Nanye'hi (1738–1822)

The last Ghigan of the Tsa-la-gi or Cherokee Nation, who was head of the Woman's Council, member of the Council of Chiefs, and the only woman to speak on behalf of a native nation during treaty negotiations. Name variations: called Nancy Ward by the English; (tribal nickname) Tsistu-na-gis-ka (Wild Rose); known as the Ghigan or Ghi-gan (Beloved Woman); also referred to as Ghi-ga-u and Agiyagustu (Honored Woman). Born Nanye'hi (a derivative of thetribal name for "spirit people"), a member of the Aniwa-yah or Wolf Clan, sometime in 1738 in the Cherokee capital, Chote, located on the Little Tennessee River; died in the spring of 1822 at Womankiller Ford, near Benton, Tennessee; daughter of Tame Doe of the Wolf Clan, and an unidentified member of the Delaware Nation; married Kingfisher of the Ani-Ka-Wi, or Deer Clan, in early 1750s (died 1755); married Bryan Ward, in late 1750s; children: (first marriage) Fivekiller (or Hiskyteehee) and Catharine; (second marriage) Elizabeth Ward.

Distinguished herself in battle with the Creek Indians and invested with the office of Ghigan (1755); used powers of the Ghigan to save the lives of settlers (1776); led the Cherokee Nation in treaty negotiations (1781); participated in negotiating the Treaty of Hopewell with the colony of South Carolina (1785); lobbied to keep Cherokee land intact (1817); lost her homeland in the Hiwassee Purchase and relocated to Womankiller Ford (1819).

In the summer of 1755, the War Council of the Cherokee Nation decided it could no longer tolerate the continual intrusion of the Creek Indians into what had been known for centuries as Cherokee territory. Before the battle, the chief warrior donned the traditional raven's head and eagle feather, took up his blood-red weapons, and led his followers in a ritual dance. Beginning slowly, then gaining in tempo, the warriors pretended to strike the enemy with clubs, the dance reaching a crescendo with four loud war whoops. That the war dance happened at all was due only to the approval of the Woman's Council. For in traditional Cherokee life, in times of war and peace, women held the power of life and death.

[Legend has it that when she died] a light rose from her body, fluttered like a bird around the room, and finally flew out the open door.

—Jack Hildebrand

The Cherokees engaged the enemy in the dense forests near Taliwa (just north of present-day Atlanta, Georgia). Accompanying her warrior husband Kingfisher was the beautiful, young Nanye'hi. The battle was vicious and bloody, combining traditional hand-to-hand guerilla warfare with the modern blunderbuss supplied by the Europeans. As the fight raged on, Nanye'hi hid behind a log chewing her husband's lead bullets to make them rougher and more deadly. To her horror, Kingfisher was shot and killed before her eyes. Rather than flee in terror, Nanye'hi picked up the weapon and charged into battle as strong as any of her male counterparts. When the day was done, the Cherokees had chased the Creeks from their homeland. For her extraordinary courage, Nanye'hi, now a young widow with two children, was invested with the highest honor her nation could bestow, that of Ghigan or "Beloved Woman." That title made her head of the Woman's Council, gave her voting rights on the Council of Chiefs, and granted her supreme pardoning powers for the tribe. Essentially, she assumed the responsibility of the most important position in the Cherokee Nation at the tender age of 17.

When Nanye'hi was born in 1738, Cherokee territory ran across the backbone and into the valleys of what is now called the Great Smoky Mountains. Four large settlements divided into approximately eight villages of 300 Cherokees were nestled along the banks of two mighty river systems that feed these lush woodlands. Nanye'hi's village, Chote, was in the heart of the nation, located on the headwaters of the Tuskegee and Little Tennessee rivers.

The largest native tribe in North America, the Cherokees were organized under one principal chief, Nanye'hi's uncle Attakullakulla (Leaningwood). Because the tribe was spread over a considerable distance, the four settlements had to function alone in daily political and military life. In the North, the tribe fought the Shawnee and traded with the settlers in the colony of Virginia. In the South, they fought the Creeks and traded with the whites of the Carolinas. This physical division became important when, in years to come, the English began to manipulate the tribe, often lying to the Cherokees, in their struggle with the French for power along the frontier.

