supremacy through growing bigotry and intolerance toward "outsiders" or anyone else who might threaten the status quo (the existing state of affairs). This campaign caused great fear among the common people, preparing the way for the persecution of witches. Witchcraft had been added to the list of official punishable heresies (beliefs that go against the teachings of the church) in 1320, but witches did not become a primary target for more than a century. Then in 1484 Pope Innocent VIII (1432–1492) issued a Papal Bull (an edict or proclamation) that called for the eradication of witches and other heathens. Although many such edicts had previously been issued, the Papal Bull of 1484 had the advantage of a recent invention, the printing press, which spread anti-witch hysteria like wildfire throughout Europe.

Malleus Maleficarum triggers horrors

As the result of mass production made possible by the printing press, the second-best-selling book in Europe for more than two centuries was the Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Witches; see primary sources entry). This three-part work was the official handbook for detecting, capturing, trying, and executing witches. It was written in 1486 by Austrian priest Heinrich Kramer (also spelled Kraemer; 1430–1505) and German priest Jakob Sprenger (c. 1436–1495) at the request of Pope Innocent VIII. An especially frightening impact of the Malleus was that it united the church and the state, making horrific torture perfectly legal as a means of obtaining "confessions" from accused witches.

One of the most common means of torture was the stretching rack, a device that would slowly tear a person limb from limb as he or she was repeatedly commanded to confess to specific crimes. A similar tool was the strapado, which involved attaching weights to a victim's legs, then slowly lifting the person off the ground so that the legs would begin to tear out. Another method involved the victim being stripped naked and slowly cut in half by being dragged along a very tight rope. Some people were tied to stakes and placed near a fire that would very slowly "cook" them. Many others had their eyes gouged out or were beaten, raped, disemboweled (having ones internal organs cut out), dropped from high above the ground, or subjected to numerous devices created specially for the task. Also popular were "Spanish Boots," which were put on a victim's legs and could work in either of two ways: one used internal vices that would slowly crush the victim's legs, while the other involved pouring boiling water or oil into the "boots."

These methods were extremely efficient. People were brought close to death and promised relief if they confessed to the charges against them. Thousands gave in, no matter how fabricated or ridiculous the charges might have seemed, to save themselves from further torture. In turn, the "confessions" fanned mass hysteria, "proving" that the initial suspicions had been correct and creating an enemy out of innocent people. Officials in some regions used "tests" that pointed to the guilt of an accused person in various inevitable ways. One that was extremely popular in England (where torture was considered a crime) was the water test. The results were supposed to determine whether a person was indeed a witch—yet nobody could actually "pass" the test. It involved tying the accused person's arms and legs together, then throwing him or her into a body of water. If the victim sank, he or she was not a witch and would be dealt with by God accordingly in heaven. Since multilayered clothing was worn at the time, people quite often ended up floating because their clothes created pockets of air that forced them to remain at the surface of the water. Many "witches" were declared guilty by this method, then publicly burned at a stake in the center of town. Burning was considered another test, as well as the most severe form of punishment: it was thought that witches could survive fire because of their association with the devil. The prevalence of the fire test led to this era being called "The Burning Times."

Malleus becomes basis for laws

Another cruel aspect of the witch-hunts was that relatives of the accused were charged money for all manner of details involved in the trial of their loved ones. Not only did they pay the salary of the judge/torturer, they also bore the cost of food and lodging for the accused in prison. In addition, relatives were charged for the wood and straw used for kindling the execution fire, and they were billed for the lavish banquets typically held for officials before mass executions. In the case of accused people who had no relatives in the region, personal property was confiscated to pay the bills. The result was that many people lost their land, money, and lives while a few witch-hunters and judges accumulated wealth with every successful trial.

According to the Malleus, "it has never yet been known that an innocent person has been punished on suspicion of

The Pope and the Authors

Historical records from the late 1400s help shed light on the characters responsible for the campaign against witches. Pope Innocent VIII, who issued the Papal Bull condemning witches in 1484, was known for his adamant position against all things relating to fertility and sexuality. For instance, he published edicts describing the few situations in which sexual activity could not be considered the work of the devil, thus setting unrealistic guidelines for the common people. Yet historians have learned that he had a long-term relationship with a woman who bore him two illegitimate children. It is also said that for several months he was kept alive on his deathbed by nursing from the breast of a grown woman, and he received blood transfusions that cost the lives of four young "donors."