But in 1730, the English were anxious to curry favor with the Cherokees. To that end, Attakullakulla and several members of the Council of Chiefs were received in London at the court of George II as visiting royalty. From that meeting came the Articles of Friendship and Commerce that solidified friendly relations between the Cherokees and the English. The Cherokees promised to trade only with the English if the English agreed to no further encroachments on Cherokee territory.

When Nanye'hi was growing up, life was good. White traders or native visitors from friendly tribes were often seen in her village, and occasionally one of these men would ask to marry into one of the Cherokee clans. Nanye'hi's father was a Delaware Indian who had asked for permission to marry Tame Doe, Nanye'hi's mother, who was a member of the Wolf Clan. Because the Cherokee Nation was matriarchal, it fell to the women of the seven clans to decide whether to accept or reject the newcomer's request. If accepted, the person, whether white or native, would be expected to live according to Cherokee ethics and moral codes. Writes Fred Gearing, "The single focus which created pattern in Cherokee moral thought was the value of harmony." Though often misinterpreted as being pro-white, preserving this single ethical notion was to become Nanye'hi's life's work.

As a little girl, Nanye'hi and her brother, Tuskeegeeteehe (Longfellow), were taught tribal customs passed down for centuries. They learned to plant and cultivate the three types of Tsalu (corn)—the staff of life for the tribe—and the religious ceremonies that accompanied every stage of its cultivation and harvest. Cherokee life centered around the village, around the home. Traditional "women's work," that of child-rearing, meal preparation and basket-weaving, while often scorned in white society, was revered in Cherokee life, and a young warrior who married into his wife's clan was expected to share in that work.

Nanye'hi married Kingfisher, a member of the Deer Clan, when she was about 14 years old. Their two children, Fivekiller and Catharine, were raised as members of Nanye'hi's mother's Wolf Clan. Unfortunately, by the mid-1750s, events were happening around the young couple and their two children that would not only forever alter the Cherokee clan system but would threaten the very existence of the tribe. Though the English had courted favor with the Cherokees and had signed a treaty agreeing to certain boundaries, English settlers had begun significant encroachments upon Cherokee land. To make matters worse, notes Ronald N. Satz, "English colonials in Charleston had deliberately fermented war between the Cherokee and Creeks in order to obtain Indian slaves to sell in the West Indies."

It was during one of these Cherokee-Creek skirmishes that Kingfisher lost his life and Nanye'hi was catapulted into national prominence. Once she was vested with the title Ghigan, it became her responsibility to head the seven-member Woman's Council, to determine what would become of any prisoners of war, and to decide when and with whom the Cherokee Nation would engage in either treaty negotiations or battle. Nanye'hi, who has been described as tall and beautiful, "with long, silken black hair, large piercing black eyes and an imperious, yet kindly air," did not hesitate to take charge. Her voice would be heard around the council fires and at the negotiating table for the next 60 years.

The period following Nanye'hi's rise to power was one of the most critical in Cherokee history. As more whites insisted upon settling on Cherokee land, relations with the English and colonial governments deteriorated. Unlike the early fur traders, many of the newcomers weren't interested in peaceful coexistence with their Cherokee neighbors; as far as they were concerned, the Cherokees were savages. These new settlers usurped Cherokee land and then insisted that the natives be forcibly removed. The English government, in its desire to keep the French from becoming too powerful in the region, kowtowed to the demands of the settlers even though that meant breaking treaty after treaty. Needless to say, the Cherokees were disturbed by the government's actions.

The situation reached a breaking point in early 1760 when the Cherokees laid siege to the English Fort Loudon. Acting in retaliation for the brutal murder of a number of Cherokees at the hands of white frontiersmen, a group of young warriors, including Attakullakulla's son Dragging Canoe, attacked the fort without the consent of either Nanye'hi or her uncle Attakullakulla. After months of strenuous negotiations, the chief (with Nanye'hi by his side, it was said) finally worked out a peaceable agreement with the English—much to the displeasure of a growing number of Cherokee warriors.