Heinrich Kramer and Jakob Sprenger, authors of the anti-witch handbook Malleus Maleficarum, also left less than honorable records in the history books. One account says that Kramer once bribed an old woman to climb into a baker's oven and scream that the devil had put her there. She was then forced to accuse several people in the village of working for the devil, and they were all put to death. Kramer was notorious for relishing his power and authority over the lives of accused villagers. Sprenger is known to have forged an official letter of praise from the theological faculty (those teaching religion) of the University of Cologne in support of the Malleus Maleficarum. This prestigious board was responsible for censoring and approving all publications throughout Europe, and the forged letter was included in every copy of the book except for editions sold in the city of Cologne itself. This fact remained hidden until 1898, when a German scholar uncovered evidence of Sprenger's trickery. Although it was not generally known at the time, Sprenger had such a poor reputation that his colleagues at the University of Cologne would not permit the traditional mass to be performed at his funeral.

witch-craft and there is no doubt that god would never permit such a thing to happen." The book became the guide for civil and church law for over two centuries, going through twentyeight editions between 1486 and 1600. It was accepted by Catholics and Protestants alike as the authority on ridding Europe of satanism and witchcraft, which were now considered inseparable. The Malleus was both the catalyst and fuel for the intense panic and hatred that swept through Europe, resulting in what some have called genocide, the planned and systematic extermination of an entire group of people.

The extent of the witch craze

The war against witches reached its peak between 1580 and 1660, and officially ended on June 17, 1782, when the last execution took place in Switzerland. The hysteria raged mainly in France, Germany, and Switzerland, but also extended throughout western Europe, into pockets of northern and eastern Europe, and eventually to the American colonies in New England. Spain was one of the few countries not associated with the witch-hunts because Spanish officials did not believe in witchcraft as defined by the Malleus. In Spain "witches" were apparently dealt with by being locked up in convents. It is difficult to establish the number of people who were killed in the anti-witch campaign because many died in jails from torture and starvation and were not recorded in official execution counts. Estimates based on compilations of regional figures throughout Europe range anywhere from 100,000 to 9,000,000. The majority of those killed were not necessarily followers of the old religions but Christian men, women, and children who had been wrongfully accused. On average, 80 percent of the accused were women and 85 percent of those actually executed were women. Most men who were accused were either related to women who had been tried, or they had criminal records implicating them in other crimes against the church and state.

Records from specific regions help illuminate the full magnitude of these events. The most horrific and extreme measures were taken in Germany. At the start of the seventeenth century the ruling prince of western Germany established a huge team of prosecutors and torturers equipped with special buildings and devices made specifically for torture. In the city of Bamberg, for instance, officials burned nine hundred witches in the first half of the century alone. Three hundred of the victims were under the age of four. In the village of Langendorf all but two women were arrested as witches. Two other German villages were left with only one female inhabitant each. Records show that in nearby Alsace, a province in France, a total of five thousand people were burned during the witch-hunts.

England had its moments of severity as well, particularly after 1604, when King James I (1566–1625) passed a law that officially prohibited pacts with the devil. James stated publicly that out of every twenty-one witches, twenty were women, thus contributing to a focus on women as targets. In one case, after a particularly severe winter the Bishop of Treves executed the inhabitants of an entire village because he could not determine who was a witch. He decided to let God be the judge. Another Englishman named Matthew Hopkins made a fortune hunting down witches because he got paid for each conviction, not just for the number of accused. He was renowned for his intense torture sessions (before torture was outlawed in the country) and was single-handedly responsible for over 230 "convictions."

Although there were some vocal opponents of the witch craze throughout Europe, very few survived their own outspokenness. Most were considered guilty by association and were virtually powerless against the enormity of the campaign. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, two factors brought the persecutions to a halt. First, officials were running out of victims: so many people had been killed that entire regional populations had been altered. The high number of executions began raising concerns about the need to slow down. In response to the atrocities in Bamberg and other areas of Germany, Ferdinand II (1578–1637), the Holy Roman Emperor, issued a decree to stop the killings. Other officials slowed down the mechanisms of the campaign as they began to realize it was no longer necessary: in a sense, the war had been won and it was not particularly profitable to carry on the hunt. Another factor that helped grind the machine to a halt was a new European ideology (system of beliefs about the individual's place in society) that envisioned a more rational and ordered universe. This shift in thinking eventually led to the era called the Enlightenment that began in the eighteenth century. By then past history was dismissed as having been the result of irrational, ancient superstitions. People moved forward into a new age, choosing not to look back.

For Further Study

Barstow, Anne Llewellyn. Witchcraze: A New History of teh European Witch Hunts. San Francisco, California: harper, 1999.

Stern, Wendy. Witches: Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego, California: Green-haven Press, 1995.

Wizards and Witches. Brendan Lehan and others, editors. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books; School and library distribution by Silver Burdett, 1984.