Complicating the issue for Nanye'hi was her second marriage, in the late 1750s, to Bryan Ward, a white settler. Though Ward was accepted into the Wolf Clan and their daughter Elizabeth Ward was raised as a Cherokee, many of Nanye'hi's clanspeople were becoming increasingly uneasy, not only with mixed marriages but with any close association with white settlers, as it became apparent that the white man did not honor his word. Perhaps this is one reason Bryan Ward returned to his white wife in early 1760. Though he and Nanye'hi continued to be on the best personal terms, Ward never returned to live with his Cherokee family. Nanye'hi and Elizabeth were occasional guests in the Ward household, and this was probably when her English friends began to refer to Nanye'hi as Nancy Ward.

During the early 1760s, English and French conspiracies that played one native nation against the other took on a more sinister tone. It was understood, if not expressly stated, that if the Cherokees, the Creeks and the Shawnees killed one another, there would be that many less warriors to bother the European settlers. Of course, when face-to-face with the tribes, the English and French insisted upon negotiated peace treaties. The double-talk was particularly disruptive for the Cherokees, because the distance between their four settlements gave the whites ample time to play one group against another. The deception did much to undermine Cherokee morale, which was exactly the intention.

Had Nanye'hi been aware of these hidden agendas, she surely would not have made continued attempts to reach peaceful resolutions. Because traditional Cherokee ethos does not allow disharmony, however, she made every effort to negotiate a lasting peace between the whites and her increasingly distraught nation. But in 1776, when English encroachments against the Cherokees turned violent, the frustrated tribe had little choice but to fight back. The Council of Chiefs gathered around the council fire and voted unanimously for war. Nanye'hi gave her approval and set about preparing an herbal potion known as the "Black Drink," which was shared by every warrior prior to battle.

What Nanye'hi did next has often been misinterpreted as a betrayal of her people, because she sent a messenger to warn the settlers of the impending attack. However, most historians fail to point out that the traditional Cherokee moral code absolutely forbade the killing of women and children. The events that followed support the notion that she was observing that ethical tradition. It seems that all of the women and children reached the safety of the fort before the battle began, with the exception of Lydia Bean who was captured by Cherokee warriors. Bean was tied to a stake, and the hotheaded warriors were ready to burn her alive when Nanye'hi arrived on the scene. Legend has it that she waved a swan's wing, the symbol of her office, and insisted that the woman be freed: "No woman shall be burned at the stake while I am the Beloved Woman."

Rather than immediately returning Bean to the whites, Nanye'hi kept her in Chote. The reason for this is unclear but, given the hostilities, it may have been too dangerous for white or Cherokee to travel. In any event, Bean made herself useful during her stay with the Cherokees by teaching Nanye'hi the value of raising dairy cattle, a custom previously shunned by native people. Nanye'hi learned to make butter and cheese, and after Bean returned to her home, Nanye'hi began keeping her own herd of what the natives referred to as "the white man's buffalo."

Attakullakulla died in 1778, leaving Nanye'hi as one of the only Cherokee leaders interested in reaching a negotiated peace treaty with the increasingly vindictive whites. But even Nanye'hi's beliefs were tested when, in 1780, the English overran her beloved village of Chote, burning it to the ground. Nanye'hi and her family not only lost all of their possessions but were taken prisoner by the same white settlers she had befriended.

Though she was released from white custody soon thereafter, the destruction of Chote, the heart of the Cherokee nation, had a devastating effect on Nanye'hi. For the first and only time since assuming the position of "Beloved Woman," she broke all ties with her former white friends. For nearly a year, she went into seclusion, going so far as to halt trade with white settlers, a dramatic step since trade had become a necessary element in the Cherokee economy.

It was clear that in the not-too-distant future, Nanye'hi would have to make some decisions on behalf of her tribe. Because of the ever-encroaching whites, the Cherokees were divided on issues of war. Many warriors wanted to drive the whites from their land—regardless of a moral code that honored harmony above all else. Others, weary of the fighting and bloodshed, decided the best course would be to move west. All agreed that it was becoming impossible to behave honorably with people who broke their word. With the future of the tribe at stake, Nanye'hi was deeply concerned over how she would lead a splintered Cherokee Nation when she received word that the English wanted to negotiate a peace treaty, again.

It was 1781. The white commissioners sent by the fledgling Continental Congress to negotiate and to "adjust boundaries" waited for a week before word arrived that the Cherokees were ready to deal. The whites probably anticipated an easy negotiation. They knew the tribe was divided on what to do with its land, and in addition, the leadership was aging or dead. Attakullakulla's son and heir apparent, Dragging Canoe, had no intention of making peace and was on the run from white soldiers. The white commissioners were confident that they faced a native nation in philosophical and political turmoil.

To their dismay, the Cherokees were united. Onitossitah, one of the most profound native leaders, was the first to speak in response to the English demands that more Cherokee land be ceded to the settlers. He left no doubts when he said: "On principles of fairness and in the name of free will and equality, I must reject your demand…. Were we to inquire by what law or authority you set up a claim, I answer, none!"

The eloquence and passion of Onitossitah, however, had no effect on the resolve of the white commissioners. It appeared that negotiations would end in failure or worse. But then, as Samuel Cole Williams writes, "There was an occurrence that is without parallel in the history of the West. An Indian woman spoke in treaty negotiations." Addressing the commissioners, Nanye'hi rose and said, "[W]e are your mothers; you are our sons. Our cry is all for peace; let it continue. This peace must last forever. Let your women's sons be ours; our sons be yours. Let your women hear our words." Nanye'hi's words and commanding presence had an overwhelming impact on the commissioners. They backed down. No Cherokee land was appropriated, and for the next 35 years Cherokees and whites lived in relative peace.

But, as time passed, the white government changed and with it the attitude toward the Cherokees. Treaties negotiated years before no longer met the needs of the ever-expanding population of whites who wanted to move west. Thus, the Cherokees were forced further into the Tennessee Valley. Resistance on the part of the natives was becoming impossible, not only because they were increasingly outnumbered but because their population had been reduced due to outbreaks of smallpox.

In 1817, the remaining Cherokee Council held a meeting to decide, once again, the fate of its nation. Though now old and too ill to attend, Nanye'hi sent a message to her fellow clanspeople urging the council to do whatever it must to hang on to the remaining Cherokee land, even if that meant certain death. Betrayed once too often by the whites she had tried to befriend, she said, "Cherokee mothers do not wish to go to an unknown country. We raised you on the land we now have.… [S]ome of our children wish to go over the Mississippi, but this act … would be like destroying your mothers. We beg of you not to part with any more of our land … but keep it for our growing children for it was the good will of our Creator to place us there."

Nanye'hi's wish was not to be. In 1819, the Cherokees could no longer resist the white invaders. The Hiwassee Purchase took Nanye'hi's property, forcing her to move to a village called Womankiller Ford. It was there that she died in 1822. Because of the changing tribal structure, no other woman was appointed to take her place, making Nanye'hi the last Cherokee to hold the title "Beloved Woman."

sources:

Foreman, Carolyn Thomas. Indian Women Chiefs. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1954.

Gearing, Fred. "Priests and Warriors: Social Structures for Cherokee Politics in the Eighteenth Century," in American Anthropologist. October 1962.

Lewis, Thomas N., and Madeline Kneberg. Tribes That Slumber: Indian Times in the Tennessee Region. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1958.

Satz, Ronald N. Tennessee Indian Peoples From White Contact to Removal 1540–1840. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.

Starr, Emmet. History of the Cherokee Indians. Tulsa, OK: Oklahoma Yesterday, 1979.

Williams, Samuel Cole. Tennessee During the Revolutionary War. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1954.

collections:

General Nathanael Greene Papers located in the Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress.

"Recollections of Jack Hildebrand as Dictated to Jack Williams, Esq. at the Home of Hildebrand in 1908" located in the Cleveland Public Library in Cleveland, Tennessee.

Deborah Jones , screenwriter, Studio City, California, and member of the Cherokee Nation and 7th-generation granddaughter of Nanye'hi